© 2007 mcgraw-hill higher education. all rights reserved. sport in society: issues and...
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© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights © 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.reserved.
Sport in Society:Issues and
Controversies
Chapter 12
Sports and the Media:
Could They Survive Without Each Other?
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights © 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.reserved.
Characteristics of the Media
Print media: words & images on paper Newspapers, magazines & fanzines, books,
catalogues, event programs, trading cards Electronic media: words, commentary, &
images transmitted by audio and/or video devices and technologies Radio, television, film, video games, the Internet
and online publications
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The Media Provide
Information
Interpretation
Entertainment
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Media Content always edited and “re-presented” by
those who control media organizations
Editing decisions are based on one or more of
these goals: Making profits Shaping values Providing a public service Building artistic and technical reputations Expressing self
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Media representations of sports are carefully edited to highlight dramatic action
“Quick! Bring the camera—this crash will boost our ratings!
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Media and Power
The media often serve the interests of those with power and wealth in society
As corporate control of media has become more concentrated, media content highlights Consumerism Individualism Competition Class inequality
as natural and necessary in society
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The X Games were created by ESPN. ESPN is owned by ABC. ABC is owned by Disney. The power behind the X Games makes it difficult for the athletes to maintain the expressive, noncompetitive culture of alternative sports.
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What If . . . All TV documentaries were sponsored by
environmental groups, labor organizations women’s groups? Wouldn’t we ask questions about the content of
those programs, and why we see and hear what we do?
99% of all sports programming in the media was sponsored by capitalist corporations? Shouldn’t we ask questions about program
content, whose interests it serves, and why we see and hear what we do?
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Characteristics of the Internet
The Internet Extends and radically changes (potentially) our
connections with the world Is not limited to sequential programming Enables each of us to be the “editors” of our own
media experiences, if we wish Gives us the potential to create our own sport
realities and experiences as spectators and virtual athletes
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It is becoming more difficult to distinguish the simulations and media representations of sports today
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Video Games & Virtual Sports
Research is needed to help answer questions such as:
What are the dynamics of playing video sport games and virtual sports, and how do they differ from other sport-related experiences?
How are video sport game experiences linked with other sport experiences?
What ideological themes are structured into the images and actions in video sport games?
Will virtual sports compliment or replace sports as we know them today?
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Video Games as Simulated Sports
The graphics and images in video games now come close to matching images in televised sports
TV producers now use special filters to make the action in televised games look like video games
Some athletes use video sport games to train Some children today are introduced to sports
through video games Being good at playing video sport games is a source
of status among many young people Playing sport video games provides regular social
occasions for many people, especially young males
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Do Sports Depend on the Media? No, not when they are organized by
and for the players themselves Yes, when they are organized as
forms of commercial entertainment Media coverage attracts attention to
sports and provides news of results Television coverage remains a key factor
in the growth and expansion of commercial sports
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Table 12.1TV Rights Fees, 1986-2006 (in millions)
Sport 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006NFL 400 900 1100 2200 3735MLB 183 365 420 417 560NBA 30 219 275 660 767NHL 22 38 77 120 70NASCAR 3 NA NA 412 560NCAA Men’s B-ball Tournament 31 143 216 216 550NCAA (all women’s championships) NA NA NA NA 19WNBA NA NA NA 0 0
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Figure 12.2
Escalating media rights fees for the Olympics (in millions)
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Have Sports Sold Out to the Media?
Probably not – for two reasons: Sports are not shaped primarily by the
media in general or TV in particular Sports are social constructions that emerge in
connection with many social relationships The media, including TV, do not operate in a
political and economic vacuum Media are regulated by government and market
factors, which influence and set limits on media coverage & content
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As more people use the electronic media to consume professional sports, local newspaper turn more attention to the coverage of high school and college sports.
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Do the Media Depend on Sports?
Most media do not depend on sports Daily newspapers depend on “sports
sections” for circulation and ad revenues
Many television companies depend on sports to fill programming schedules, attract male viewers and the sponsors that want to reach them Many sport events have media audiences
with clearly identifiable “demographics”
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Trends in Televised Sports Rights fees have skyrocketed since 1960s Sports programming has increased
dramatically As more events are covered, ratings for
particular events have decreased Audience fragmentation has occurred
Television companies use sports events to promote other programming
Television companies are parts of conglomerates that now own teams, sport events, and other businesses
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Program Date Average Household Rating(in millions of households)*
1. M*A*S*H* (special) 2/28/83 50.22. Winter Olympics 2/23/94† 45.73. Super Bowl XXX 1/28/96 44.24. Super Bowl XXXII 1/25/98 43.65. Super Bowl XXXIV 1/30/00 43.66. Super Bowl XXVIII 1/30/94 42.97. Super Bowl XXXV I 2/3/02 42.68. Cheers 1/20/93 42.49. Super Bowl XXXI 1/26/97 42.010. Super Bowl XXVII 1/31/93 42.011. Super Bowl XL 2/5/06 41.6*12. Winter Olympics 2/25/94† 41.513. Super Bowl XX 1/26/86 41.514. Dallas 11/21/80 41.515. Super Bowl XXXVIII 2/1/04 41.416. Super Bowl XXXV 1/28/01 41.317. Super Bowl XXXIX 2/6/05 41.118. Super Bowl XXXVII 1/26/03 40.719. Seinfeld 5/14/98 40.520. Super Bowl XVII 1/30/83 40.521. Super Bowl XXI 1/25/87 40.022. Super Bowl XVI 1/24/84 40.023. Super Bowl XXXIII 1/31/99 39.924. Super Bowl XXIX 1/29/95 39.425. Super Bowl XIX 1/20/85 39.4*Note: revised to add Super Bowl XL, 2006
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Global Economic Factors in the Sports-Media Relationship
Global economic factors intensify the sport-media relationship; large corporations need vehicles for developing global --
name recognition cultural legitimacy product familiarity ideological support for a way of life based on
consumption, competition, and individual achievement
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Executives’ decisions in global media companies influence what sports we see and read about in the media
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Alcohol & Tobacco Sponsorships Corporations selling alcohol and
tobacco use sports to promote products in connection with activities that people define as healthy
If these corporations cannot sponsor televised events, they put signage on people, equipment, and facilities that are viewed during television coverage.
