Running Head: Animal Farm

Animal Farm: Day One Lesson Plan & Components

Lauren N. Bruce

University of Richmond

I pledge that I have neither given nor received unauthorized assistance during the completion of this work.

Lauren BruceLesson Plan: Animal Farm Day 1

Lesson PlanIntroduction

Lesson topic: Animal Farm Introduction Length of Lesson: 90 minutes VA Standards of Learning- English 9.3 (f): The student will read and analyze a variety of

literature; describe the use of images and sounds to elicit the reader’s emotions.

Cognitive Objectives The student will recall existing knowledge about government and leadership and will convey

this information orally by participating in a class discussion concerning major themes in the novel Animal Farm.

The student will demonstrate comprehension of chapter one of the novel Animal Farm by participating in group discussions and correctly answering questions asked by the teacher.

AssessmentFormative

Each student will earn daily class participation points by attentively listening and/or contributing to class discussion prior to reading the novel, during the reading of the novel, and immediately after reading chapter one of the novel, by engaging in academic discussion with peers as guided by questions provided by the teacher.

Student homework will be graded for completion and original thought. The “thumbs up” game at the end of class will help the teacher quickly assess student

understanding of the topic, and take note of items which should be revisited more thoroughly during the next class period, to increase understanding.

Summative Students will each choose one of five projects to complete by the end of the unit on Animal

Farm (three weeks from start of unit). (Project descriptions can be found in Appendix of this lesson plan.) The teacher will be able to assess the effectiveness of the Animal Farm unit by checking student work for accuracy and application of the novel’s content, and will take into consideration student input on the novel and teaching unit, as provided in the summative essay.

Materials/Technology and Advanced Preparation iPod w/Speakers ready to play a downloaded version of “Beasts of England” Teacher-created Animalism flag (green background w/ a hoof & a horn) Teacher-created poster display of Animalism Commandments Copies of Summative Unit Project Descriptions Overhead projector with transparency of “Animal Farm Day 1” notes page Copies of “Animal Farm Day 1” notes page for those students who do not wish to take their

own notes during lecture (or need the guidance from the organized handout) The novel Animal Farm, plus five extra copies (students should all have a copy of the novel) Students should have their novel, their five-subject English notebook, and a pencil or pen

Teaching and Learning Sequence*Prior to students entering room, have the following Animal Farm paraphernalia on display in room: Animal Farm flag, “Beasts of England” anthem playing on repeat, “All men are enemies, All animals are comrades” written on board, poster displayed of the animal’s commandments, the question “What is a FAIRY STORY?” written on board, and desks arranged in theater-style rows curved rows, facing teacher’s podium.

Introduction/Anticipatory Set

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Lauren BruceLesson Plan: Animal Farm Day 1

Think & Jot opening exercise- “What is a FAIRY STORY” (3 minutes) Opening discussion/Recall of Prior Knowledge- “What is a fairy story?” Record key elements on

board. (5 minutes) Give brief overview to introduce Animal Farm (5 minutes) Discuss how Animal Farm qualifies as a fairy story, according to the novel’s Introduction by

C.M. Woodhouse (5 minutes)

Lesson Development Class discussion/ note-taking: Qualities of a Good Leader (10 minutes) Teacher Read-Aloud: Chapter One of Animal Farm (15 minutes) Silent Reflection: Author’s Style (Journal Writing) (15 minutes) Partner Share (5 minutes) Whole-Group Share & Discussion (10 minutes)

Closure Listen again to the song “Beasts of England,” and through class discussion, compile a list of

emotions that are evoked by the lyrics of the song (7 minutes) “Thumbs Up” review game & closing questions (10 minutes)

Homework: Read chapter two of Animal Farm and answer the following questions:1. After Major’s death, what happens to the idea of rebelling against man?2. What causes the animals to finally rebel against Mr. Jones and his four farmhands?3. What do the animals do once the humans are off of the farm?4. Do you think any of the animals in this chapter demonstrated behavior that lends itself to

leadership? List the good or bad qualities that these animals demonstrated.Come to class next period prepared to participate in discussion including these, and other questions from chapter two.Also, think about the unit projects and choose which project you will complete by the next class period.

