Eliminating Child Slavery in West Africa:

The Ethical Problems within the Production of Cocoa and the Policies

Needed for Change

i

To: The US Department of Labor President John Dramani Mahama- Ghana

President Alassane Ouattara- The Ivory CoastThe Nestle Executive Board

From: Madison Farley

Date: May 9, 2016

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Table of Contents

Executive Summary.....................................………………………………………………..... 3Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………….. 5Why Child Slavery Exists Today………………………………………………………………..6 Child Slavery within the West African Cocoa Industry ..…………………………….7 How to Discontinue Child Slavery in West African Cocoa Production………..9 Policy Recommendations: Businesses ……………………………………………………..10 Policy Recommendations: Government…………………………………………………..12 Policy Recommendations: Society and the Individual……………………………. 14 Conclusion………………………………………….………………………………………………... 15Works Cited………………………………………….……………………………………………….16

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Executive Summary Child slavery today remains a crisis worldwide, and affects 215 million

children globally. This illegal activity is categorized as someone who works below

the minimum working age and/or performs dangerous jobs, according to Anti-

Slavery International.ii In both developed and developing nations, children slaves

are utilized as a cheap labor source that can easily be manipulated and taken

advantage of. In the West African countries of Ghana and the Ivory Coast alone,

some 2.1 million children are forced to labor on cocoa crop plantations, where many

work extremely long hours and perform unsafe jobs for no compensation. In

communities where children are forced to work in certain industries, the cycle of

poverty and social misconduct continues.

Child slavery is a multifaceted and a difficult human rights violation to

address. There is no single guilty perpetrator, and the reasons for child slaves to

exist in certain regions and within certain contexts are understandable, yet still

completely inhumane and wrong. Due to the multiple factors contributing to the

existence of child slavery, the problem will only be resolved with the collaboration

of multiple actions, peoples, and institutions. Only with this collaboration can the

system of child slavery be broken down permanently.

The issue of forced child labor in West Africa within the supply chains of

chocolate companies can only be solved with the use of policy reform and new

policy creation. Policy changes must be demanded from the government, the

corporate, and the societal and individual levels, and these changes must be made in

agreement with all three of these groups to ensure that these policies are taken

seriously and followed accordingly. The corruption within the cocoa production in

Ghana and the Ivory Coast will only be stopped with more severe policy reforms

from chocolate corporations and the governments of the US and these African

nations. Society must become aware of the mistreatment of children on these cocoa

farms. There needs to be a greater awareness for the dangers that arise from child

slavery and forced child labor. If educational materials were made available to the

West African cocoa plantations and farmers along with financial support to help

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cocoa farms transition from using child slaves to instead employing appropriately

aged workers with pay, the system of child slavery would weaken and eventually be

unable to sustain itself. Finally, the cocoa industry must incorporate total

transparency within their business transactions and supply chains. Without

transparency, corruption may linger and these child slaves may never be freed from

their horrific lifestyle.

iii Child Slave on Cocoa Plantation, West Africa

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Introduction

Child slavery has existed since the institution of slavery itself, and

unfortunately continues to perpetuate into the 21st century. Child slaves exist for a

multitude of reasons; it’s a form of cheap, if not free, labor, and is heavily facilitated

by human trafficking. The differences between child labor and child slavery vary

minimally in many peoples’ views. Child labor can be legal, yet in many cultures is

still frowned upon. Child slavery is categorized as work that can be mentally or

physically damaging, and work that deprive a child from education. In many

instances, the work of child slaves involves hazardous action and can be extremely

dangerous.iv According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), approximately

59 million African children ages 5 to 17 are classified as child slaves.v

The International Labor Organization estimates that 5% of all child slaves

work for “formal export-related industries”.vi Although child slaves can be found all

over the world in both wealthy and poorer nations, child slavery remains a large

and somewhat uncontrollable issue for many African countries. In particular, child

slavery is a serious problem that the cocoa industry has been dealing with since the

early 2000’s when it was discovered that child slaves were heavily involved in the

supply chains of many large chocolate corporations such as Nestle, Hershey, and

Mars.

