AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

INTERMEDIATE LEVEL

GRAMMAR SUMMARY

Compiled by Wayne Dann

Contributions and Inspiration for Summary

from the late William H. DeVane

Compiled by Wayne Dann

RSALFAC USE Grammar Summary Supplemental Material

Table of ContentsPag

eTitle

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PARTS OF SPEECHNOUNS How to form the plural of regular nouns How to form the plural of irregular nouns

7 GERUNDS889991011

PRONOUNS Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns Possessive Adjectives Possessive Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns Indefinite Pronouns

1212121313131414151515151616171717181920212122

VERBS SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE How to Form the Simple Present Tense For Regular Verbs Rules for Forming the Simple Present Tense Verb EndingsPRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE Rules for Forming the Present Continuous Tense Verb EndingsSIMPLE PAST TENSE Rules for Forming the Simple Past Tense Verb EndingsTHE VERB…TO BE Simple Present Tense TO BE Followed by a Noun TO BE Followed by an Adjective TO BE Followed by a Prepositional Phrase Simple Past TenseCOMPARISON AND FORMATION OF DIFFERENT VERB TENSES Comparison Chart for Simple Present, Past and Future Tenses Comparison Chart for Present, Past and Future Continuous Tenses Comparison of the Present Simple and Present Continuous Tenses Comparison of the Simple Past and the Past Continuous Tenses Comparison of the Simple Future and Future Continuous Tenses Comparison Chart for Simple Present, Past and Future Perfect Tenses Comparison Chart for Present, Past and Future Continuous Perfect Tenses

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Comparison of Present Perfect Simple and Present Perfect Continuous Tenses Comparison of Past Perfect Simple and Past Perfect Continuous Tenses Comparison of Future Perfect Simple and Future Perfect Continuous Tenses

25 INFINITIVES 272828

MODAL VERBS (MODAL AUXILIARIES) Using Modal Verbs To Express Degrees Of Certainty Other Modal Verbs

29 AUXILLARY (HELPING) VERB QUESTIONS303436

IRREGULAR VERBS Irregular Verbs With Similar Endings Other Similar Irregular Verbs

393939394041

ADJECTIVES Using Adjectives Comparative and Superlative Adjectives How to use Comparatives and Superlatives Rules for Forming Regular Comparatives and Superlatives Irregular Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

4242

ADVERBS Different Types Of Adverbs

43 PARTICIPLES44 ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY454546474849505152

PREPOSITIONS English Prepositions List Prepositions of Time Commonly used Prepositions of Place and Direction Other Prepositions of Place and Direction How to use Prepositions For / Since / Ago / Already / Yet How to use Prepositions So / Too / Either / Neither / Also / As Well (As) How to use Prepositions Too, So, Such, Enough How to use Prepositions In, Into

53535353

CONDITIONALS First Conditional Second Conditional Third Conditional

54 EXPRESSIONS OF PURPOSE5555555556565657

CAUSATIVES Basic Causative Sentence Structure Passive Causative Sentence Structure The Causative with Have The Causative with Get The Causative with Make The Causative with Let The Causative with Help

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57 REPORTED SPEECH / INDIRECT SPEECH59 PASSIVE VOICE61 TAG QUESTIONS62 EMBEDDING636363636364646465666666

CLAUSES Definition of Clause Independent Clause Dependent Clause Relative Clause Noun Clause Adjective Clause Subject Adjective Clause Object Adjective Clause Possessive Adjective Clause Location Adjective Clause Adverb Clause

686868686868

PHRASES Prepositional Phrase Participial Phrase Infinitive Phrase Gerund Phrase Verb Phrase

PARTS OF SPEECH (NOUNS, VERBS, ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, PRONOUNS)

NOUNS: A noun is a word used to refer to people, animals, objects, substances, states, events and feelings. Nouns can be a subject or an object of a verb, can be modified by an adjective and can take an article or determiner. Nouns may be divided into two groups: Countable Nouns have plural forms and Uncountable Nouns do not.

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A determiner (a word that modifies a noun) is an article (a, an, the car), numeral (two cars, first day), possessive adjective (my job, their friends), quantifier (some coffee, few tickets) or a demonstrative adjective (this tape, those books)

NOTE: Words that end in …er, …ment, …ty, …ey, ness…, …tion, are NOUNS.

Examples: He bought a new computer for his office.We made the reservation on time.They made an agreement to stay inside for hours.

