To infer is to draw a reasonable conclusion from the information given. So, rather than explicitly expressing a point, an author may imply / suggest some aspects of characterization, conflict, theme, etc. The reader carefully evaluations these suggestions, and draws supportable conclusions / inferences about the story. Be careful: your reasoning for these

inferences must be strongly supported through textual details / evidence; otherwise your inferences may be weak, unfounded, and incorrect.

Inferences

Context clues are words and phrases in a sentence which help you reason out the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Oftentimes you can figure out the meanings of new or unfamiliar vocabulary by paying attention to the surrounding language.

Vocabulary in Contexthttp://www.mc.cc.md.us/faculty/~steuben/public_html/vocabularycontext.htm

To juxtapose is to place side by side or close together, especially to compare or to contrast.

Juxtapose / Juxtaposition

Characterization: The author's expression of a character's personality through the use of physical description, action, dialogue, thought, or commentary by the narrator or another character. (Purdue Owl)

Character Development: the character’s progress and growth throughout the story

Character Development / Characterization

Elements of a character’s personality that define the nature of the character.

Character Traits

A static character does not change throughout the story. His or her personality remains the same from the beginning through to the end of the story. These are typically minor, flat characters.

Flat characters possess simple personalities. They are typically described as possessing one-dimensional personalities.

Static Characters

Dynamic Characters change during the course of the story. The dynamic character grows emotionally, changes personality, or re-thinks his/her perspective on life as a result of learning through experiences / events in the story. Dynamic characters are typically major, round characters.

Round characters possess a complex, three-dimensional personality.

Dynamic Characters

A protagonist is considered to be the main character or lead figure in a story. Typically, there is one central figure

in a story – the one “spotlighted” throughout the tale. However, some stories include multiple main characters.

Protagonist

The antagonist is a character or force in a story who deceives, frustrates, or works against the main character, or protagonist, in some way.

Antagonisthttp://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htm#s

Theme is a common thread emphasized in the writing. The author will craft the theme through the use of characters, plot, setting, and various literary devices. Significantly, theme involves central

messages in the writing, and therefore stems from author’s purpose.

There may be multiple central / main themes, as well as underlying or minor themes.

Themehttp://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htm

Consider the purpose and significance of the setting in a story. Setting is the time, place, physical details, and

circumstances in which a situation occurs. This includes the environment in which the characters exist, and the physical details of the surroundings.

The author may develop the setting in order to draw the reader into the writing, to aid in the development of characters, or to develop conflict in the story. Setting often plays a significant role in developing theme, as well.

Settinghttp://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htm#s

Consider all aspects of setting when analyzing this element: Mental (Historical Time Period, Culture, Social

attitudes, etc.) Physical (General Region, Climate/Weather,

Nation, Season, Time of Day, and Physical State of the characters: youth, old age, sickness, etc.)

Geographic (mountains, lake, deserts, swamps, etc.)

Setting Aspects

Imagery involves those words / details that create vivid images which are created through detailing aspects of the five senses

Imagery

Mood: The atmosphere that pervades a literary work with the intention of creating a certain emotion or feeling from the audience. In drama, mood may be created by sets and music as well as words; in poetry and prose, mood may be created by a combination of such elements as setting, imagery, and theme.

Moodhttp://rwc.hunter.cuny.edu/reading-writing/on-line/lit-terms.html

What are the three forms of irony?

Irony

Verbal Irony: Sarcasm; you say one thing but mean the opposite. The irony of her reply, “How nice!” when I said I had to work all weekend.

Situational Irony: An outcome of events contrary to what was, or might have been, expected. (the opposite of what you think is going to happen).

Dramatic Irony: The reader/audience knows something that a character does not know

Irony

Internal: in literature - a struggle which takes place in the character's mind and through which the character reaches a new understanding or dynamic change.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/internal+conflict

Conflict

External: in literature - a struggle between a character and some outside force Character vs. Character Character vs. Nature Character vs. Society

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/external+conflict

Conflict

Gustav Freytag was a Nineteenth Century German novelist who saw common patterns in the plots of stories and novels and developed a diagram to analyze them. He diagrammed a story's plot using a pyramid like the one shown here:

http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~hartleyg/250/freytag.html

Exposition & Inciting Incidenthttp://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~hartleyg/250/freytag.html

Exposition: setting the scene. The writer introduces the characters and setting, providing description and background.