The countries of Ghana and the Ivory Coast suffer from certain corruptions

affiliated with the cocoa industry. Both of these countries are two of the largest

sources of cocoa production globally, and thus cocoa beans are both competitive and

highly sought after in these two countries. Although demand is high, cocoa farmers

are paid little for their extremely strenuous work. The manual labor needed to

harvest cocoa is large, and paying for outsourced help can be expensive and a fee

many farmers would opt not to have if they had the choice. Farmers today do have

that choice, because many opt to use the forced labor of imported children, as well

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as maybe their own kin. Unfortunately child slavery is a way of life in the cocoa

industry of West Africa, and will remain so if no greater action is taken.

vii

Why Child Slavery Exists Today

Child slavery and the trafficking that has sustained such slavery are due to

the culture of poverty and the acculturation of child slaves within West African

countries. Traditionally there is a long history of child trafficking, or giving away

children, in African countries. Many parents give up their children in hopes of

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providing them with better economic and social opportunities, believing that they

will gain richer lives outside of their home villages.viii Some families even willingly

give away their children to traffickers because they believe any other type of life

would be better than the one they live currently. Because of this trend, many

traffickers can profit off of trafficking and have formed partnerships with local cocoa

plantations, providing these farmers with a source of cheap and oftentimes free

labor.

Such exploitation of children in the cocoa production in West Africa can also

be largely attributed to the systematic failures within the political, economic, and

social infrastructures of these countries. Ghana and the Ivory Coast do not have the

economic means to ensure all children have birth certificates, and when traffickers

take children across borders it is hard to legitimize where those children are coming

from. Cocoa plantations profit from these lacking infrastructures and thus employ

the labor of millions of child slaves in order to produce products, either with or

without the particular chocolate corporation’s knowledge. However, since it has

been found out that the supply chains of companies such as Nestle contain child

slavery, it should now be a responsibility that companies must undertake and

resolve as soon as manageably possible. This requires large sums of money and

stricter laws to be created and adhered to, and will require the cooperation of all

parties affected.

The top dogs of the chocolate industry such as Nestle now have an obligation

to rid the child slavery from their supply chains in order to become ethically sound

and sustainable companies. The main issue within the chocolate industry is that the

supply chains are exceedingly complex, and it is hard for the corporation to monitor

every part within this supply chain closely. Nestle among its competitors must adopt

a more advanced management monitoring system that allows for them to be

confident that every nodule within their supply chain is ethical and that child slaves

are not part of the equation. Nestle must communicate clearly and honestly to

themselves internally, as well as present a transparent image of themselves to the

public. Child slavery cannot and should stop being tolerated by corporations and the

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government, and needs to become a main priority of both of these groups

respectively.

Child Slavery within the West African Cocoa Industry

The extent to which child slavery occurs within the cocoa industry of West

Africa is hard to accurately put numbers to. In Ghana and the Ivory Coast alone,

roughly two million households grow cocoa crops. Out of all of these cocoa farms, on

average there are one to two child workers out of every 10 working to harvest

cocoa.ix The United States Labor Department estimates that in the year 2013-2014,

2.1 million children were child labors on cocoa farms. These children are not all

child slave laborers; some may be the children of the farmers and thus could be

providing safe, innocent work to their families that is productive and could be

beneficial to the development of these children. However, many of these children

have been removed from their families and brought to these cocoa plantations to

work long hours, not receive payment for their work, and be deprived of

recreational activities and school.x A majority of these 2.1 million children are

performing hazardous work, which was proven through research accomplished by

the Assessing Progress In Reducing Child Labor in Cocoa-Growing Areas of Cote

d’Ivoire and Ghana.xi

Child slavery in Ghana and the Ivory Coast on cocoa farms has become a

social normality. Over half of the world’s cocoa production comes from Ghana and

the Ivory Coast.xii Due to this fact there are so many cocoa farmers and producers

are competing to sell their beans, farmers must stay competitive and thus increase

their workforce to produce more sellable output. Workers are expensive and many

of these farmers are poor, so child laborers seem to be the best and most cost-

effective solution.xiii Because of these preconceived notions and in order to fully

address the issue of child slavery within the cocoa industry, everyone involved in

the harvesting of cocoa must become aware of the detrimental and life threatening

effects child slavery has on the development and wellbeing of children. Only through

the dissemination of knowledge, education, and the financial aid from the chocolate

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corporations and affected governments will there be any effective changes made to

stop child slavery in West African cocoa production.

xiv

How to

Discontinue Child Slavery in West African Cocoa Production

With issues such as child slavery, there is not one offender or perpetrator of

the problem. Child slavery is a complex social construct that can only be stopped

with the assistance of each stakeholder involved. Most successes are achieved only

through partnerships and the collaboration among multiple key players. In order for

a collaborative work effort to achieve success, there must be clear and honest

communication and everyone involved must possess the same, truthful information

in order to make informed and ethically-based decisions. Responsibility here lies

within the hands of not one, but many.