Appendix:Instructional Content OrganizerInstructional Strategies Organizer for Differentiated LearningPAR Framework Rationale“Animal Farm Day 1” notes page- original for reproduction & distributionUnit Project Description Hand-OutOrwell article from BBC

References:Song recording:

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Lauren BruceLesson Plan: Animal Farm Day 1

Schnodda. (2008). Beasts of England. Retrieved 7 March 2012 from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mzSzYZGqxfA&feature=fvsr.

Some questions/inspiration for unit projects influenced by: Davis, H. Animal Farm literature guide. Retrieved 9 March 2012 from http://www.teachervision.fen.com/animals/activity/3307.html?page=1&detoured=1.  

Orwell article:Crick, B. (17 February, 2011) George Orwell: Voice of a long generation. British Broadcasting Company. Retrieved 7 March 2012 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/orwell_01.shtml.

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Lauren BruceLesson Plan: Animal Farm Day 1

Instructional Content and Strategies OrganizerInstructional Content

“Pre-Preparation phase”- Prior to bell ringing, students will enter class, get settled in their seats, copy down homework assignment from the board, and will get started on Quick Think & Jot exercise.

Introduction/Anticipatory Set/ Preparation Exercises for lesson Quick Think & Jot opening exercise- In section 1 of English five-subject notebook, students will copy

down the question “What is a FAIRY STORY?” and will jot down words that come to mind about fairy tales/ fairy stories. (3 minutes)

Opening discussion/ Recall of Prior Knowledge- “What is a fairy story?” Commons responses will include- princesses/princes, villain, happy ending, magic/ make-believe, etc. Record key elements on board. If students are having trouble coming up with elements, name several fairy stories they may know (Cinderella, Sleeping Beauty, Hansel and Gretel, Little Red Riding Hood, etc.) to prompt recall & responses (5 minutes)

Give brief overview to introduce Animal Farm (5 minutes) Be sure to include the following important points about novel: -Published in England in 1945 by George Orwell (who also wrote 1984, which the students will probably read next year) -The novel is an allegory of events of the Russian Revolution, and Stalin’s pre-World War II rule -You will find that although the novel was written almost a century ago, some of its ideas about government and leadership are very relevant today. -This novel is about a fictional farm in England which is taken over by its residents- the animals, when they decide that humans are evil and are ruining their quality of living. -We will talk a lot about the influence of peer pressure and also about leadership and government while reading this novel.

Discuss how Animal Farm qualifies as a fairy story, according to the novel’s Introduction by C.M. Woodhouse- “You will recall from your homework reading assignment that a man by the name of C.M. Woodhouse wrote the Introduction to this novel. A good portion of the Introduction involves Woodhouse explaining what a fairy story is, and why Orwell has labeled Animal Farm as a fairy story. Your homework assignment last night was to take note of the reasons Woodhouse believes Animal Farm is classified as a fairy story. Let’s discuss these reasons before we proceed.” Teacher will then ask for volunteers to share responses, which can include, but most likely won’t be limited to: -a fairy story doesn’t have a moral or morality -fairy stories take place in a world “beyond good & evil” where people/animals suffer or profit for reasons unconnected with ethical merit -characters are not round- they are simply who they are and often portray common stereotypes

If students are having trouble coming up with reasons, refer them to pages xix-xxvii in the novel. (Discussion- 5 minutes)

Lesson Development Class discussion/ note-taking: Qualities of a Good Leader (Assistance phase- 10 minutes) Teacher will

lead the class in a discussion about the qualities of a good leader and governments, and students should take notes in the “novel study” section of their English notebooks. Teacher will use overhead projector to record her notes from the lecture. (We will refer back to these leader qualities and comments at the end of the novel.) Ask students: -What are the qualities of a “good” leader? -What are the qualities of a “bad” leader? -Do you believe that a “good” leader can make bad decisions? -Why might a government be overthrown? -What makes people dissatisfied with leaders?