Inciting Incident: something happens to begin the action. A single event usually signals the beginning of the main conflict. The inciting incident is sometimes called 'the complication'.

Rising Action: the story builds and gets more exciting

Climax: the moment of greatest tension in a story. This is often the most exciting event. It is the event that the rising action builds up to and that the falling action follows.

Rising Action and Climaxhttp://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~hartleyg/250/freytag.html

Falling Action: events happen as a result of the climax and we know that the story will soon end.

Resolution: the character solves the main problem/conflict or someone solves it for him or her.

Falling Action and Resolutionhttp://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~hartleyg/250/freytag.html

Chronological: The story’s key events are presented as they occur.

“A flashback is a narrative technique that allows a writer to present past events during current events, in order to provide background for the current narration. By giving material that occurred prior to the present event, the writer provides the reader with insight into a character's motivation and or background to a conflict. This is done by various methods, narration, dream sequences, and memories” (Canada).

http://www.courses.vcu.edu/ENG-jeh/BeginningReporting/Writing/storystructure.htm

http://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htm

Story’s Use of Time: Chronological and Flashback

The author hints or suggests what is to come later in the story

Foreshadowing

1. a position from which someone or something is observed (the manner something is considered or evaluated) - from the point of view of a doctor.

2. an opinion, attitude, or judgment - He refuses to change his point of view in the matter.

3. the position of the narrator in relation to the story - (examples: first person, third person, limited, omniscient).

Perspective / Point of View http://dictionary.reference.com/

First Person: The main character describes the experiences he or she encounters, and gives the reader insight into his or her thoughts, feelings, intentions, and personality (Canada).

Second Person: Second person is unusual in fiction and is more common in poetry. In second person, the character is not referred to as he or she, or by name, but rather as “you.” For example, the story may include: “You, a boy of ten, who woke from a terrible dream, to find your body shaking and cold.” http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/754/02/

Perspective / Point of Viewhttp://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htm

http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/pv.html

Third Person Omniscient: In this style, the narrator is all knowing and moves from one character to another as necessary to provide those characters’ motivations and emotions (Canada).

Third Person Limited: The narrator focuses typically on one character (potentially two), sharing thoughts and feelings of that one figure in the story.

Perspective / Point of Viewhttp://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htm

http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/pv.html

A symbol is a person, place, or object that has a concrete meaning in itself, and also stands for something beyond itself. For example, the changing seasons often

symbolize the passing of time: spring represents new life / birth; summer represents youth; autumn represents adulthood; and winter represents death.

Symbol

Allusion – a reference, explicit or implicit, to something in previous literature and history

• “The girl's love of diamonds was her Achilles’ heel.”

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/allusion-examples.html

Allusion

Simile – comparison of two unlike objects using like or as

Metaphor- comparison of two unlike objects Extended Metaphor – a metaphor that is

extended, or developed, over several lines or throughout a poem/piece

Personification – (metaphoric); a nonhuman element is given human-like qualities (the arms of the tree reach for the sky)

Comparisons

Tone - the attitude of an author toward his or her subject matter and / or audience. Tone is often connected with the “voice” of the writing.

Tonehttp://rwc.hunter.cuny.edu/reading-writing/on-line/lit-terms.html

When analyzing Tone, consider diction (word choice), as well as syntax (sentence structure) Regarding Diction, be aware of the dual

aspects of words: Denotation: the explicit or direct meaning

of a word Connotation: the associated or secondary

meaning of a word

Elements of Tone

Hyperbole/exaggeration 1. obvious and intentional exaggeration. 2. an extravagant statement or figure of speech

not intended to be taken literally, as “to wait an eternity.”

http://dictionary.reference.com

Hyperbole / Exaggeration

Understatement: the act or an instance of stating something in

restrained terms, or as less than it is A form of irony in which something is intentionally

represented as less than it is: “Hank Aaron was a pretty good ball player.”

http://dictionary.reference.com

Understatement

A narrative that serves as an extended metaphor

The characters, settings, and objects have both literal and figurative / symbolic meanings.

