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Ecopsychology: The Last 21 Years 1

Ecopsychology: The Last 21 YearsA Literature Review of Humanities and Scientific Research

SUNY Empire State College

Rebecca Aviles-Andrews

October 15, 2013


Introduction

Defining Ecopsychology

This paper is being written in a lovely “office” space on backyard patio furniture

overlooking gardens, hen-yard, and forest, serenaded by the song of a phoebe and the breezes

rustling through the tree-tops. Theoretically, writing a paper in nature could have a significant

effect upon the process. Researchers have discovered that time spent in nature reduces stress

hormones and lowers heart rate (not that writing a paper is ever stressful), increases blood

immune markers, increases attention and cognitive skills, and makes people happier (Ulrich,

1979 & 1986 & 1991; Park et al, 2007; Lohr, 2007; Cdervinka, et al, 2012). In short, nature is

good for us, and what is good for us is, in turn, good for the earth. In the simplest of definitions,

this is ecopsychology. More elaborately, ecopsychology has been defined as “an emerging field

that is developing in recognition that human health, identity, and sanity are intimately linked to

the health of the earth and must include sustainable and mutually enhancing relationships

between humans and the nonhuman world” (Naropa, 2013). Drawing upon Jungian psychology,

Roszak, who coined the term ecopsychology, notes that “ecopsychology proceeds from the

assumption that at its deepest level the psyche remains sympathetically bonded to the Earth that

mothered us into existence. Ecopsychology suggests that we can read our transactions with the

natural environment – the way we use or abuse the planet – as projections of unconscious needs

and desires…” (Roszak et al,1995, p. 5; Jung, 2002). Such a viewpoint draws upon the theory of

Biophilia which states that human health is intimately connected to the natural environment in

which we as humans spent the first five billion years of our evolutionary history – up until the

last hundred or so years (Selhub & Logan, 2012). Similarly, the Gaia hypothesis views the earth

and all living beings on it as one whole, living entity of interdependent parts (Selhub & Logan,

2012). It is the hope of ecopsychologists that if the concept of the self can be “expanded to


include the natural world, behavior leading to destruction of this world will be experienced as

self-destruction” (Roszak et al, 1995, p. 12). Furthermore, such concepts can then be used to

influence public policy and individual lives in ways that facilitate broad personal and planetary

healing.

Such ecopsychological ideas are not common here in the West where a paradigm of

scientific reductionism and foundational values of individuality and independence predominate

(Nagel, 2012; Pearson, 2010). In the predominant Western paradigm, nature, body, mind, and

spirit are most often seen as separate and unrelated entities (Nagel, 2012). For example, here in

the West healthcare professionals specialize, approaching health from a reductionist standpoint

(Doherty, 2011). Psychologists handle mental issues and M.D.’s handle physical issues. Beyond

this there are cardiologists to deal with issues of the heart and oncologists to specialize in

cancers. In this reductionist paradigm, quick fixes are often sought, a bandaid for the immediate

problem rather than healing of the whole system that is causing the illness. We “focus on

liposuction rather than diet and nutrition; on heart transplants rather than lifestyle changes; on

economic production, not ecological costs; and on behavior versus deep underlying causes”

(Buzzell et al, 2009, p. 13). In contrast, ecopsychology recognizes mind, body, spirit,

environment, and nature as not only interconnected but in fact as one whole entity.

The concept of the “holon” is important in understanding ecopsychology. A holon is a

whole that is part of a larger whole and an idea related to system’s theory in psychology

(Checkland, 1988; Doherty & McDaniel, 2009). Despite a cultural tendency toward

reductionism, extensive scientific evidence supports the theory of interconnected holons (Khisty,

2006; Checkland, 1988; Hollick, 1996). Our mental processes are one whole, yet a part of the

larger whole of our body and interconnected with its physiological processes. This individual and


bodily whole is, in turn, part of a larger system or whole, the family unit. Families are part of

social or community systems. Some aspects of systems theory, particularly related to family and

social systems, are widely accepted in mental healthcare fields (Doherty & McDaniel, 2009;

Ungar, 2002). “While standard concepts of developmental lines include our relation to work, to

children, to parents, and to society, an expanded view of health would include a new

developmental line: our relation to the more-than-human inclusive of places, species and the

universe at large” (Spitzform, 2000, p. 19). Ecopsychology encompasses this expanded view by

recognizing the greater whole of the natural world in which all of humanity is emplaced.

