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1978(after

drought)

10

1976(similar to theprior 3 years)

Ave

rag

e b

eak

dep

th (

mm

)9

8

0

2

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1,000

Substitution resultingin translation ofdifferent amino acid

Base-pairsubstitutions Insertion sites

Deletion

Exon Intron

1 500

2,5002,0001,500

4

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(a) Caterpillars raised on a diet ofoak flowers

(b) Caterpillars raised on a diet ofoak leaves

5

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Porcupine herd

Beaufort Sea

Fortymile herd

Porcupine herd range

Fortymile herd range

MAPAREA

AL

AS

KA

CA

NA

DA

NO

RT

HW

ES

T

TE

RR

ITO

RIE

S

YU

KO

NA

LA

SK

A

6

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Frequencies of alleles

Gametes produced

p frequency of CR allele

q frequency of CW allele

Alleles in the population

Each egg: Each sperm:

0.8

0.2

80%chance

80%chance

20%chance

20%chance

7

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Sperm

Eggs

80% CR (p 0.8) 20% CW (q 0.2)

p 0.8 q 0.2 CR

CR

CW

CW

p 0.8

q 0.2

0.64 (p2)CRCR

0.16 (pq)CRCW

0.16 (qp)CRCW

0.04 (q2)CWCW

Gametes of this generation:

64% CRCR, 32% CRCW, and 4% CWCW

64% CR

(from CRCR plants)16% CR

(from CRCW plants)

4% CW

(from CWCW plants)16% CW

(from CRCW plants)

80% CR 0.8 p

20% CW 0.2 q

64% CRCR, 32% CRCW, and 4% CWCW plants

With random mating, these gametes will result in the samemix of genotypes in the next generation:

8

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CWCW

CRCR

CRCW

CRCR

CRCR

CRCR

CRCR

CRCW

CRCW

CRCW

CWCW CRCR

CRCW

CRCR

CRCR CRCR

CRCR

CRCW

CRCW CRCW

CWCW

CRCR CRCR

CRCR

CRCR CRCR

CRCR CRCR

CRCR

CWCW

5 plantsleave

offspring

2 plantsleave

offspring

p (frequency of CR) 0.7 q (frequency of CW) 0.3

p 0.5 q 0.5

p 1.0q 0.0

Generation 2 Generation 3Generation 1

9

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Originalpopulation

Survivingpopulation

Bottleneckingevent

(a) By chance, blue marbles are overrepresented inthe surviving population.

(b) Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi)

10

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Pre-bottleneck(Illinois, 1820)

Post-bottleneck(Illinois, 1993)

Rangeof greaterprairiechicken

Illinois 1930–1960s

1993

Greater prairie chicken

Kansas, 1998 (no bottleneck)

Nebraska, 1998 (no bottleneck)

1,000–25,000

50

75,000–200,000

5.2

3.7

Location Populationsize

750,000

Numberof allelesper locus

Percentageof eggshatched

93

50

5.8

5.8

99

96

(a)

(b)

11

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Su

rviv

al r

ate

(%)

Centralpopulation

Vlieland,the Netherlands

Easternpopulation

NORTH SEA

2 km

Population in which thesurviving femaleseventually bred

Females born in central population

Parus major

Central

Eastern

Females born in eastern population

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

12

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Originalpopulation

Evolvedpopulation

Originalpopulation

Fre

qu

ency

of

ind

ivid

ual

sPhenotypes (fur color)

(a) Directional selection (b) Disruptive selection (c) Stabilizing selection

13

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Bones shown ingreen are movable.

Ligament

14

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SC male graytree frog

LC male graytree frog

Female graytree frog

Recording of SCmale’s call

Recording of LCmale’s call

Offspring of SC father

SC sperm Eggs LC sperm

Offspring of LC father

Survival and growth of these half-sibling offspring compared

Experiment

Results

16

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Distribution ofmalaria caused byPlasmodium falciparum(a parasitic unicellular eukaryote)

Key

Frequencies of the sickle-cell allele

10.0–12.5%

12.5%

7.5–10.0%

5.0–7.5%

2.5–5.0%

0–2.5%

17

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“Left-mouthed”P. microlepis

“Right-mouthed”P. microlepis

Sample year

Fre

qu

ency

of

“lef

t-m

ou

thed

” in

div

idu

als

1981 ’83 ’85 ’87 ’89

0.5

0

1.0

18

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