Allegory

Onomatopoeia: 1. the formation of words whose sound is imitative of

the sound of the noise or action designated, such as hiss, buzz,  and bang

2. the use of such words for poetic or rhetorical effect * From the Greek: “to make words”

http://dictionary.reference.com

Onomatopoeia

Repetition: The repetition of words / phrases is called anaphora The repetition of sentence structure / phrasing involves

parallel structure: using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance

The repetition of letter sounds in words (typically the beginning of words) close to one another is called alliteration

Overall, repetition helps to create a flow in writing, and can be used to emphasize content

Repetition

Consonance: The repetition of similar consonant sounds

Assonance: The repetition of similar vowel sounds

Alliteration

Rhyme:the repetition of similar sounds. In poetry, the most common kind of rhyme is end rhyme, which occurs at the end of two or more lines. Internal rhyme occurs in the middle of a line, as in these lines from Coleridge, "In mist or cloud, on mast or shroud" or "Whiles all the night through fog-smoke white" ("The Ancient Mariner"). There are many kinds of end rhyme:

True rhyme is what most people think of as rhyme; the sounds are nearly identical--notion, motion, potion, for example.

Weak rhyme, also called slant, oblique, approximate, or half rhyme, refers to words with similar but not identical sounds, e.g., notion-nation, bear-bore, ear-are. Emily Dickinson frequently uses partial rhymes.

Eye rhyme occurs when words look alike but don't sound alike--e.g., bear-ear.

http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/lit_term.html

Rhyme

Narrative: Telling a story. These writings are often anecdotal (story of a personal event/occurrence), experiential, and personal (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/685/04/)

Persuasive: Persuasive writing intends to influence how someone thinks, feels, acts, and makes decisions in relation to a particular issue, idea, or proposal. The writer is making a case and using language in a deliberative manner. Persuasive writing can lead to decisions, clarification of issues or positions, and consensus. (http://www.principiacollege.edu/current-students/writing-

center/faculty/phase-3-wrp-persuasive-writing-course/what-persuasive-writin)

Expository: A type of writing used to explain, or to inform (http://www.stanford.edu/~arnetha/expowrite/info.html)

Modes of Writing

Descriptive: A description paper often takes a person or object and then describes that person or thing in great illustrative detail. For example, a description paper about a close friend might describe his or her appearance, her actions, and her personality, both through direct descriptive words--like paintings of her in different situations--and through stories showing him in action. (

http://www.tc.umn.edu/~jewel001/CollegeWriting/START/Modes.htm#Description)

Modes of Writing

Cause and Effect: Cause and effect papers use analysis to examine the reasons for and the outcomes of situations. They are an attempt to discover either the origins of something, such as an event or a decision, the effects or results that can be properly attributed to it, or both. (http://www.butte.edu/departments/cas/tipsheets/style_purpose_strategy/cause_effort.html)

Literary Analysis: A literary analysis is not a summary of a literary work. Instead, it is an argument about the work that expresses a writer’s personal perspective, interpretation, judgment, or critical evaluation of the work. This is accomplished by examining the literary elements and devices, word choices, and/or writing structures the author uses within the work. The purpose of a literary analysis is often to demonstrate why the author uses particular elements in order to convey his or her message. (www.germanna.edu/tutor/handouts/english/literary_analysis)

Modes of Writing

The Goal The reason behind the text – “What do I

want my audience to think or do as a result of reading my text?”

What you hope to accomplish by this expression of opinion.

How would you like your audience to respond?

Purpose

POV, characterization, plot, setting, tone, mood, literary devices Extension of the elements in lengthier fiction pieces

More limited / abbreviated elements in short fiction pieces

Genre Traits – Long and Short Fiction

Nonfiction with an emphasis on facts include essays, letters, editorials, news articles, biographies, autobiographies, textbooks, and focused topic books.