Parameters of this Literature Review

A literature review in a field such as ecopsychology, which recognizes the relatedness of

multiple, interdisciplinary holons, could be unending. Roszak himself says “It is best approached

as an open and developing field of inquiry where many ideas and techniques can flourish. What

else would one expect of a study of the psyche that takes its cue from ecology, the science of

inexhaustible diversity and unexpected connectedness” (Roszak et al, 1995, p 20)? The purpose

of this review is to provide an historical overview highlighting some of the major voices shaping

the field of ecopsychology over the last 21 years, while contrasting their primarily philosophical

approach with the extensive, scientific evidence linking humans to nature that is coming out of

diverse fields of study other than ecopsychology. To limit scope, authors of books which have

inspired the field but who do not use the term ecopsychology or its synonyms green psychology

or ecotherapy, such as but not limited to Louv and Lovelock, will not be included in book

reviews or biographical information. Scientific research that supports ecopsychology but does

not use these terms will, however, be included - since most of the scientific support thus far has

come from other fields. The current discussion in the field of ecopsychology revolves around


how to meld the humanities roots of the field with the scholarly scientific evidence that is needed

for ecopsychology to gain credibility. Therefore this literature review will begin with

philosophical writings, move on to science, and end with a brief discussion of the future. Such

parameters are not designed to fail to give honor to the many other philosophers, poets,

environmentalists, ecofeminists, and historical events that have contributed greatly to the

developing field of ecopsychology. Rather the parameters are to provide an outline of the major

historical voices of the last 21 years, thereby providing a foundational, ecopsychological

framework of understanding from which vantage point one may delve more deeply into applied

techniques in ecopsychology, such as but not limited to using art to connect with nature, and

naturalist and wilderness mentorship.

Research Paradigm of this Literature Review

This literature review will be conducted primarily from a psychological research

paradigm in which scientific evidence guides all inquiry but will also give attention to excellent

qualitative studies. This differs from a humanities academic paradigm in which concepts such as

logic, historical relevance, and philosophy might guide critical inquiry (Humanities Research

Journal, 2013). Psychology students are taught to ask first and foremost, “Where’s the

evidence?” with evidence equating to quantitative, statistical, scientific research (American

Psychological Association, 2005). To most psychologists, the randomized, controlled trial (RCT)

is seen as the superior model for scientific research, and qualitative research is considered

valuable only so far as it informs previously conducted or future scientific – i.e. quantitative –

research (Bryman, 1984).

A brief history of psychology is helpful in understanding both the critical approach of this

review and the current field wide discussion in ecopsychology: Should the field remain in touch


with more philosophical and indigenous roots, or should it leave its roots in favor of a more

scientific approach? Psychology as an academic field was actually birthed in the humanities in

university philosophy departments, but it underwent serious efforts in the early 20th century to

establish laboratories in an attempt to validate itself as a scientific field (Garvey, 1929). Over

time, psychology gained acceptance as a social science, and degree programs were no longer

housed in the university philosophy department (Garvey, 1929). As a result, modern day

psychologists are often suspicious of any philosophy masquerading as psychology. Because

ecopsychological writings have been primarily philosophical and indigenous in nature thus far –

despite the scientific roots of both fields - ecopsychology has not been taken seriously in the

overall academic world of psychology.

Perhaps the best approach to ecopsychological research is not an either/or approach but a

both/and approach. In short, it seems remiss to ignore relevant existing science. At the same

time, when Western modes of knowing are considered superior to more intuitive and indigenous,

local knowledge, issues of social justice and colonialism arise (Gone, 2007). Yet in order for

ecopsychology to be accepted in the scientific, academic communities of either ecology or

psychology, it is no doubt important that discussions move to include science when possible.

Therefore, this review will give in depth coverage to two types of literature: first, writings that

contain excellent qualitative information will be reviewed both for their qualitative expertise as

well as with an eye to scientific critique; secondly articles that excel in their scientific research

will receive more in depth coverage of research techniques and information.


Historical Overview

The Development of a New Field of Study

Throughout much of history, nature was viewed as a healing force and ecopsychology

still gleans from the teachings of worldwide indigenous cultures which see humans as a part of

nature (Garrett & Myers, 1996; Hoelterhoff, 2010). Well into the 20th century, nature was seen as

a boon to medicine and healing, as evidenced by the prevalence of the sanatorium, a place where

the ill could go for the healing benefits of nature and fresh air (Downing, 1907). Yet with the

increasing dominance of the scientific paradigm as the only sure way of knowing, sanatoriums

began to close down mid-century, replaced with pharmaceutical remedies created in laboratories

(Sehlbub, 2013). It was not until several decades later, in the 1970’s, that Robert Uhlrich

pioneered research on the human/nature connection at the University of Michigan (Uhlrich,

1979). And it was not until 1992 that Harvard graduate and California state history professor,

Theodore Roszak, published a book in which he coined the term ecopsychology (Roszak, 1992).

Roszak’s interest in the natural environment arose out of his experiences with the shamanic

spiritualty of indigenous peoples whom he met in his worldwide travels. In 1992, the year of the

Earth Summit in Rio, Roszak published The Voice of the Earth which he relates “offered the

concept of ecopsychology as an appeal to environmentalists and psychologists for a meeting of

minds that would enrich both fields and play a significant role in public policy. The catchphrase

that encapsulated the proposal was ‘ecology needs psychology, psychology needs ecology’”

(Buzzell & Chalquist, 2009, p. 34). Roszak’s proposal sounds quite logical; however, as

explained above, the more scientific fields of ecology and psychology have been hesitant to

allow their fields of study to be informed by philosophers and historians.