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Lauren BruceLesson Plan: Animal Farm Day 1

-Who are some leaders (past or present) that you would consider “bad” leaders? Students MUST be able to provide reasons to accompany their responses.

Teacher Read-Aloud: Chapter One of Animal Farm (Assistance phase- 15 minutes) Teacher will read aloud chapter one of Animal Farm, demonstrating proper pacing and tone for reading. When we get to Major’s speech to the animals, teacher will dramatically give speech, as if she herself were Major, and the students were the animals. (This is the reason for the theater-style seating in the classroom.) Students should have their copy of Animal Farm out, and should either be following along as the teacher reads, or listening attentively. Pause to ask the following questions as we progress through the chapter (students should take notes of any information they deem pertinent as we discuss; teacher will be writing key phrases/ideas on the board): -What do you think the significance might be about how the animals are seating during Major’s speech? -According to Major, what is the cause of the animal’s problems? -Have you ever heard anyone give a persuasive speech before? What were they trying to gain from their speech? How is Major’s speech similar to that of a politician in our current society? - What “rallying songs” or anthems can you name? How do they compare to “Beasts of England?”

Silent Reflection: Author’s Style (Journal Writing) (Reflection phase- 15 minutes) In the journal section of five-subject English notebook, students should respond to one of the following questions: -Make generalizations about the characters we met in chapter one. Describe their character traits and include key words or phrases directly from the text that led you to form these opinions about the characters. -When you were reading/listening to chapter one of Animal Farm, what was the most vivid scene you were able to picture in your mind? Include key words or phrases from the text that assisted you as you imagined these scenes.

Partner Share (Reflection phase- 5 minutes) Students will pair up with their (pre-assigned) literacy partner and will share their journal responses. Students should attentively listen as their peer shares their opinions/journal entries, and should remark/ask questions for clarification after their peer shares.

Whole-Group Share & Discussion (Reflection phase- 10 minutes) Teacher will ask students to share their “silent reflection” journal entries, and will interject to ask questions for clarification, or to require students to dig deeper to justify or explain their answers. The discussion will be focused, as the journal entries were, around the author’s style and use of imagery.

Closure Listen again to the song “Beasts of England,” and through class discussion, compile a list of emotions

that are evoked by the lyrics of the song (Reflection phase- 7 minutes) Ask the following review questions about the song: -What imagery is present? -What is the general message of the song? -To what emotions and needs does the song appeal?

“Thumbs Up” review game & Closing Questions (Reflection phase- 10 minutes) The teacher will read the following statements to the students. Students should give a “thumbs up” to the teacher if the statement is true, and will give a “thumbs down” to the teacher if the statement is false. (All students will participate together, as a whole class activity.) When the statement is false, students should be prepared to explain why the statement was incorrect, or correct the statement . -Orwell published the book Animal Farm as a war protest right around the same time as the Vietnam War. (false- it was published prior to WWII, and was influenced more by Stalin and the Russian Revolution) -Animal Farm is considered a “fairy tale with a political purpose.” (true) -“Beasts of England” is to the animals what “God Save the Queen” is to English humans. (true- it’s their anthem) -Major is the prize-winning horse on the farm. (false- he’s a boar) -With his speech, Major intended to make the other animals feel fear the humans. (false- he wanted to make them angry towards the humans, to inspire them to take action to make a better life for animals)

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Lauren BruceLesson Plan: Animal Farm Day 1

-Major believes that animals are equivalent to slaves, and that humans reap the benefit of nearly all of the hard word animals do. (true) -The animals viewed Major as a senile, old loony boar, especially when he began singing “Beasts of England.” (false- they were so excited that they began singing along with him, even if they didn’t know the lyrics)Ask the students the following questions, after playing “Thumbs Up” : -So what has happened at the end of chapter one? (Answer: After meeting, the animals are excited and inspired by Major’s call for a revolution. The animals are so noisy that they have woken Mr. Jones, who shoots off “warning shots” from his gun, thinking there’s a fox in the yard.) -Does anyone have any questions about our reading today from Animal Farm or the novel in general? -Give brief preview of chapter two: “Tonight for homework, you’ll be reading chapter two. I think you’ll find that Orwell moves at a fast pace with the story, as we’ll see the revolution really starting to begin amongst the animals on Manor Farm.”