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Corporate Sponsorships and Gender Ideology Decision-making power in large media corporations
rests with many male executives who love sports The values and experiences of men are deeply
embedded in the cultures of these corporations When sports emphasize competition, domination,
and achievement, many male executives feel that these are crucial factors in their companies This means they will pay large fees to hire
coaches and athletes as “motivational” speakers in their companies
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Images and Messages in Media Sports (I)
Media coverage is constructed around specific themes and messages:
Success themes Emphasis on winners, losers, and
final scores Emphasis on big plays, big hits, and
sacrificing self for team success
(continued)
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Images and Messages in Media Sports (II) Masculinity and femininity themes
Coverage privileges men over women Heterosexuality is assumed;
homosexuality is erased and ignored Coverage reproduces dominant ideas
about manhood, but may challenge ideas about femininity
(continued)
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Images and Messages in Media Sports (III) Race and ethnicity themes
Racial ideology has influenced coverage of black athletes, especially males
Whiteness is erased in coverage; it is assumed as the standard
Nationalism is emphasized “We” - “They” distinctions are common
Individualism is highlighted Aggression is glorified; athletes are
presented as warriors
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Media sports present real-life violence. Should sport programs be rated for violence?
Figure 12.4
“Yes, I KNOW you watch CSI and Alias, but this hockey game contains real violence, so off to your room now!”
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Media Impact on Sport-Related Behaviors Active participation in sports
Some negative, some positive effects Attendance at sport events
Media generally increase attendance at elite events, but may decrease attendance at local events
Gambling on sports Media are indirectly linked to gambling Internet may change this to direct link
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Audience Experiences With Media Sports
Research shows: Watching television sports is not a major
activity in the lives of most adults Football “widows” and men who just sit in
front of the TV watching sports are rare Men & women who live together often watch
sports together Most partners in couples accommodate each
other’s viewing habits over time
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The Profession of Sports Journalism The work of sports journalists does matter when it
comes to cultural ideology and public consciousness
Tensions between players and sportswriters have intensified as differences in their salaries and backgrounds have become more pronounced
Ethical issues have become increasingly important in sports journalism because the stakes are so high for teams, athletes, coaches, owners, etc.
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Media differences in coverage of sportsNewspaper/Magazine Coverage Emphasizes information and
interpretation primarily Offers previews and
summaries of events Provides written
representation of events Success depends on
credibility Highlights facts and
dominant ideology Provides criticism of sports
and sport personalities
Radio/Television Coverage Emphasizes entertainment
primarily Offers play-by-play images
and narratives Provides real-time
representations of events Success depends on hype
and visual action Highlights heroic plays and
dominant ideology Provides support for sports
and sport personalities
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Role Characteristics
Job security Salary Popularity/public recognition
Freedom of expression in job Purpose of role
Role expectations
Management expectations
Opportunities for investigative reporting
On-the-job contacts
Relationships with players
Attachment with public
Sportswriters Sports Announcers
High LowLow HighLow High
Moderately restricted Heavily restrictedEntertain; provide Entertain and information “sell” sport eventsBe trustworthy Be knowledgeable investigators entertainersDon’t offend the Don’t offend theadvertisers sponsors
Occasionally Rarely
Copy desk editors Broadcast executives, and subeditors team management, sponsors/advertisersOften tense and Often friendly antagonistic and supportive
Based on credibility Based on style and writing skills personality
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“If it bleeds, it leads” in the local news and in sports.
“I used to do sports, so I know the rule at Fox: If it bleeds, it leads.”
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Comparison of Sportswriters and Announcers
Sportswriters Work behind scenes Seldom recognized Low salaries; paid by
publications Low regulation by sport
management Job focuses on
providing information
Announcers Celebrity status Public recognition High salaries; often
paid by management Comments regulated by
management Job focuses on “selling”
the sport
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Comparison of Print and Broadcast Media
Print Media News & information Summaries of past
events Concrete information Success based on
preserving credibility Highlights behind-the-
scenes stories Provides more critical
coverage
Broadcast Media Entertainment Play-by-play coverage Real-time action Success based on
generating hype Highlights action and
heroic displays Provides more
supportive coverage