Books, Biographies and Journals: A Chronological Overview

Theodore Roszak. The Voice of the Earth. Theodore Roszaks’s book The Voice of the

Earth birthed a new field of study with the introduction of the term “ecopsychology” (Roszak,

1992). Roszak philosophically argued that ecology and psychology, the health of the planet and

the health of people, should no longer be viewed as separate and unrelated entities. He presented

the revolutionary and counter cultural idea that people were part of nature, one whole along a

continuum. He argued that human health was affected by time in nature and that our treatment of

the natural world was in turn reflective of our own internal health. Throughout the book, Roszak

drew upon his work as a historian, his interest in indigenous shamanism, concepts of counter

culture, and the need for ecopsychology to therapeutically influence multiple fields of study in

order to build a healthier and more sustainable future (Roszak, 1992).

In just over two decades following Roszak’s The Voice of the Earth, a number of

additional books have been written on ecopsychology, variously known as eco-therapy and green

psychology. Following in the footsteps of their predecessor, they continue to approach

ecopsychology from a more historical and philosophical, humanities type perspective.

Unfortunately, this means that not one of them has added anything of substantive value to the

scientific fields of psychology and ecology. To their credit, none of these authors had a stated

intent to write a scientific book, a point anyone in the humanities would be quick to point out.

Yet, due to the lack of science, their influence has been limited to the therapist already versed in

the science of the human/nature connection. These books provide varying degrees of qualitative

value through the relating of inspiring stories, the historical and philosophical underpinnings of

the field, and ideas for the practical application of ecopsychology in therapy.


Ecopsychology: Restoring the Earth, Healing the Mind. In 1995 Roszak published

Ecopsychology: Restoring the Earth, Healing the Mind as a follow up to The Voice of the Earth

(Roszak et al, 1995). Ecopsychology was a collaborative book, edited by Roszak and by

psychologists and ecopsychology professors, Mary E. Gomes, and Allen D. Kanner, with

numerous other writers contributing chapters on diverse aspects of the field. A sampling of some

of the Ecopsychology chapter titles is valuable in providing a window into the broader field of

ecopsychology beyond the parameters of this review. For example, in section one of the book

which deals with theoretical perspectives, chapters include “Where Psyche Meets Gaia” by

Roszak; “Nature and Madness” by Paul Shepard; “The Ecopsychology of Child Development”

by Anita Barrows; and “The Rape of the Well-Maidens: Feminist Psychology and the

Environmental Crisis” by Mary E. Gomes and Allen D. Kanner (Roszak, 1995, pp.1-20;

Shepard, 1995, pp. 21-40; Barrows, 1995, pp. 101-110; Gomes & Kanner, 1995, pp. 111-121) .

Section two of this book pertains to ecopsychology in practice with some of the following

chapter titles: “Shamanic Counseling and Ecopsychology” by Leslie Grey; “The Skill of

Ecological Perception” by Laura Sewall; and “Restoring Habitats, Communities and Souls” by

Elan Shapiro (Grey, 1995, pp. 172-182; Sewall, 1995, pp. 201-215; Shapiro, 1995, pp. 224-239).

Lastly in the final section of Ecopsychology, dealing with cultural diversity and political

engagement, topics include ideas such as “Ecopsychology and the Destruction of Whiteness” by

Carl Anthony; “The Politics of Species Arrogance” by John E. Mack; and “The Spirit of the

Goddess” by Betty Roszak (Anthony, 1995, pp. 263-278; Mack, 1995, pp.279-287; Roszak, B.

1995, pp. 288-300). Through the coverage of diverse topics such as but not limited to these just

listed, Ecopsychology: Restoring the Earth, Healing the Mind provides an in-depth

understanding of the deeper issues underlying the history of ecopsychology in the last 21 years.


Howard Clinebell. Ecotherapy: Healing Ourselves, Healing the Earth, published in

1996, was written by pastoral counselor Howard Clinebell, Ph.D. (Clinebell, 1996). This book

lies more in the realms of inspiration than anything remotely academic. Clinebell delves deeply

into philosophy, religion, and ecofeminism, but fails to include any science. Furthermore, his

assumption that worldwide spiritual illness is at the root of all disease, both human and

ecological, leaves no room for mindful and ethical atheism (Clinebell, 1996). Once again, while

the book’s title calls loudly to the field of ecopsychology, the content itself offers absolutely

nothing to a scientific conversation.

Ralph Metzner. Green Psychology: Transforming Our Relationship to the Earth was

published in 1999 by Harvard graduate Ralph Metzner Ph.D. (Metzner, 1999). In the opening

chapters Metzner shares his experiences with indigenous shamanic cultures. He delves, quite

inspirationally, into the history of native cultures, Eastern mysticism, and pagan gods and

goddesses, thereby establishing an historical progression from earth honoring, polytheistic

cultures with a more balanced masculine and feminine power structure, to our current Western

state of affairs, a largely patriarchal and monotheistic culture that views the earth as primitive

and wild, in need of taming (Metzner, 1999). As a source of historical information and an alert to

issues of social justice and ecofeminism, Metzner’s book holds high value. But, again, it does

nothing to bring ecopsychology into the ongoing scientific and academic conversation of either

psychology or ecology.