*Spend last few minutes of class reviewing Unit Project requirements and the night’s homework assignment with students.*Remind students to copy homework in their agendas before leaving class.

Instructional Strategies in consideration of students’ needs:Instructional Modifications to Major Instructional Strategies Instructional Modifications to

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Lauren BruceLesson Plan: Animal Farm Day 1

ASSIST Weakest Students CHALLENGE Strongest Students-If preferred, students may opt to use a hand-out (attached) to guide note-taking, rather than “free-writing” notes down as they desire during class discussion.-Teacher will take notes as the students take notes, to model good note-taking-Teacher reads story aloud to model appropriate tone and pace in reading-Students may choose between two journal entries, to allow them to demonstrate comprehension/ competency in the most comfortable way-Students may choose between five summative projects so they can creatively demonstrate comprehension of the story at the end of the unit in the manner which they are most comfortable-Literacy partners require students who are more shy the opportunity for academic discussion without feeling “on the spot” by being required to respond to questions during class.-Allow plenty of opportunity for students to ask questions.

-“Osmosis” – having classroom decorated with items that pertain to the story, to capture the interest of students, as ninth grade students may not be inclined to be especially excited about a book published in 1940’s England.-Interactive class discussion & note-taking; teacher will ask questions of students to prompt them to think more thoroughly about the reading material and related topics-In-class reading of Animal Farm with intermittent comprehension questions to ensure students are following text-Silent Reflection Journal-Writing so students have time to digest what they’ve read in Animal Farm and apply their prior knowledge of imagery in literature to what they’ve read in Animal Farm-Peer sharing/ whole class sharing so that students may learn from one another and learn other viewpoints gathered from reading the same material-Quick Review Game to reiterate material learned during today’s lesson-Summative project assigned for students to apply their comprehension of Animal Farm in a creative manner to demonstrate knowledge at end of unit.

-Students may take their own notes if desired, rather than using a hand-out.-Students who finish journal entry early may read an article about Orwell (attached.)-Teacher allows some flexibility with summative project… Students have the option to design their own culminating project, under the supervision of the instructor.

Rationale for activities incorporated from PAR framework:Preparation phase- While I personally love reading Orwell, and can understand its literary value, I know that I will

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Lauren BruceLesson Plan: Animal Farm Day 1

have some students who will most definitely not share the same sentiments. I am hoping to peak students’ interest immediately upon walking into the room on day one of the Animal Farm unit by creating an Animal Farm atmosphere by arranging the class and hanging visuals related to the reading. In my “Anticipatory Set” for learning, I will require students to recall prior knowledge about fairy tales in hopes once again of peaking their interest. While Animal Farm is labeled (by Orwell) as a “fairy story,” it is far from what they, as American teenagers, believe a fairy tale to be. By asking them to identify characteristics of fairy stories, I will be able to show how Orwell believes he has fit Animal Farm into this category of literature.

Assistance phase- We will begin the “meat” of our unit on Animal Farm by discussing leadership and politics/government, as this is the largest theme we will really be exploring during this book. Through class discussion, students will be able to collaboratively learn by sharing what they already know about this topic, either from other classes, or from studying current events. Students will take note of the related topics we discuss, as we will refer back to our thoughts on leadership and government throughout the reading of the novel. The teacher will then read aloud chapter one to the students. Although they are high schoolers, a student is never too old to be read to. By the teacher reading aloud chapter one, she will effectively convey to students the tone of the story, so that they may better know how to proceed with reading subsequent chapters on their own. She will intermittently stop to ask questions, to ensure that all students are following the reading.