HOW TO FORM THE PLURAL OF REGULAR NOUNS

Noun ending Forming the plural Examples

s, x, ch or sh Add -esboss - bosses

tax - taxesbush - bushes

consonant + y

Change y to i

then

Add -es

fly - fliestry - tries

curry - curries

most others Add -scat - cats

face - facesday - days

HOW TO FORM DIFFERENT TYPES OF IRREGULAR PLURAL NOUNS

Noun type Forming the plural Examples

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Ends with -fe

Change f to v

then

Add -s

knife - kniveslife - lives

wife - wives

Ends with -f

Change f to v

then

Add -es

half - halveswolf - wolvesloaf - loaves

Ends with -o Add -espotato - potatoes

tomato - tomatoesvolcano - volcanoes

Ends with -us Change -us to -icactus - cacti

nucleus - nucleifocus - foci

Ends with -is Change -is to -esanalysis - analyses

crisis - crisesthesis - theses

Ends with -on Change -on to -a phenomenon - phenomenacriterion - criteria

ALL KINDS

Change the vowel

or

Change the word

or

Add a different ending

man - menfoot - feet

child - childrenperson - people

tooth - teethmouse - mice

Unchanging Singular and plural sheepdeer

fish (sometimes)

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are the same

GERUNDSGerunds are verb forms used as nouns.

I enjoy books. (The object of a verb is usually a noun or pronoun.)I enjoy reading. (The object of a verb can also be a gerund, A gerund is the ING form

of the verb which is used as a noun.)

Some verbs are followed by gerunds.advise I always advise studying outside class.appreciate He didn’t appreciate listening to Ali’s problems.avoid He could not avoid being in the accident.consider You should consider taking another course.think about You should think about taking another course.delay You shouldn’t delay studying until the last minute.deny You can’t deny taking the last cookie.discuss We need to discuss using gerunds in sentences.talk about We need to talk about using gerunds in sentences.dislike He dislikes doing homework.enjoy He enjoys doing homeworkfinish Ali didn’t finish answering all the questions.imagine He couldn’t imagine leaving home.keep Keep studying after you finish the coursekeep on Keep on studying after you finish the course.mention He mentioned studying at U.C.L.A.mind I don’t mind waiting a few minutes.miss He won’t miss having to study so much.postpone We can not postpone moving to KKMC.put off We can put off taking the ALCPT test.quit He quit smoking.stop He stopped smoking.

Notice that the gerund follows to with these verbs. Usually to is followed by the infinitive.

be close to They are close to finishing the test.be used to He wasn’t used to getting up so early.be accustomed to He wasn’t accustomed to getting up so early.

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get used to He couldn’t get used to getting up so early.look forward to Do you look forward to finishing the course?object to Some people object to smoking inside the office.

Go is often followed by the infinitive (ING) form of the verb.Examples:I often go swimming in the summer. He went fishing last week.Ali hasn’t gone hunting for a long time. Can we go shopping tomorrow.They hadn’t gone running for a long time. I like to go scuba diving in the summer.

Some verbs are followed by either a gerund or an infinitive.

begin It began raining. It began to rain.can’t stand He can’t stand waiting for people. He can’t stand to wait for people.continue They continue writing. They continue to write.hate He hates taking tests. He hates to take tests.like I like swimming. I like to swim.love Mohammad loves eating candy. Mohammad loves to eat candy.start You may start answering now. You may start to answer now.

Gerunds are used as the subject of a sentence. Infinitives are used after adjectives.

Swimming is fun It is fun to swim.Studying outside class is necessary It is necessary to study outside class.Being on time for class is important. It is important to be on time for class.Is learning English difficult? Is it difficult to learn English.Eating in that restaurant is expensive. It is expensive to eat in that restaurant.Flying is faster than driving. It is faster to fly than to drive.Having a broken leg is painful. It is painful to have a broken leg.Driving too fast is dangerous. It is dangerous to drive too fast.

NOTE: A gerund as a subject always takes a singular verb.

Examples: Swimming is difficult to learn.Learning English takes time.

The gerund can be used after most prepositions.

by Ali got a high score by working so hard.for A fire extinguisher is for putting out fires.about Abdul wanted to learn about scuba diving.in Mohammad was interested in playing football.

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after People shouldn’t swim after eating a big meal.before Kim left before finishing the exam.on They attended a conference on putting out fires.

PRONOUNSSUBJECT PRONOUNSWe use the following pronouns as SUBJECT PRONOUNS before the verb as the subject of a sentence. Singular Pronouns Plural Pronouns

I am a student. We are students.You (singular)are a student. You (Plural) are students.He is a student. They are students.She is a student.It is a cat.

OBJECT PRONOUNSWe use the following pronouns as OBJECT PRONOUNS after a verb or a preposition as the subject.