Linda Buzzell and Craig Chalquist. Ecotherapy: Healing with Nature in Mind, edited

by Linda Buzzell and Craig Chalquist, both licensed therapists, was published in 2009 (Buzzell

& Chalquist, 2009). This book provides detailed coverage of a number of pertinent issues

making it a valuable qualitative addition to the field of ecopsychology: issues such as the impact


of the human/nature disconnection, how and why therapists turn to ecopsychology, how to

conduct a client interview within an ecopsychological framework, and some of the various

modalities used in applied ecopsychology (Buzzell & Chalquist, 2009). Over twenty different

contributors authored the various chapters of this book providing a more detailed view of the

field of ecopsychology than defined by the parameters of this literature review but nevertheless

useful information to anyone wanting a more micro view of those working in the field. Were

some statistics given in support of claims made in the book, it is likely that the book could have

successfully garnered the attention of the academic community. As it stands, it seems most

relevant to therapists already aware of the science and trying to integrate ecopsychology into an

existing practice.

The impact of the human nature disconnection. In Ecotherapy, Larry Robinson, a

psychotherapist in California, skillfully uses narrative psychology, the use of stories to speak to

and re-author human experiences, to make an excellent case for the negative impact of the

current human/nature dissasociation (Robinson, 2009, pp. 24-29; Dingfelder, 2011). Theodore

Roszak then expounds upon this narrative with the idea of collective societal madness (Roszak,

2009, pp. 30-36). Robinson theorizes that people, treated as objects, tend to objectify the rest of

the natural world, inflating human importance (Robinson, 2009, p.25-27). He relates a powerful

Greek myth told by Ovid in Metamorphosis. In this story King Erysichthon wants to chop down

a tree sacred to the goddess Demeter. He is stopped by his men who “recognized the tree for

what it was and felt the proper awe. Erysichthon [on the other hand] saw only the potential for

profit and ordered his men to fell the great tree” (Robinson, 2009, p 27). When they refused, he

had no choice but to fell it himself. In punishment, Demeter placed a curse upon Erysichthon,

causing whatever he ate to only increase his hunger. In the end, Erysichthon consumed


everything, right down to his family and even himself! Robinson draws the parallel that Western

culture is obsessed with profits, considering nothing in the natural world sacred when profits are

at stake. In turn we in the West seem to be cursed with an insatiable appetite for consumption.

“We have severed our connection to the very source of life, and as a result we are possessed by

an ever-growing hunger that we try to fill by consuming more and more, in the process

destroying the very fabric of life that sustains us” (Robinson, 2009, p. 27). Through the use of

story, Robinson skillfully illustrates what happens when humans fail to recognize their

interrelatedness with the earth. However, his logical conclusions might carry far more weight in

psychological academia were a few statistics regarding the demise of our natural world and

levels of human consumption inserted here.

In line with Robinson’s theories, Roszak introduces the idea of collective societal mental

illness in the following chapter of Ecotherapy. Roszak asserts “It is ‘crazy’ to destroy the ozone

layer in order to enjoy the convenience of spray cans…. It is ‘crazy’ to wipe out magnificent

wilderness areas or valuable farmland to build shopping malls and parking lots…. ….There are

fabulously wealthy CEOs who are literally killing themselves on the job to make another million

– and taking down whole rainforests with them” (Roszak 2009, p 35).

The authors would have benefited by adding some science to this conversation. In these

cases, both Robinson and Roszak are using psychological language, one the language of

narrative and the other referencing insanity. Again, such strong assertions could have benefited

by some easily located statistical backing. For example, approximately 80,000 acres of rainforest

are destroyed daily while another 80,000 are damaged daily. “Along with this loss and

degradation, we are losing some 135 plant, animal, and insect species every day—

or some 50,000 species a year—as the forests fall” (Scientific American Website,


2009). This discussion of nature disassociation uses psychological language, but due to the lack

of scientific citations stops just short of being a conversation that would be accepted

academically in either scientific field of ecology or psychology. As such, it provides a clear

illustration of why many in the field of ecopsychology are urging for a more scientific approach

(Hoelterhoff, 2010). It is not that ecopsychologists are making far-fetched assumptions; they just,

as a whole, are not citing existing science.

