© 2009 the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. all rights reserved a contemporary viewpoint by hetherington...
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© 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
A Contemporary ViewpointA Contemporary Viewpointbyby
Hetherington Hetherington && Parke Parke
Child Psychology
© 2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Chapter One
Child Development:Child Development:
Themes, Theories, and MethodsThemes, Theories, and Methods
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Themes of Development
• Themes focus on theories and study of psychological development
• Main theoretical views guide research
• Specific processes and experiences may account for different aspects of child development
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Field of Child Development
• Sub-area of child psychology– Identify and describe changes in child from
beginning of life to adolescence• Cognitive• Emotional • Motor • Social capacities and behaviors
– Uncover processes underlying the changes• Use of research• Suggest practical applications based on
research
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Themes of Development
• Themes focus on theories and study of psychological development
– Origins of human behavior
– Pattern of developmental change over time
– Individual and contextual forces that define and direct child development
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Themes of Development
• Biological versus Environmental Influences: nature vs. nurture
– Disagreement on which influences development the most
– Genetic or biological processes unfoldnaturally in maturation
– Environmental events can shape, modify
– Children are active agents
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Themes of Development
• Continuity versus Discontinuity
– Continuous process: each new event builds on earlier experiences in orderly way or gradual improvement
– Discontinuous process: development occurs in discrete steps or stages; each stage is a qualitatively new set of behaviors
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Themes of Development
• Individual Characteristics versus Contextual and Cultural Influences
– Individual and personality characteristics direct behaviors
– Environmental influences (family income, education, death, divorce, remarriage)
– Interactionist view: adopt both
– Resilience or “sleeper” effects?
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Theoretical Perspectives on Development
• Two functions of theories
– Organize and integrate existing information into coherent, interesting, plausible accounts of how children develop
– Generate testable hypotheses or predictions about child behavior
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Theoretical Perspectives on Development
• Five general theoretical perspectives
– Structural-Organismic Approach focuses on structured set of stages an organism goes through over the course of psychological growth (structuralism)
– Used in Freud, Erikson, and Piaget’s theories
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Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory
Age 0 - 1 Oral Stage
Age 1 - 3 Anal Stage
Age 3 - 6 Phallic Stage
Age 6 - 12 Latency Stage
Age 12+ Genital Stage
Ego
Id
Super Ego
Freud:Personality is
formed within the first 6 years
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Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Ages 1 - 3
Ages 3 - 6
Ages 6 - 12
Ages 12 - 20
Ages 20 - 30
Ages 30 - 65
Ages 65+
Ages 0 - 1
Identity vs. Role confusion
Industry vs. Inferiority
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Trust vs. Mistrust
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt
Integrity vs. Despair
Generativity vs. Stagnation
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Piaget’s Periods of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor
Pre-operational
Concrete Operational
Formal Operational
Age
0 - 2 7 - 12 12+2 - 7
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Piaget’s Principle of Adaptation
Adapt to newinformation
AccommodationAssimilation
Reinterpret new experiences so they fit into old ideas – existing ideas don’t change, stay same
Revamp old ideas so they can adapt to new – change current ways of thinking/ideas so as to
add new knowledge
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Theoretical Perspectives on Development
• Five general theoretical perspectives
– Learning Approach
• Behaviorism focuses on learning of behavior; not unobservable factors or motivations (Watson, Pavlov, Skinner)
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
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Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Pairing of metronome with appearance of food makes each a Conditioned Stimulus
CR (salivation)CS
Play metronome (CS) and dog salivates (CR) without food being presented
Appearance of food becomes CS; dog salivation is the CR
Before conditioning: when food was placed in dish (UCS), the dog salivated (UCR)UCR (salivation)Neutral stimulus
(metronome)UCS
CSCS CR (salivation)
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Watson’s Classical Conditioning
UCS (loud noise)
CR (fear)
CS (furry rat)
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Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Task: study for a quiz
If grades or parents’ urging are not a ‘reward’ (reinforcement), student will do other activities
If grades or parents’ urging are a ‘reward’ (reinforcement), student will study well
Consequences can reinforce or decrease chances of behavior occurring again
Quiz grade of A earned
Quiz grade of F
earned
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Theoretical Perspectives on Development
• Five general theoretical perspectives
– Learning Approach
• Cognitive Social Learning Theory: children learn through behaviorism and from observation and imitation of role models (Bandura’s process of imitation)
• Information-Processing Approaches focus on flow of information through the cognitive system (brain is like computer)
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Matched Behavior
ATTENTION Experience, Personality characteristics,
Relationship with model, Situational variables
RETENTIONRehearsal, Organization, Recall, Other cognitive skills
REPRODUCTIONCognitive representation, Concept matching, Use of feedback
Modeled Behavior
MOTIVATIONExternal & Vicarious incentives, Self-evaluation,
Internalized standards, Social comparison
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Information is taken into brain
Information gets processed, analyzed, and stored in the brain
until use
OUTPUTINPUTInformation is used as basis of behaviors and
interactions
Information-Processing Theory
math
historyreligion
sciencegeography
literature
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Theoretical Perspectives on Development
• Five general theoretical perspectives
– Dynamic Systems Perspective focuses on changes over time that result from interacting elements in a complex, integrated system
– Individuals and their achievements canonly be understood within thisframework
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Theoretical Perspectives on Development
• Five general theoretical perspectives
– Contextual Perspectives
• Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory – development is product of social and cultural experiences
– Emphasizes importance of cultural variation in development – cultural tools include language, technology
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Theoretical Perspectives on Development
• Five general theoretical perspectives
– Contextual Perspectives
• Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory – experiences and relationships in layers of environmental systems impact child development
• The life-span perspective
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Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model of Development
Child
MICROSYSTEM
CHRONOSYSTEM
EXOSYSTEM
MESOSYSTEM
MACROSYSTEM
Social welfare services
Legal services
Massmedia
Neighbors
Extendedfamily
Friends of family
Attitudes & ideologies of
culture
Family
Sch
ool
Peers
Religious
institutio
nsHealthcare
services
Playground
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Theoretical Perspectives on Development
• Five general theoretical perspectives
– Ethological and Evolutionary Approaches
• Ethological theory focuses on adaptive or survival behavior within specific contexts – observation yields detailed classifications
• Evolutionary developmental psychology focuses on critical components of human evolutionary change in the brain and cognitive functioning
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The EndThe End