Although the child slavery in this case is occurring in African countries, other

governments must realize their involvement and help address the issue. That is

because the chocolate companies who are buying their cocoa from farmers who use

child slaves are allowing for the continuation of this slavery. The respective

governments, such as the US government, must create stricter regulations for the

chocolate companies in terms of purchasing the raw material of cocoa. The

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governments must also intervene with corporations and ensure that these

transnational companies are paying the cocoa farmers stable, fair salaries. If salaries

were to increase for the farmers, they would lead more stable lives and there would

be a greater chance for them to not need child slaves as a means of a workforce.

Child slavery in West Africa has become ingrained in these cultures and is

sadly part of the export-industry’s operations. Many who are involved in the

harvesting and production of the cocoa beans on these West African cocoa farms fail

to realize the destruction they are causing to the children who are forced to work

for them. If knowledge about the harms child slavery inflicts on children were more

widely accessible and distributed, and alternative work options were shown to

these cocoa farmers, there would be a larger group of cocoa farmers opposed to this

type of labor. Although corporate responsibility will be a key determining factor for

whether or not child slavery is eradicated in the cocoa industry, there must be a

more fluid and greater presence of a social dialogue surrounding child slave labor.

According to the ILO, social dialogue is one of the most promising tools to

eliminate child slave labor. Social dialogue is one of the core parts of the ILO’s action

and constitutional mandate. It can exist as both a tripartite or bipartite process,

depending on whether the government needs to be involved. Social dialogue

encourages the promotion of “better wages and working conditions as well as peace

and social justice.”xv With social dialogue, all stakeholders are given a voice and it

provides a space for negotiations to occur. Relevant information is accessible to all

parties, no one party is favored over another, and there is a strong commitment to

collective bargaining.xvi Tools such as open communication, corporate transparency,

the dissemination of knowledge and education, and society’s commitment to fight

human injustices can all help eliminate child slavery in West Africa. The

collaboration of all stakeholders and the commitment to put ending child slavery at

the top of the agenda will determine how effectively the problem is addressed.

Policy Recommendations: Businesses

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Businesses need to realize that their actions and behaviors towards issues

such as child slavery reflect upon their corporate image, values, and culture. It is in

the corporation’s favor to act responsibly and ethically, and in the long run this in

turn will benefit them and undoubtedly sustain their business efforts more

effectively than their competitors who chose to ignore certain corporate

responsibilities. In order for child slavery to be eliminated in the supply chains of

chocolate companies operating in Ghana and the Ivory Coast, these said businesses

must adopt more transparent policies and communication to prove that they have

nothing to hide and that child slavery is not part of their supply chain operations.

To efficiently reduce and soon after eliminate altogether child slavery in

West Africa, industries operating in these affected countries should allocate a

percentage of their profits to ending the human rights violations found throughout

their supply chains. Although some companies may believe it is not in their skillset

to tackle such large issues, or they may feel that these problems are too far removed

from their business operations, it is imperative that businesses involved in these

West African countries realize their contribution to the perpetuation of child slavery

there.xvii It is only with the help of businesses that the exploitation of innocent

children can be terminated within the cocoa production of Ghana and the Ivory

Coast.

Companies such as Nestle have responded to the crisis of child slavery within

their supply chains so-so. Nestle has begun various initiatives aimed at monitoring

and reducing forced child labor, but it is unclear whether or not these programs and

projects have had success or are making positive change. One such initiative is the

Nestle Cocoa Plan established in 2009. Nestle pledged $110 million towards the

mission of improving the lives of their cocoa farmers.xviii Another venture they plan

on implementing in 2016 is the Child Labor Monitoring and Remediation System.xix

Although Nestle has published reports on these said efforts among others, these

reports are hard to navigate, worded vaguely, and the outcomes are unclear. Nestle

is in desperate need of transparency which they must become soon if they want to

be credible with the public.