How and why therapists turn to ecopsychology. Thus far Ecotherapy has made clear the

impact of the human/nature disconnection and illustrated the need for science to be part of the

ongoing ecopsychology conversation (Buzzell & Chalquist, 2009). The second strength of

Ecotherapy: Healing with Nature in Mind lies in the personal stories of how and why therapists

are making the human/nature connection (Buzzell & Chalquist, 2009). Such stories serve as

more than inspiration by illuminating the many modalities available for reconnecting people with

the earth. Psychotherapist Mary-Jayne Rust, who facilitates ecopsychology training for other

therapists, relates that when the pain of the natural world begins to overwhelm therapists they

may be prompted to turn to concepts of ecopsychology to facilitate healing in conjunction with

nature (Rust, 1999, pp. 37-45). Some of the issues she lists that might trigger this shift include

the suffering of factory farmed animals, the destruction of rainforests and other native habitats

that lead to the desecration of natural species including the humans dependent upon those

habitats and species, and the stress over the world we are creating for our children. “Therapists

become ecotherapists when we feel this pain and look at nature (both our own human nature as

well as the natural world) as a teacher and source of healing; when we see that human suffering

is intimately connected with the destruction of the web of life, and that healing is about making

deep changes in the way we live and relate to the world around us” (Rust, 2009, p.38).


How to conduct an interview from an ecopsychological framework. Buzzell not only

served as one of the editors of Ecotherapy, but also authored a chapter on interviewing (Buzzell,

2009, pp. 46-54). Here she explains that in ecotherapy, healing is facilitated by focusing on the

interrelatedness of humans with natural processes (Buzzell, 2009, p. 46). In such a paradigm,

some of the initial questions the therapist asks will be vastly different from the interview

techniques typically taught to psychology students. An opening question might be, “Are you

living in harmony with nature – your own nature as a human animal and the larger nature that

embraces us all? And are your natural needs being met with current career and lifestyle?”

(Buzzell, 2009, p. 53). Ensuing questions might focus on who or what the client spends the most

time with (nature, machines, animals, technology); if the client had a favorite place in nature as a

child; when the client has felt closest to the deep mysteries of life (many relate that nature is

sacred to them); questions related to pace of life and/or voluntary simplicity; how much exercise

the client gets in nature; the relationship between the client and where his or her food comes

from; concerns over environmental issues and the world children will inherit, and other such

questions (Buzzell, 2009, pp. 46-54).

Modalities in applied ecopsychology. To heal the rift between the client’s deepest nature

and the natural world, Buzzell goes on to explain that therapists may utilize many modalities:

“horticultural therapy, animal-assisted therapy, eco-dreamwork, body therapies to connect with

one’s‘inner’ wild nature, nature counseling, wilderness pilgrimages, ecospirituality, ecofeminism

and reconnecting with the archetypal feminine in nature, voluntary simplicity circles and

recovery from consumerism, alternative careers in the emerging sustainable society and many

more” such as mindfulness, meditation, and art. (Buzzell, 2009, p. 54; Naropa, 2013; Lenzo,

2001-2002).


In the numerous interview questions and therapy modalities discussed in Ecotherapy:

Healing with Nature in Mind, one gets an idea of the plethora of interdisciplinary fields upon

which ecopsychology touches (Buzzell & Chalquist, 2009). Furthermore, therapists are provided

with a clear qualitative discussion of applied ecopsychology. Were the many ideas in this book

enhanced by the addition of some brief statistics, such as the ones added above about rainforest

destruction, Ecotherapy: Healing with Nature in Mind might have quickly gained a voice in

academia. Yet, despite the lack of science, the wealth of detail regarding applied ecopsychology

makes it a valuable qualitative text.

Ecopsychology. In 2009, Doherty became founder and editor-in chief of the first peer

reviewed journal of ecopsychology, titled simply Ecopsychology (Wheeler, 2011). He asserts

that it was “… his experience as a river guide in the Grand Canyon and his work as a wilderness

therapy leader that opened his eyes to our multifaceted connections to nature” (Wheeler, 2011).

The development of the journal Ecopsychology arose out of his earlier development of

Sustainable Self, an ecopsychological private practice that applies concepts of sustainability,

most often referenced in nature, to understanding one’s self (Wheeler, 2011). The purpose of

Ecopsychology which is published quarterly is stated as follows:

Ecopsychology seeks to reshape modern psychology by showing that it cannot stand

apart from an intimate human connection with the natural environment. We need that

connection with nature to do well mentally and physically, let alone to flourish, as

individuals and as a species. Against this backdrop, the Journal publishes original

scientific research articles, as well as theoretical papers, case studies, nature writing,

and reviews of important books and other media (Liebert, n.d.).


Peter H. Kahn. In the spring of 2013, Peter H. Kahn Jr. became editor in chief of

Ecopsychology. Kahn heads up the Human Interaction with Nature and Technological Systems

(HINTS) Lab at the University of Washington which addresses both the widespread destruction

of nature and the increasing prevalence of technology from a psychological standpoint (Liebert

n.d.). In discussing the future of the field, Kahn takes the both/and approach to the humanities

versus science debate brought up earlier in this review. He proposes to keep nature writings in

the journal while also pushing for more science in agreement with the argument that many

academics will ignore ecopsychology apart from science: “Such scientific evidence is not the last

word in ecopsychology, but for some people it can be the first” (Liebert, n.d.).

Paul Stevens. Dr. Paul Stevens is editor of the European Journal of Ecopsychology,

somewhat the European equivalent of the American Ecopsychology journal reviewed above.

