© 2010 w. w. norton & company, inc. 4 utility. © 2010 w. w. norton & company, inc. 2...
TRANSCRIPT
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© 2010 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
4 Utility
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Preferences - A Reminder x y: x is preferred strictly to y. x y: x and y are equally preferred. x y: x is preferred at least as
much as is y.
p
~f
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Preferences - A Reminder
Completeness: For any two bundles x and y it is always possible to state either that x y or that y x.
~f
~f
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Preferences - A Reminder
Reflexivity: Any bundle x is always at least as preferred as itself; i.e.
x x.~f
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Preferences - A Reminder
Transitivity: Ifx is at least as preferred as y, andy is at least as preferred as z, thenx is at least as preferred as z; i.e.
x y and y z x z.~f ~f ~f
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Utility Functions
A preference relation that is complete, reflexive, transitive and continuous can be represented by a continuous utility function.
Continuity means that small changes to a consumption bundle cause only small changes to the preference level.
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Utility Functions
A utility function U(x) represents a preference relation if and only if:
x’ x” U(x’) > U(x”)
x’ x” U(x’) < U(x”)
x’ x” U(x’) = U(x”).
~f
p
p
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Utility Functions
Utility is an ordinal (i.e. ordering) concept.
E.g. if U(x) = 6 and U(y) = 2 then bundle x is strictly preferred to bundle y. But x is not preferred three times as much as is y.
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves Consider the bundles (4,1), (2,3) and
(2,2). Suppose (2,3) (4,1) (2,2). Assign to these bundles any
numbers that preserve the preference ordering;e.g. U(2,3) = 6 > U(4,1) = U(2,2) = 4.
Call these numbers utility levels.
p
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
An indifference curve contains equally preferred bundles.
Equal preference same utility level. Therefore, all bundles in an
indifference curve have the same utility level.
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
So the bundles (4,1) and (2,2) are in the indiff. curve with utility level U
But the bundle (2,3) is in the indiff. curve with utility level U 6.
On an indifference curve diagram, this preference information looks as follows:
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
U 6U 4
(2,3) (2,2) (4,1)
x1
x2
p
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
Another way to visualize this same information is to plot the utility level on a vertical axis.
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U(2,3) = 6
U(2,2) = 4 U(4,1) = 4
Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves3D plot of consumption & utility levels for 3 bundles
x1
x2
Utility
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
This 3D visualization of preferences can be made more informative by adding into it the two indifference curves.
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
U
U
Higher indifferencecurves containmore preferredbundles.
Utility
x2
x1
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
Comparing more bundles will create a larger collection of all indifference curves and a better description of the consumer’s preferences.
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
U 6U 4U 2
x1
x2
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
As before, this can be visualized in 3D by plotting each indifference curve at the height of its utility index.
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
U 6
U 5U 4
U 3U 2
U 1x1
x2
Utility
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves Comparing all possible consumption
bundles gives the complete collection of the consumer’s indifference curves, each with its assigned utility level.
This complete collection of indifference curves completely represents the consumer’s preferences.
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
x1
x2
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
x1
x2
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
x1
x2
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
x1
x2
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
x1
x2
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
x1
x2
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
x1
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
x1
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
x1
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
x1
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
x1
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
x1
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
x1
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
x1
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
x1
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
x1
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Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves
The collection of all indifference curves for a given preference relation is an indifference map.
An indifference map is equivalent to a utility function; each is the other.
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Utility Functions
There is no unique utility function representation of a preference relation.
Suppose U(x1,x2) = x1x2 represents a preference relation.
Again consider the bundles (4,1),(2,3) and (2,2).
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Utility Functions
U(x1,x2) = x1x2, so
U(2,3) = 6 > U(4,1) = U(2,2) = 4;
that is, (2,3) (4,1) (2,2).
p
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Utility Functions
U(x1,x2) = x1x2 (2,3) (4,1) (2,2). Define V = U2.
p
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Utility Functions
U(x1,x2) = x1x2 (2,3) (4,1) (2,2). Define V = U2. Then V(x1,x2) = x1
2x22 and
V(2,3) = 36 > V(4,1) = V(2,2) = 16so again(2,3) (4,1) (2,2).
V preserves the same order as U and so represents the same preferences.
p
p
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Utility Functions
U(x1,x2) = x1x2 (2,3) (4,1) (2,2). Define W = 2U + 10.
p
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Utility Functions
U(x1,x2) = x1x2 (2,3) (4,1) (2,2). Define W = 2U + 10. Then W(x1,x2) = 2x1x2+10 so
W(2,3) = 22 > W(4,1) = W(2,2) = 18. Again,(2,3) (4,1) (2,2).
W preserves the same order as U and V and so represents the same preferences.
p
p
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Utility Functions
If
– U is a utility function that represents a preference relation and
– f is a strictly increasing function, then V = f(U) is also a utility function
representing .
~f
~f
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Goods, Bads and Neutrals A good is a commodity unit which
increases utility (gives a more preferred bundle).
A bad is a commodity unit which decreases utility (gives a less preferred bundle).
A neutral is a commodity unit which does not change utility (gives an equally preferred bundle).
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Goods, Bads and Neutrals
Utility
Waterx’
Units ofwater aregoods
Units ofwater arebads
Around x’ units, a little extra water is a neutral.
Utilityfunction
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Some Other Utility Functions and Their Indifference Curves
Instead of U(x1,x2) = x1x2 consider
V(x1,x2) = x1 + x2.
What do the indifference curves for this “perfect substitution” utility function look like?