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The power, wealth, and influence that companies such as Nestle possess are

overwhelming, and could be leveraged in favor of reducing and eventually

eliminating child slavery within their cocoa supply chains. When companies detect

child labor anywhere within their operations, businesses should respond

immediately and “transition [those children] from forced work into good quality

education.”xx To put this into perspective, Nestle’s sales were $100 billion in 2014.

Comparatively, the combined GDP of Ghana and the Ivory Coast is just $73 billion.xxi

This drastic difference in relative measurement of wealth shows the inequities

within the cocoa industry and is a telling sign that economic shifts need to be made.

A large portion of cocoa farmers in Ghana and the Ivory Coast live below the poverty

line, and this poverty encourages the use of child slaves.

Companies must also communicate directly with the suppliers, in this case

cocoa farmers, and agree on the arrangement that unless all child forced labor is

stopped, the company will discontinue business relations with that particular

plantation. Companies should also recognize that solving issues revolving around

child slavery will take time, so it is crucial that the companies give the supplier time

to arrange for the children laborers to leave. However, it may not be in every child

laborer’s best interest to simply be sent back to their families or homes. Some

children might have been given away willingly to traffickers who sent them to the

cocoa farms, and sending them back could have significant downsides for the

children. Corporations must fund programs for the children who are unable to go

back to their homes, providing education and care, which are stated in Article 4 of

the ETI Base Code.xxii

Policy Recommendations: Government

At the end of the day, it is in the hands of governments to enact the rules and

laws that both individuals and corporate entities must adhere to in order to operate.

Dealing with eradicating child slavery in West African cocoa plantations requires the

work of many governments because this is a transnational issue due to the business

trade and transactions surrounding the cocoa production.

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It is not only the responsibility of West African governments to end child

slavery in their respective countries. Any government who has any kind of stake in

the West African countries severely plagued with child slavery and trafficking has an

obligation to stop this cyclic abuse from occurring. If we want to see real changes

made, than all concerned governments must play a role in ending these human

rights violations.

Governments must create legislation forbidding the use of child labor, and

ensure that corporations understand the severity of these laws, and the

repercussions of not following them. The US government and US Department of

Labor need to facilitate laws ordering US transnational companies to operate

specifically under US laws. The US government must assure West African countries

that their trading partnerships will remain strong even with the economic and

political shifts that must happen in order to end child slavery. For example, cocoa

beans will be just as necessary to US companies such as Nestle and Hershey even

with labor reforms on cocoa plantations and farms in Ghana and the Ivory Coast.

West African governments may believe that it is in their best interests

economically to turn a blind eye to the issue of child slavery, in order to maintain

relations with foreign industries and companies who purchase their goods and raw

materials from these West African countries, such as the US.xxiii However, demand

for their products and services will remain the same, and such ideas should not

dissuade West African governments from creating strict regulations to end child

trafficking and slavery.

The governments of Ghana and the Ivory Coast must first create a larger,

more legitimate, and high security border control to ensure that children are not

trafficked across borders. This will reduce the number of child slaves, and

eventually slow down and end the current social norm of accepting children as slave

laborers. These African governments should also provide services and educational

programs to local villages in the affected areas, explaining the harms and dangers

associated with child slavery and provide ways for alternative work forces. It should

also be the responsibility of the governments to facilitate workshops and work with

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figures of authority in these communities to raise awareness about child trafficking,

slavery and prove that children should not be subjected to such activities.xxiv

Both Ghana and the Ivory Coast have received subsidies and grants from

countries such as the US, Denmark, and the Netherlands to aid in the fight of

eliminating child slave labor in these regions. Although there have been dozens of

these smaller, more concentrated efforts, they have only scraped the surface of the

issue. In addition to programs to progressively eradicate child slave labor in these

regions, extensive child labor monitoring systems must be implemented and

evaluated regularly to ensure child slave labor is decreasing.xxv Recently child labor

monitoring has evolved from supervising a particular industry to now monitoring

children as they move out of their life as a child slave and into the child protection

service agencies. More importantly, this systematic approach to ensuring the safety

of child slaves focuses on “a coordinated child protection effort involving the

identification, referral, verification and tracking that targeted children are provided

with satisfactory alternatives”,xxvi which should continue in order to keep these ex-

child slaves safe.