Because it was first published in 2010 and there are only three issues it can be reviewed in brief

more completely than the American journal. The first issue skims ecopsychology’s history and

then delves deeply into its undergirding philosophies. As such it is a recommended reference

point for any reader who wants to further understand the science versus humanities debate

(Stevens, 2010). Subsequent issues cover subjects as diverse as an ecological perspective on the

etiology and treatment of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder; the spiritual views of nature protestors;

and the ever relevant topic of the place of science in ecopsychological research which will be

delved into more in the conclusion of this review (Stevens, 2011).

While The European Journal of Ecopsychology recognizes and often discusses the need

for more science in its field, the majority of the articles are still confined to the humanities. It

does not include the scientific studies and book reviews that are a strong academic voice in the

American journal Ecopsychology.

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http://click.liebertpubmail.com/?qs=f755ec0e2b585f0cd0b5c4b3964d86df1ece18f4bdf0485d600b03c64e9f92b9


Eva M. Selhbub and Alan C. Logan. In order to synthesize the vast amount of scientific

research done thus far and published in diverse journals, Harvard trained physician Eva M.

Selhbub and naturopathic doctor Alan C. Logan wrote Your Brain on Nature, published just

recently in 2012. In slightly over 300 pages this book gives a detailed, yet concise history and

scientific background of the field of ecopsychology as a whole. In the opening paragraphs, the

authors address the humanities versus science debate. “Throughout the ages, and across cultures,

philosophers, poets, nature writers, and outdoor enthusiasts have extolled the mentally

rejuvenating and uplifting power of nature. But what of the science…” (Selhbub & Logan, 2012,

p.1)? Sehlbub and Logan continue on to address ecopsychology from every conceivable

interdisciplinary vantage point: everything from the benefits of nature’s foods, to the advantages

of nature in urban and industrial settings, to meditation in nature and more. The book provides a

clear, concise overview of the field of ecopsychology in a layperson’s language.

Scientific Evidence for the Healing Power of Nature

Biophilia

For the last five billion years, humans lived with intimate daily interactions with nature.

We were a part of the natural world, dependent upon nature for food, shelter and clothing, as

much a part of nature as the animals and trees around us (Sehlbub & Logan, 2012). The ability to

live one’s life completely removed from the natural world is a product of recent history,

spanning the industrial and technological ages of the last century or so only. Harvard trained

biologist E.O. Wilson coined the term Biophilia literally meaning “love for living things” and

used more broadly to describe an ingrained affinity for nature, the evolutionary theory that our

physiological processes have evolved to function at peak health only when in relationship to the


natural world, the habitat in which we have evolved (Wilson, 1984). Despite the emplacement of

ecopsychology outside of the mainstream academic and scientific conversation, the fact is that

there are many scientific studies which establish a strong positive relationship between nature

and human health. “What started as a trickle of scientific inquiry in the 1970’s has transformed

into a formidable body of research” (Sehlbub & Logan, 2012, p. 1). However, such studies are

being published in journals of multiple disciplines and rarely reference the word

“ecopsychology.” This review will first give a brief overview of studies in which elements of

nature were brought into the industrialized, human-made world - nature in built environments -

and will then delve more deeply into research that explores the effects of people going out into

nature.

The Addition of Nature to Industrial Settings

There is an entire scientific body of research exploring the impact of adding isolated

elements of nature, for example houseplants, to human-built environments. This research

illustrates the profoundly positive impact that small bits of nature can have when brought into the

technological, industrial, urban environment. Numerous studies have found that adding single

elements of nature to offices, schools, prisons, hospitals, and urban areas can make a large

positive difference.

Office workers and students are just one population that can benefit from nature.

Extensive research in multiple cultures has found providing office workers with views of nature,

whether through windows, in pictures, or via houseplants can greatly reduce both perceived and

physiological measurements of stress (Chang, 2008a; Chang 2008b; Fjeld et al, 1998; Fjeld &

Bonnevei, 2002; Burchett et al, 2010). Furthermore, such views can also decrease mental fatigue


and increase cognitive attention span. (van den berg, 2003; Staats et al, 2003; Kim & Mattson,

2008). The same is true for students. Lower stress hormones were measured in students in an

outdoor classroom versus the typical institutionalized, indoor classroom setting (Sehlbub, 2013;

Park 2008). It is for these reasons that the majority of this paper is being written outside with a

view to gardens, woods, and animals. For those individuals working in an indoor environment,

the simple and low-cost addition of some houseplants to one’s desk, or just some nature pictures,

can have a profound positively affect (Bringslimark, 2008; Fjeld 1998; Fjeld & Bonnevai, 2002).

Plants in offices not only improve cognitive performance but also decrease the likelihood of sick

leave by up to 60% and can reduce the likelihood of work related anger, anxiety, depression, and

fatigue by 40-50% (Yamane et al, 2004; Bringslimark et al, 2008; Fjeld et al, 1998; Fjeld &

Bonnevai, 2002).

Offices and schools are not the only institutional setting in which the addition of some

natural materials can be of significance. One study found that prisoners with cell windows

looking out on nature have fewer health problems than prisoners without views (Moore, 1981).