“Creative Nonfiction” includes feature articles, memoirs, narrative and reflective essays, literary journalism, profiles, brochures, ads. There is a concentration on persuasion, analysis, and reflection.

SOAPStone (Speaker [persona], Occasion, Audience, Purpose, Subject, Tone)

Bias Text Features (headings, photos, captions, fonts) In argument / claim focus pieces: writers include personal

anecdotes, historical / current evidence, and/or expert testimony to aid in support of claim/purpose.

Genre Traits - Nonfiction

POV: there is typically a “speaker” or “persona” crafted; sometimes the poet speaks directly in poem.

Setting Physical Structure of poem (rhyme,

rhythm, line breaks) Tone and Mood Literary Devices: compact nature of poem

and this impact upon expression/development of devices

Genre Traits - Poetry

DialogueStage DirectionsPropsTypical / Atypical narrator commentary

Genre Traits - Drama

A thesis statement / claim statement… is a proposal, argument, or theory tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of

(analyze) the subject matter is a road map/outline for the paper directly answers the question/prompt. A thesis is an

interpretation (analysis) of a question or subject, not the subject itself. For Example: The subject, or topic, of an essay might be

World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel.

is usually a single sentence at the end of your introduction The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers

and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your thesis/argument/analysis.

adapted from –http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/thesis.html

Thesis Statement

Every paragraph should include a topic sentence that identifies the main idea of the paragraph. A topic sentence also states the point the writer wishes to make about that subject. The topic sentence appears at the beginning of the paragraph as the paragraph’s very first sentence. A paragraph’s topic sentence must be general enough to express the paragraph’s overall subject. But it should be specific enough that the reader can understand the paragraph’s main subject and point.

Adapted from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/engagement/index.php?category_id=2&sub_category_id=1&article_id=29

Topic Sentence

To “embed” a quotation is to make the quotation a part of your writing – a part of your sentence.

Consider three important steps in the embedding process:

1. Introduce your quotation. This introductory sentence “sets the stage” for the upcoming quotation. The introductory sentence tells the reader such points as what is happening in the story at the point that the quotation is taken, or a general idea of the situation in which the quotation exists.

MLA Format for Embedding and Citing Quotations

2. After introducing the quotation, you will craft your embedded quotation sentence. In this sentence, you will create a short phrase that leads into the quotation, include the quotation, and then cite the quotation. The formal citation includes the author’s last name and page number. (Miller 22). Note that the period comes after the parentheses. Be sure that you select logical, effective, and substantial quotations for your analysis.

3. Following the embedded quotation sentence, you will thoroughly analyze the importance of the quotation. Please do not summarize or re-state the quotation! Analyze: Why did you select this detail? How does the quotation support your claim, prove your point, or provide important evidence? This analysis will take more than one sentence.

MLA Format for Embedding and Citing Quotations

Example Thesis Sentence: In The Crucible, Miller crafts Parris and Abigail as deceptive and selfish characters in order to emphasize his theme that greed in those who hold positions of power may lead to destructive decisions for their community.

Example Topic Sentence: Miller establishes Abigail as a dishonest and greedy static character whose actions greatly harm her community.

Introductory Sentence: Early in the play, the author directly characterizes her deceitfulness through his stage directions.

Embedded Quotation Sentence: Miller writes that Abigail possesses “an endless capacity for dissembling. Now she is all worry and apprehension and propriety” (Miller 9).

Analysis: Through this commentary, Miller emphasizes the fact that Abigail often lies, and that she has an ability to put on a false face. Clarifying Abigail’s deceitful nature causes the reader to then question the sincerity of her later actions in calling out witches. Furthermore, this commentary tells the reader that at the moment, she is only pretending to be anxious for her cousin’s well-being, and only playing the role of a proper young woman. This deception is done to avoid any focus on her, and potential punishment for what she had been doing in the woods.

MLA Format for Embedding and Citing Quotations

The concluding sentence wraps up and ends the paragraph. The purpose of the concluding sentence is to emphasize the topic of that paragraph, and write an overall reflection of the topic’s significance. Do Not: introduce a new topic in the

concluding sentence of a paragraph. This weakens the focus of that particular paragraph.