Policy Recommendations: Society and the Individual

As consumers of goods, society also has a large role to play in stopping child

slave labor within West Africa. Society’s influence can be a major force prompting

social change, especially when individuals realize crimes are being committed in

order to produce certain products that they are purchasing. Consumer purchasing

power is partially responsible for the continuation of child slave labor in West

Africa, and when society realizes this at large, emotions and outrage may drive them

to demand for companies such as Nestle and the participating governments to enact

policies that prohibit this exploitation of children.

For society to help end child slave labor in West Africa, the first step is for

individuals to learn about the realities of child slavery. Only after becoming aware of

these tragedies can people join with others to then support the cause at large. If

enough individuals come together to support organizations such as Anti-Slavery

International and other human rights organizations, then these groups can gain

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enough influence to be able to change laws, get the attention of governments, and

make corporations act differently and respond to the issues at hand.xxvii

Child slavery in West Africa is not solely an economic problem, but a social

problem as well. Most individuals will not stand for child slavery being part of their

consumption, and if individuals lobby their governments for change and boycott

certain company’s goods, this will have large impacts on the political and economic

scales. With enough people working together, society can have the largest and most

powerful voice and create positive change. Groups such as the International Labor

Organization and other humanitarian groups and human rights activists keep large

followings and maintain power and authority in the realm of policy changes.

Pressure from such groups can make progress towards eliminating child slavery,

but only when they have enough funding and supporters.

Africa continues to be one of the most high-risk continents for child slavery,

with a concentration in West Africa. In order to effectively address the issue of child

slavery in Ghana and the Ivory Coast, policy must be created and followed on the

regional, national, and international levels.xxviii The ILO has announced that recently

a growing number of African countries have begun developing National Action Plans

(NAPs), but these national efforts have slow growth and are not given the attention

or priority necessary to combat child slavery at the rate that it needs. It is a trend

with all national development programs that “child labor programs tend to always

receive low attention.”xxix Although these NAPs among other governmental and

activist programs are well intentioned, they must be moved up the hierarchy of

problems to tackle if child slavery is to be ended in West Africa.

Conclusions

The West African countries of Ghana and the Ivory Coast are plagued with

poverty, minimal and lacking educational infrastructure, and social norms that are

dangerous to the health, safety and welfare of those living in these two nations.

Because of these social, political, economic implications, child slavery thrives in

these environments and is able to operate without much interruption. Industries

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such as chocolate have completely intertwined themselves, whether intentionally or

not, with child slavery and thus must partner with social groups and governments in

order to halt this illegal and cruel work once and for all. Child slaves in West Africa

are suffering at the expense of so many; it’s time to bring them deserved justice.

xxx Child Slaves Harvesting Cocoa Beans, West Africa

Works Cited

“2 million child slaves on cocoa plantations in west Africa.” Visually. n.d. Web. 9 May 2016.

Anti Slavery International. “Cocoa Report 2004.” The Cocoa Industry In West Africa A History of Exploitation. 2004. Web. 6 May 2016.

Anti Slavery International. “Cocoa Report 2010.” Ending Child Trafficking in West Africa. 2010. Web. 6 May 2016.

Australia, World Vision. Campaign for change. World Vision Australia, 2015. Web. 9 May 2016.

“Better lives.” Nestle Cocoa Plan. n.d. Web. 17 Apr. 2016.

“Child Labour.” Anti Slavery. n.d. Web. 9 May 2016.

“Child labour.” Ethical Trade. n.d. Web. 9 May 2016.

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“Child labour in Africa (IPEC).” International Labor Organization. 15 Feb. 2009. Web. 9 May 2016.

“Child labour monitoring (CLM) (IPEC).” International Labor Organization. n.d. Web. 9 May 2016.

Cordier, James. “Hot cocoa may be cooling off.” Trader Planet. TraderPlanet.com, 17 Mar. 2015. Web. 9 May 2016.

e, INKOTA-netzwerk. “Cocoa prices and income of farmers.” Make Chocolate Fair. Make Chocolate Fair!, 26 Oct. 2015. Web. 17 Apr. 2016.

Fong, Janice. Literature Review on Trafficking in West and East Africa. Bankok: Global Alliance against Trafficking in Women, 2004.

Harrison-Dunn, Annie-Rose. “Children and chocolate-The sweet industrys bitterside.”Confectionary News. Victoria Roberts, 30 Jan. 2014. Web. 9 May 2016.

“Nestlé in society - full report 2015.” n.d. Web. 17 Apr. 2016.