The effect of nature is so profound that it can reduce pain and speed healing in hospital

settings as well. Simple nature scenes and plants have the power to reduce pain and discomfort

(Lohr & Pearson-Mims, 2000; Park et al, 2004; Park et al, 2008; Park et al, 2009; Vincent et al,

2010). And again, windows with nature views, plants, and pictures of nature have all been found

beneficial in hospitals where they serve as effective aids in the recovery of patients from surgery,

ranging from abdominal surgery to major heart surgery (Ulrich et al, 1993; Ulrich et al, 1984;

Kim & Mattson, 1998; Park et al, 2009; Park et al, 2008; Vincent et al, 2010).


Extensive social science research has elaborated on the negative impact of living in a

poor, urban environment and the added advantages of more green space (Lederbogen et al, 2011;

Verheig et al, 2008; Maas et al, 2006; Sugiyama et al, 2008). Several studies have found that the

presence of nature views and parks mitigates the primal amygdala stress response in both

children and adults (Wells & Evans, 2003; van den berg et al, 2010). The fact that the simple

addition of some nature can alter brain patterns in response to negative life events makes nature a

powerful tool for building resiliency in people (Younis et al, 2008; Wells, 2000; Ulrich, 1979).

Shinrin-Yoku

Some of the highest quality scientific research on ecopsychology has come out of Japan

where research has focused on the effects of bringing people back into the natural world to walk

and relax, contrasting this with walks and relaxation in more industrial settings. The Japanese

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries coined the term “Shinrin-yoku” or “forest

bathing” in 1982 to describe the process of people “making contact with and taking in the

atmosphere of the forest” (Park et al, 2008, p. 18.) What began as a marketing term ended up

validated by extensive research in the following decades. Each of these studies’ design methods

were stellar: people were randomly assigned to groups; confounding variables were extensively

accounted for; base-line data was collected; and a variety of objective, physiological

measurements were taken at regular time-points. For example, one Shinrin-yoku study, published

in 2010 included 280 participants (ages 21.7 +/- 1.5 years) in 24 different forests in Japan (Park

et al, 2010). Each study cohort included 12 participants, six of whom were assigned randomly to

begin in the forest and six of whom were assigned randomly to begin in the city. The next day

participants went to the other area as a cross-check. All participants kept the same vacation type

schedule with set times for rising, meals, walks, seated viewing times, and bedtime. After


breakfast, before and after walking, and before and after viewing, various physiological

measurements were taken: salivary cortisol, blood pressure, pulse rate and heart rate variability

(Park et al, 2010). The study was outstanding in its consideration of controls. Physical

environmental factors controlled for included temperature, humidity, radiant heat, wind speed,

atmospheric pressure, and level of sunlight. Amongst participants, level of exercise during the

walks was accounted for as a possible confounding variable; alcohol and nicotine were

prohibited, and caffeine was limited (Park et al, 2010). As noted earlier, all participants were in

the same age bracket. Study outcomes showed lower blood pressure, lower pulse rate, lower

heart rate variability, lower cortisol, and higher measurements of a relaxed parasympathetic

nervous system at the times when participants were in the forest versus in the city revealing that

nature has a profoundly positive affect upon people.

Furthermore, the article in which this research was published also reviewed nine earlier

studies on Shinrin-yoku – every single one of which had found lower stress measures from

relaxing and walking in nature versus relaxing and walking in the city (Park et al, 2010, p. 21).

The study authors concluded with a reference to Biophilia, “From the perspective of

physiological anthropology, human beings have lived in nature for most of the 5 million years of

their existence. Therefore their physiological functions are most suited to natural settings. This is

the reason why the natural environment can enhance relaxation” (Park et al, 2010, p. 23).One

wonders why not one of these ten peer-reviewed, scientific studies, not to mention the studies

listed earlier on the effects of nature on those in various institutions, were included in many of

the books reviewed above.


Human Awareness of Nature Connectedness

Clearly humans benefit from connecting with the natural world, but are humans aware of

this connection? One study conducted in Korea over the summer and autumn of 2003 found

people exhibited an awareness of the positive psychosocial benefits resulting from time in nature.

Researchers interviewed 2,292 visitors to urban park areas with a structured interview of 16

questions, derived from information in a literature review and professional interviews and

designed to measure the perceived psychosocial outcomes of time in urban parks. Answers were

given on a Likert scale. The data was analyzed for significance, and the significant factors were

further analyzed in an ANOVA to determine the relationship of each significant item to

independent variables such as age, gender, and education. The study’s authors note that the

interview refusal rate was less than 1% making any chance of response bias low. “Overall, the

results of this study suggest that visitors to 12 urban forest parks rated psychosocial outcomes as

moderately important to extremely important” (Shin et al, 2003, p. 445). Those who were older

and had more education rated the health benefits as more significant than others (Shin et al,

2003).

fMRI Studies

Researchers have discovered through the use of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