Reflection phase- Using what the students already have learned in class about an author’s use of imagery to enhance fluency and comprehension, the students will write a reflective journal entry about chapter one. Students will be able to organize their thoughts first by writing in their journal, and will then pair with their pre-assigned literary partner to share their reflections and perhaps gain insight from a different view, and allowing each student to share their writing with at least one other person in the room (in case they are shy or do not wish to share with the whole class). The class will then discuss journal entries aloud, giving students the opportunity to share with the whole group if desired. The teacher will ask questions of students as they share, to clarify meaning or to require students to dig deeper into their discussion of imagery in the text. We will re-visit the song “Beasts of England” in closing and discuss emotions evoked by the song, after having read chapter one and getting an idea of the characters in the novel. Finally, to assess learning, the teacher will play a quick review game with students, which will allow them to answer true/false-style questions and reflect on the material they learned in the day’s lesson.

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Lauren BruceLesson Plan: Animal Farm Day 1

Animal Farm, by George OrwellDay One Notes

Two themes we will be focusing on from this novel are: __________________________ &

__________________________

This novel was published in __________, and was classified as a “fairy story” by Orwell, because:_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.

Qualities of a “good” leader Qualities of a “bad” leader

How are animals arranged during Major’s speech? (Reflect: Do you think this is foreshadowing for later events/ social status in the story?)

According to Major, what is the root of most of the animals’ problems?

How does the chapter end?

Animal Farm Summative Unit Project

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Lauren BruceLesson Plan: Animal Farm Day 1

Choose one of the following unit projects to complete by _________. You may choose to begin working on the project as soon as you would like, and you will have approximately one week from the time we finish reading Animal Farm to the time your project is due. Your project will be worth 50 points, and will be graded as follows:

20 points- Student work demonstrates understanding of Animal Farm text & ideas20 points- Summative Essay- Minimum of three typed, double-spaced pages. Include thoughtful answers to the following questions in your essay: -Did you enjoy reading this novel? Why or why not? -What activity/ies during this unit most enhanced your learning? -Which activity/ies did you dislike? Please explain why you didn’t like these activities, how you would alter them to make them better. -Why do you think we require students to read this novel?10 points- Project is creative/original, and is well-organized and put together.

Option 1: Individual or partner activity: Select three or four major events from the novel and create news reports detailing (or even showing “footage” of) these events. The news reports should be recorded, and emailed to the teacher at least two days prior to class. Time: 3-5 minutes.Option 2: Partner activity: Compose the script for a dialogue that could have happened between two of the characters in the story. One character should be trying to persuade or convince the other character of something related to the farm or the animals. Act out the short skit you composed for the class. Time: 3-5 minutes.Option 3: Individual activity: Using imagery from the book, create a 3-D model of Animal Farm. Include a short description for the teacher of where in the text (page numbers) you found the imagery that inspired the components to your model.Option 4: Individual or partner activity: Prepare your own ballad for the animals, based on the events of the story. Be prepared to sing it to the class! (Or show a recording of your song being performed prior to class.)Option 5: Individual activity: Design & wear your own T-Shirt portraying an important scene from the story. Include a short description for the teacher of where in the text (page numbers) you found the imagery that inspired the design to your shirt.

Option 6: Design your own summative project! If you have a really excellent idea for a summative project that is not listed above, please speak with Ms. Bruce about your idea within the next week, and we can consult on designing your own project that accomplishes the same goals as the teacher-created projects.

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Lauren BruceLesson Plan: Animal Farm Day 1

George Orwell: Voice of a Long GenerationBy Sir Bernard CrickLast updated 2011-02-17

Orwell once said, '...above all I wanted to make political writing into an art', which he certainly did. But there was purpose behind his art. His provocations were always deliberately intended to challenge his readers as well as the establishment. Sir Bernard Crick describes the life, and far-reaching influence, of the maverick political writer.

A writer can sometimes have more influence on the mentality of political activists than the most reasonable of politicians. Orwell once said, '...above all I wanted to make political writing into an art'. That he did and his provocations, sometimes perverse and extreme, were always deliberately intended to challenge his readers - to make them think, or even to think twice.