O’Keefe, Brian. Inside big chocolate’s child labor problem. “Bitter Sweets.” Fortune, 01 Mar. 2016. Web. 17 Apr. 2016.

Organization, International Labour. “Côte d’Ivoire: Policy.” International Labor Organization. 23 Jan. 2013. Web. 9 May 2016.

“Reducing Child Labor is a Shared Responsibility.” World Cocoa Foundation. 30 July 2015. Web. 17 Apr. 2016.

“Social dialogue and child labour (IPEC).” International Labor Organization. n.d. Web. 9 May 2016.

“Technical Cooperation Project Summary.” U.S. Department of Labor, International Labor Affairs Bureau. 2014. Web. 9 May 2016.

“The Differences Between Child Labor and Child Work.” Voices of Youth. 2013. Web. 9 May 2016.

Wellman, Nathan. “Beware of these 9 popular chocolate brands that exploit child slaves.” US Uncut. U.S. Uncut, 31 Oct. 2015. Web. 9 May 2016.

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i Harrison-Dunn, Annie-Rose. “Children and chocolate-The sweet industrys bitterside.”Confectionary News. Victoria Roberts, 30 Jan. 2014. Web. 9 May 2016.ii Child Labour.” Anti Slavery. n.d. Web. 9 May 2016.iii Wellman, Nathan. “Beware of these 9 popular chocolate brands that exploit child slaves.” US Uncut. U.S. Uncut, 31 Oct. 2015. Web. 9 May 2016.iv “The Differences Between Child Labor and Child Work.” Voices of Youth. 2013. Web. 9 May 2016.v “Child labour in Africa (IPEC).” International Labor Organization. 15 Feb. 2009. Web. 9 May 2016.vi “Child Labour.” Anti Slavery. vii Cordier, James. “Hot cocoa may be cooling off.” Trader Planet. TraderPlanet.com, 17 Mar. 2015. Web. 9 May 2016.viii Fong, Janice. Literature Review on Trafficking in West and East Africa. Bankok: Global Alliance against Trafficking in Women, 2004.ix O’Keefe, Brian. Inside big chocolate’s child labor problem. “Bitter Sweets.” Fortune, 01 Mar. 2016. Web. 17 Apr. 2016.x “Reducing Child Labor is a Shared Responsibility.” World Cocoa Foundation. 30 July 2015. Web. 17 Apr. 2016.xi “Technical Cooperation Project Summary.” U.S. Department of Labor, International Labor Affairs Bureau. 2014. Web. 9 May 2016.xii “Technical Cooperation Project Summary.” xiii e, INKOTA-netzwerk. “Cocoa prices and income of farmers.” Make Chocolate Fair. Make Chocolate Fair!, 26 Oct. 2015. Web. 17 Apr. 2016.xiv added. “2 million child slaves on cocoa plantations in west Africa.” Visually. n.d. Web. 9 May 2016.xv “Social dialogue and child labour (IPEC).” International Labor Organization. n.d. Web. 9 May 2016.xvi “Social dialogue and child labour (IPEC).” xvii Anti Slavery International. “Cocoa Report 2010.” Ending Child Trafficking in West Africa. 2010. Web. 6 May 2016. xviii “Better lives.” Nestle Cocoa Plan. n.d. Web. 17 Apr. 2016.xix “Nestlé in society - full report 2015.” n.d. Web. 17 Apr. 2016.xx “Child labour.” Ethical Trade. n.d. Web. 9 May 2016.xxi O’Keefe, Brian. Inside big chocolate’s child labor problem.xxii “Child labour.” Ethical Tradexxiii Ending Child Trafficking in West Africa. xxiv Anti Slavery International. “Cocoa Report 2004.” The Cocoa Industry In West Africa A History of Exploitation. 2004. Web. 6 May 2016.xxv “Child labour monitoring (CLM) (IPEC).” International Labor Organization. n.d. Web. 9 May 2016.xxvi “Child labour monitoring (CLM) (IPEC).” xxvii The Cocoa Industry In West Africa A History of Exploitation. xxviii Organization, International Labour. “Côte d’Ivoire: Policy.” International Labor Organization. 23 Jan. 2013. Web. 9 May 2016.xxix “Child labour in Africa (IPEC).” xxx Australia, World Vision. Campaign for change. World Vision Australia, 2015. Web. 9 May 2016.