Concluding Sentence

Redundancy involves the unnecessary repetition of words. This happens when you may express the same idea / point several times.

Goal: eliminate words that express the obvious or repeat detail.

Redundancy

Commas are needed to: Separate an introductory phrase

When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway. Separate independent clauses

Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner. Set apart phrases in the middle of a sentence that are not

essential to the meaning of a sentence This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other

hand, is rather bland. Separate ideas / items in a list

The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.

Set apart geographical places, dates, addresses Birmingham, Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England.

Indicate a shift between text and quotation John said without emotion, "I'll see you tomorrow.“

Adapted from Purdue Owl

Comma ,

Use a colon: After an independent clause when introducing

a list The catering facility offers the following entrees:

fried catfish, grilled chicken, pan-seared salmon, and sirloin steak.

After an independent clause when introducing a quotation (do not overuse this technique) My teacher’s remark on my final essay was very

complimentary: “This essay coherently analyzes musical trends of the late 20th century.”

Adapted from Purdue Owl

Colon :

Use a semi-colon: To join two independent clauses (this will help to

avoid run-on sentences) Seinfeld was definitely my favorite television show

during the 1990s; in fact, it is my favorite television show of all time.

Between items in a list that already involves commas I have lived in Chicago, Illinois; Kansas City,

Missouri; and Omaha, Nebraska. Adapted from Purdue Owl

Semi-Colon ;

In order to avoid fragments, a sentence must include both a subject and a verb.

The subject and verb in a sentence must “agree” in number If the subject is plural, the plural form of the verb

must be used; if the subject is singular, the singular form of the verb must be used.

Examples:She and her friends are at the fair.The book or the pen is in the drawer.

Adapted from Purdue Owl

Subject-Verb Agreement

Because a pronoun takes the place of or refers to a noun, you must use the correct pronoun form to be clear.

The Pronoun: Must be clear and specific: Do not be vague or ambiguous

Example: INCORRECT: If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can refer to it. (What does “It” refer to? Sheet? Notebook?)

Must agree in number: If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun. Example: If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy a

parking sticker. Must agree in person:

If you are writing in the first person (I), don't confuse your reader by switching to the second person (you) or third person (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are using the second person, don't switch to first or third. Example: When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or

her homework ready. Adapted from Purdue Owl

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement(antecedent = preceding or prior)

Pronouns as Subjects

Pronouns as Objects

Pronouns that show Possession

I me my (mine)you you your (yours)he, she, it him, her, it his, her (hers), it (its)we us our (ours)they them their (theirs)who whom whose

Pronoun Usage – Case(taken from Purdue Owl)

There are three cases:•Subjective case: pronouns used as subject.•Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or prepositions.•Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership.

Some problems of case: 1. In compound structures, where there are two

pronouns or a noun and a pronoun, drop the other noun for a moment. Then you can see which case you want.

Not: Bob and me travel a good deal.(Would you say, "me travel"?)

Not: He gave the flowers to Jane and I.(Would you say, "he gave the flowers to I"?)

Not: Us men like the coach.(Would you say, "us like the coach"?)

2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually follow than or as:

He is taller than I (am tall). This helps you as much as (it helps) me. She is as noisy as I (am).

Pronoun Usage – Case(taken from Purdue Owl)

Parallel Structure – means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance.

The usual way: to join parallel phrases/clauses with the use of coordinating conjunctions “and” or “or”

Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling-The Owl, Purdue University

Parallel Structure / Parallelism

Not Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a

lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.

Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a

lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.

— or —Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a

lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do some warm-up exercises before the game.

Parallel Structure / Parallelism

Be sure to logically place phrases that provide details, so that they modify that which you intend for them to describe.

How would you revise the following sentence?

Old maps show horrible creatures in uncharted seas with enormous claws, horns, and wings.

Proper Placement of Modifiers

Utopia and Dystopia

“Utopia” – comes from the Greek expression of “no place.” It refers to an ideal place; it also means any visionary system of political or social perfection.

“Dystopia” - a society characterized by human misery, as squalor, oppression, disease, and overcrowding; the worst place possible.

http://dictionary.reference.com/