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Perfect Substitution Indifference Curves
5
5
9
9
13
13
x1
x2
x1 + x2 = 5
x1 + x2 = 9
x1 + x2 = 13
V(x1,x2) = x1 + x2.
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Perfect Substitution Indifference Curves
5
5
9
9
13
13
x1
x2
x1 + x2 = 5
x1 + x2 = 9
x1 + x2 = 13
All are linear and parallel.
V(x1,x2) = x1 + x2.
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Some Other Utility Functions and Their Indifference Curves
Instead of U(x1,x2) = x1x2 or V(x1,x2) = x1 + x2, consider
W(x1,x2) = min{x1,x2}.
What do the indifference curves for this “perfect complementarity” utility function look like?
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Perfect Complementarity Indifference Curves
x2
x1
45o
min{x1,x2} = 8
3 5 8
35
8
min{x1,x2} = 5
min{x1,x2} = 3
W(x1,x2) = min{x1,x2}
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Perfect Complementarity Indifference Curves
x2
x1
45o
min{x1,x2} = 8
3 5 8
35
8
min{x1,x2} = 5
min{x1,x2} = 3
All are right-angled with vertices on a rayfrom the origin.
W(x1,x2) = min{x1,x2}
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Some Other Utility Functions and Their Indifference Curves
A utility function of the form
U(x1,x2) = f(x1) + x2
is linear in just x2 and is called quasi-linear.
E.g. U(x1,x2) = 2x11/2 + x2.
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Quasi-linear Indifference Curvesx2
x1
Each curve is a vertically shifted copy of the others.
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Some Other Utility Functions and Their Indifference Curves
Any utility function of the form
U(x1,x2) = x1a x2
b
with a > 0 and b > 0 is called a Cobb-Douglas utility function.
E.g. U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x2
1/2 (a = b = 1/2) V(x1,x2) = x1 x2
3 (a = 1, b = 3)
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Cobb-Douglas Indifference Curvesx2
x1
All curves are hyperbolic,asymptoting to, but nevertouching any axis.
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Marginal Utilities
Marginal means “incremental”. The marginal utility of commodity i is
the rate-of-change of total utility as the quantity of commodity i consumed changes; i.e.
MUUxii
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Marginal Utilities
E.g. if U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x2
2 then
22
2/11
11 2
1xx
x
UMU
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Marginal Utilities
E.g. if U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x2
2 then
MUUx
x x11
11 2
221
2
/
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Marginal Utilities
E.g. if U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x2
2 then
MUUx
x x22
11 2
22
/
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Marginal Utilities
E.g. if U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x2
2 then
MUUx
x x22
11 2
22
/
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Marginal Utilities
So, if U(x1,x2) = x11/2 x2
2 then
MUUx
x x
MUUx
x x
11
11 2
22
22
11 2
2
12
2
/
/
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Marginal Utilities and Marginal Rates-of-Substitution
The general equation for an indifference curve is U(x1,x2) k, a constant.Totally differentiating this identity gives
Uxdx
Uxdx
11
22 0
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Marginal Utilities and Marginal Rates-of-Substitution
Uxdx
Uxdx
11
22 0
Uxdx
Uxdx
22
11
rearranged is
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Marginal Utilities and Marginal Rates-of-Substitution
Uxdx
Uxdx
22
11
rearranged is
And
d xd x
U xU x
2
1
1
2
//
.
This is the MRS.
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Marg. Utilities & Marg. Rates-of-Substitution; An example
Suppose U(x1,x2) = x1x2. Then
Ux
x x
Ux
x x
12 2
21 1
1
1
( )( )
( )( )
MRSd xd x
U xU x
xx
2
1
1
2
2
1
//
.so
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Marg. Utilities & Marg. Rates-of-Substitution; An example
MRSxx
2
1
MRS(1,8) = - 8/1 = -8 MRS(6,6) = - 6/6 = -1.
x1
x2
8
6
1 6U = 8
U = 36
U(x1,x2) = x1x2;
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Marg. Rates-of-Substitution for Quasi-linear Utility Functions
A quasi-linear utility function is of the form U(x1,x2) = f(x1) + x2.
so
Ux
f x1
1 ( ) Ux2
1
MRSd xd x
U xU x
f x 2
1
1
21
//
( ).
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Marg. Rates-of-Substitution for Quasi-linear Utility Functions
MRS = - f(x1) does not depend upon x2 so the slope of indifference curves for a quasi-linear utility function is constant along any line for which x1 is constant. What does that make the indifference map for a quasi-linear utility function look like?
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Marg. Rates-of-Substitution for Quasi-linear Utility Functions
x2
x1
Each curve is a vertically shifted copy of the others.
MRS is a constantalong any line for which x1 isconstant.
MRS =- f(x1’)
MRS = -f(x1”)
x1’ x1”
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Monotonic Transformations & Marginal Rates-of-Substitution
Applying a monotonic transformation to a utility function representing a preference relation simply creates another utility function representing the same preference relation.
What happens to marginal rates-of-substitution when a monotonic transformation is applied?
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Monotonic Transformations & Marginal Rates-of-Substitution
For U(x1,x2) = x1x2 the MRS = - x2/x1.
Create V = U2; i.e. V(x1,x2) = x12x2
2. What is the MRS for V?
which is the same as the MRS for U.
MRSV xV x
x x
x x
xx
//
1
2
1 22
122
2
1
2
2
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Monotonic Transformations & Marginal Rates-of-Substitution
More generally, if V = f(U) where f is a strictly increasing function, then
MRSV xV x
f U U xf U U x
//
( ) /'( ) /
1
2
1
2
U xU x//
.12
So MRS is unchanged by a positivemonotonic transformation.