He was an English Socialist of the classic kind, in the same mould as Michael Foot and Aneurin Bevan - left-wing, but also libertarian, egalitarian and hostile to the Communist Party. In addition he was quite un-theoretical, almost anti-theoretical. He maintained that no person or party was above criticism: when he was a member of the old left-wing Independent Labour Party he wrote that 'no writer can be a loyal member of a political party'.

Orwell was quintessentially English in his love of the countryside and in his Protestant conscience, which made him angry at injustice and concerned for the plight of the poor, even if he was a firm rationalist and unbeliever. And he was English in his forthright outspokenness - 'liberty is telling people what they do not want to hear'.

The writer's Englishness was not, however, that of the upper classes; it belonged to the radical tradition of Cobbett, Blake, Bunyan and the Levellers. His mastery of the plain style of writing and personal unconcern for anything other than a plain style of living was all of a piece with the ordinary people whom he wished to reach in his writing, in the tradition of Wells and Dickens rather than modern and now post-modern novelists.

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Lauren BruceLesson Plan: Animal Farm Day 1

Orwell's was an Englishness far removed from what was called by his contemporary, the Christian socialist Richard Tawney, 'the acquisitive society' (today's 'consumer society'). In other words he was one of the 'awkward squad', an Etonian who despised the establishment; he might have been happier in Cromwell's New Model Army of 1646 than he was in the Home Guard of 1941.

Down and out in Burma, Paris and London

The canal in Wigan, inspiration for Orwell's 1936 novel ©

This 'awkward squad' member's real name was Eric Blair, and he was born in India in 1903, son of an official in the Opium Service; he was brought to England by his mother at the age of three. His family was what he called sardonically, 'lower-upper middle class', that is 'upper-middle class without money'. He was crammed for a scholarship to Eton, but did little work there, already being something of an odd man out 'agin the system'. Most of his school friends went on to Cambridge, but he entered the Burma Police, a satisfyingly second-class part of the Imperial Civil Service. He stuck it for five years, but resigned in 1927, having come to hate the social pretentiousness of the British in Burma, especially their indifference to Burmese culture.

All this poured out in Orwell's first published novel, Burmese Days (1935). The work is often taken to be socialist, because it is anti-imperialist and because we know from his Down and Out in Paris and London that the author spent time among tramps and down-and-outs - in order to see at first hand, not from books or reports, if the British treated their poor as they did the Burmese and the Indians. He thought, on the whole, they did, although later he admitted that he was mistaken in seeing tramps as the extreme of working-class poverty, rather than as a highly differentiated sub-class.

Between 1927 and 1934, when asked where he stood politically, Orwell would often reply simply, 'I'm a Tory anarchist'. He was an individualist who resented one man or one culture imposing its values on another; and though familiar with socialist arguments about economic exploitation, he did not consider himself a socialist until 1935.

A year later he published The Road to Wigan Pier (1936), a clinical but moving account of living among the unemployed of the real working class. To this he added an eccentric and provocative final section, simultaneously announcing his conversion to socialism and his scorn for many socialist intellectuals, whom he described as so bemused by 'the myth of Soviet power' and Marxist ideology that they had lost their traditional care for freedom and had failed to understand the nature of working people. Orwell's adoption of a plain and colloquial style of writing then

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became an attempt, highly unsuccessful at first, to reach all those whose only education beyond the age of 14 was the free public library.

War

Poster from the Spanish civil war: 'Peasants! The revolution is as necessary as the shoots on the vine' ©

Orwell went to Spain to fight for the Republic, without intending to report or to write, but nonetheless his non-fiction account Homage to Catalonia (1938) resulted. It sold badly at the time but is now seen as a classic, honest description of war, and one of the shrewdest polemics against the Stalinist attempt to dominate both the Spanish Republic and the whole of the international left-wing movement. For a brief period, until 1939, he was militantly anti-war, close to pacifism. He remained a member of the Independent Labour Party (ILP), and was often mistakenly called Trotskyite because of his strong left-wing views - he regarded traditional Labour party members as milk-and-water compromisers. Meanwhile, he scraped a thin living as a novelist and reviewer.