(fMRI) that people also gravitate toward nature on a subconscious level, below the level of

cognitive perception. fMRI goes a step beyond typical MRI scanning technology, allowing

scientists to see which area of the brain is activated by various experiences. Because fMRI

bypasses the conscious cognitive and affective systems and measures subconscious brain

activity, participants cannot respond in a biased manor. As a result, fMRI provides one of the

most objective means of scientific study – and such studies are providing strong evidence for


Biophilia (Kim, G.W. et al, 2011). For example, in an fMRI experiment done with infants too

young to have obtained social conditioning, researchers discovered that the brain responded in

fear to images of spiders, a potential threat in our evolutionary history (Lobue et al, 2010). In

other studies, researchers have exposed adult populations to one-tenth-of-a-second glimpses of

both nature and urban scenes. The subjects’ brains responded more positively to the

subconscious views of nature than they did to subconscious views of urban settings (Kim G.W.

et al, 2010; Kim T.H. et al, 2010). In particular scientists found that nature scenes activate an

area of the brain high in opiode receptors, meaning that seeing nature is like giving the brain a

drop of a natural opiate – decreasing pain, stress, and depression and increasing feelings of

wellness (Yue et al, 2007). These studies only give a brief overview of the vast field of fMRI

research. Nonetheless, they provide clear and perhaps fascinating evidence of how the human

brain is wired to respond positively to nature.

The Nature Relatedness Scale

Clearly, nature is good for us! Conversely, what is good for us humans is in turn good for

nature. Ecopsychology holds that planetary and personal health are interconnected, and

researchers have found that recognition of self as an interdependent part of nature has proven to

be the best motivation for environmental care and ecological justice as well as a sense of

happiness (Roszak & Cann, n.d.; Nisbet et al, 2009; Nisbet et al, 2011). For years,

environmentalists used guilt or fear to promote pro-environmental behaviors, yet current research

is finding such tactics only create a feeling of hopelessness (Roszak & Cann, n.d.; Nisbet et al,

2009). The Nature Relatedness Scale, a psychological test with high construct validity, measures

affective, cognitive, and experiential aspects of an individual’s connectedness to nature, their

“nature relatedness” or NR; and repeated use of this test has found that pro-environmental


behaviors arise out of feelings of affinity for nature and the recognition of our Biophila.

Therefore it would seem that one of the best things that can be done for both human health and

the health of the environment is to reconnect people with nature.

Conclusion

This brief literature review, highlighting some of the major voices, books, journals, and

scientific studies of the last 21 years since the term ecopsychology was coined, clearly illustrates

a bourgeoning, interdisciplinary field of study and strong evidence of the human/nature

connection. At present, the challenge remaining is to bring this field into the mainstream

academic world where its ideas can facilitate healing through application in diverse fields such as

therapy and public policy. Indeed, it was Roszak’s original goal that ecology and psychology, as

interdependent cross-disciplinary fields of study, would affect public policy (Roszak, 1992). At

present, there seems to be a field-wide consensus that this move into the mainstream can only be

facilitated by greater attention to science (Jordan et al, 2010). Yet some argue that science is a

colonialist paradigm interested in conquering all that is wild and natural and in turn the very

paradigm responsible for the destruction of indigenous people groups and the natural

environment (Hoelteffer 2010). There is further concern that science claims discoveries of

knowledge that indigenous people have held for millennia (Gone, 2007). Perhaps it would be

most helpful for ecopsychology to embrace science but not leave its indigenous roots, taking a

both/and approach to scholarly endeavors. In practical terms this would mean giving equal

credence to both qualitative and quantitative studies rather than subjugating qualitative

interviews of local knowledge to the supposed superiority of the scientific method as is common


practice in psychology. Peter Kahn, the new editor-in-chief of the peer reviewed Ecopsychology

addresses just such issues and the future of the field in a sensitive and skillful manner.

The field needs to be revisioned. It emerged as part of the counter-culture movement in the 1960s.

As Roszak (1968) wrote: “The only reason all this [ecopsychology] ever had to be a counter culture

was because the culture it opposed—that of reductionist science, ecocidal industrialism, and

corporate regimentation—was too small a vision of life to lift the spirit” (p. 12). But science need not

be paired only with such ecocidal industrialism characterizations but with that which is deeply

beautiful of who we have become as a species over the last 50,000 years: inquisitive, creative,

investigative, analytic, reflective, and self-reflective. And we are also now a technological species.

Our science and technology have led to artifacts practical and sublime. The Hubble telescope, for

example, has provided access to times and spaces within and beyond our comprehension. Thus the

challenge for a revisioned ecopsychology—which I see this journal taking up—is to embrace our

totemic self and to integrate that with our scientific culture and technological self. That doesn’t

mean we don’t critique science and technology in the process or seek to understand how our

adapting to technologies can undermine human flourishing (Kahn, 2011). But science and

technology are not the enemy. If we think they are, then not only is that, in my view, an intellectual

error, but we would be making ecopsychology largely irrelevant to most everybody in the world

today. (Leibert, n.d.)

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web viewthis paper is being written in a lovely “office” space on backyard patio...

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