With the outbreak of World War Two, Orwell left the ILP, which he considered tainted by pacifism. Moved by hatred of Fascism and Hitlerism, he wrote a great polemic, The Lion and the Unicorn (1941), where he argued with fervid optimism that a social revolution was taking place in the ranks of the British army. He set out to rescue patriotism from nationalism, trying to show that the roots of English patriotism could be seen as radical rather than Conservative.Being tubercular, he was not accepted for military service and wasted two years in the BBC's Far Eastern Service before becoming literary editor of Tribune, where Aneurin Bevan was editor. He stayed in this wholly congenial post until the end of the war.

A warning

Nineteen Eighty-Four was dramatised for the screen ©

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Lauren BruceLesson Plan: Animal Farm Day 1

Early in the war Orwell conceived a grand design for a three-volume novel of social analysis and warning, which would deal with the decay of the old order, the betrayal of the revolution and the consequences of English totalitarianism. This design never came to be, but the pre-war novels, like Keep the Aspidistra Flying and Coming Up For Air, do have some such connection with his post-war masterpiece Animal Farm (1945) and with his most famous work Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949).

Animal Farm is a story of how the revolution of a group of animals fighting for liberty and equality was betrayed by power-hungry (Stalinist) pigs. It is quite clear that with Animal Farm Orwell did not intend to write a parable of the impossibility of revolution; equally, Nineteen Eighty-Four was not a morbid prophecy of what was sure to happen in society, but a savage, Swiftian satiric warning of what could happen if power was pursued for its own sake. Many right-wing American critics, however, read him in a contrary sense, some mistakenly, others deliberately.

His values remained those of a left-wing socialist until his early death from tuberculosis in 1950, although his hope of seeing 'the Republic' emerge after 1945 had vanished by then. In these years, in the British press, he criticised the Attlee government for losing the chance to establish 'real socialism', although in American left-wing journals he was typically realistic about the difficulties of doing so in a virtually bankrupt post-war Britain. He also argued for a democratic socialist United States of Europe. And he was perhaps the first to use the phrase 'the cold war' and see how mutual possession of the atomic bomb would divide the world into two implacable hostile camps.

There is so much more to Orwell than just his books, impressive though they are. Some critics plausibly describe his genius as an essayist. 'A Hanging' and 'Shooting an Elephant' fall ambiguously between the genres of short-story and personal recollection, but both are moral writing of great stature. His polemical and discursive Tribune columns, 'As I Please', virtually invented mixed-column journalism. Sardonic humour is found throughout his journalism, as when he mocked the fiercely urban readers of Tribune, at the time of the battle for Stalingrad, by devoting his columns to the pleasure of watching toads mating and hares boxing - or to the glory of a six-penny Woolworth rose. When letters of protest rolled in he replied that in his idea of the classless society there would be more time, not less, for such pleasures.

Beyond his time

The Road to Wigan Pier, Coming Up for Air, Burmese Days, Shooting an Elephant ©

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Orwell wrote major essays on censorship, plain language, the social beliefs embodied in boys' magazines, and against pornography and violence: he believed passionately in liberty, but also in condemning harshly the morally and aesthetically bad. He wrote, like Dickens, Morris and Wells before him, for those whose only university was the free public library or the extra-mural class.

All in all he became the living embodiment of that old English socialism that was not anti-parliamentary but was always suspicious of what power - or the pursuit of it - could do to people whom he described as 'the backstairs crawlers and the arse-lickers of the Parliamentary Labour Party'. Of course, he voted Labour, although it is doubtful that he ever joined the party. Had he done so, he would have been a bundle of trouble. He was expert in rubbing his own cat's fur backwards.

Many writers and columnists try to imitate Orwell, but behind his writing was a unique and strange set of experiences that few now can - or would care to - emulate. He seems a figure born almost out of time, a figure from the English Civil War born into the early 20th century. However, his growing reputation, and the great sales of his writings after his death, perhaps show that we feel some loss of integrity, or of great causes to support, as we survey a troubled world while cocooned in a comfortable consumer society. The critic V.C. Pritchett called him 'the wintry conscience of a generation', but Orwell might have added that it was a 'long generation'.

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