Singular Object Pronouns Singular Object Pronouns After the Verb After a Preposition

He gave me the book. He gave the Book to me.He gave you the book. He gave the book to you.He gave him the book. He gave the book to him.He gave her the book. He gave the book to her.He gave it some food. He gave some food to it.

Plural Object Pronouns Plural Object Pronouns After the Verb After a Preposition

He gave us the book. He gave the book to us.He gave you the book. He gave the book to you.He gave them the book. He gave the book to them.

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVESWe use the following pronouns as POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES before nouns to indicate possession.

Singular Pronouns as Plural Pronouns as Possessive Adjectives Possessive Adjectives

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This is my book. This is our book. (These are our books.)This is your book. This is your book. (These are your books.)This is his book. This is their book. (These are their books.)This is her book.It is its food.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNSWe use the following pronouns as POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS to indicate possession.

Singular Singular Possessive Adjectives Possessive Pronouns

This is my book. This is mine. (mine = my book)This is your book. This is yours. (yours = your book)This is his book. The is his. (his = his book)This is her book. The is hers. (hers = her book)This food is its food. This is its. (its = its food)Plural Plural Possessive Adjectives Possessive Pronouns

This is our book. This is ours. (ours = our book)This is your book. This is yours. (yours = your book)This is their book. This is theirs. (theirs = their book)

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNSWe use the following pronouns as REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS to reflect back or refer to the subject of the verb.

Singular Reflexive Pronouns Plural Reflexive Pronouns

I will pay for myself. We will pay for ourselves.You will pay for yourself. (singular) You will pay for yourselves. (plural)He will pay for himself. They will pay for themselves.She will pay for herself.One will pay for oneself.It will for look after itself.

__________________________________________________________________________________We use the following the following PRONOUNS to show:

1. If the NOUN is singular or plural.2. If the NOUN is near or far.

Singular Plural

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Near This These Far That Those___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

PRONOUN / POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE CHART

SUBJECT PRONOUNS

OBJECT PRONOUNS

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES

POSSESSIVEPRONOUNS

REFLEXIVEPRONOUNS

I me my mine myselfYou you (singular) your (singular) yours (singular) yourselfHe him his his himselfShe her her hers herselfIt it its its itselfWe us our ours ourselvesYou you (Plural) your (Plural) yours (Plural) yourselvesThey them their theirs themselves

NOTE: One additional reflexive pronoun that is not like the other pronouns is oneself.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

Indefinite pronouns refer to things or people without mentioning what or who they are.For people we use: anybody or anyone / somebody or someone / nobody or no oneFor things we use: anything or something / nothing or none.For locations we use: anywhere or somewhere / nowhere.

SOMEONE / ANYONE / SOMEBODY / ANYBODY / NOBODY / NO ONE

Someone or Somebody are used in affirmative statements.Examples: I saw (someone or somebody) in the lab.

My friend met (someone or somebody) at the restaurant.He wants (someone or somebody) to help me.

Anyone or Anybody are used in negative statements.Examples: I didn’t see (anyone or anybody) in the lab.

My friend didn’t meet (anyone or anybody) at the restaurant.He doesn’t want (anyone or anybody) to help me.

Someone or Somebody can be used in affirmative questions.Anyone or Anybody can be used in affirmative and negative questions. Examples: Did you see (someone, anyone, somebody or anybody) in the lab?

Doesn’t he want (anyone or anybody) to help him?

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Nobody and No one are used in affirmative statements only. (nobody = not anybody) (No one = not anyone)

Examples: (Nobody or No one) is in the lab.(Nobody or No one) met my friend at the restaurant.(Nobody or No one) wants to help me.

SOMETHING / ANYTHING / NOTHING

Something or Nothing are used in affirmative statements.Examples: I saw something in the lab.

My friend ate something bad at the restaurant.There is nothing he can do.

Anything is used in negative statements.Examples: I didn’t see anything in the lab.

My friend didn’t eat anything bad at the restaurant.He doesn’t want to buy anything for me.

Something or Anything can be used in questions.Examples: Did you see (something or anything) in the lab?

Did my friend eat (something or anything) bad at the restaurant?Does he want to buy (something or anything) for me?

VERBSVerbs are one of the major grammatical groups, and all sentences must contain one. Verbs refer to an action (do, break, walk, etc.) or a state (be, like, own). The verb tense shows the time of the action or state (present, past of future).

SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

HOW TOFORM THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

There are only two basic forms for the simple present tense; one ends with –s or -es and the other doesn't. Here are the rules, using the example verb "sing":

Subject Verb Form Example

I simple form I sing

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You simple form You sing

He simple form + S He sings

She simple form + S She sings

It simple form + S It sings

We simple form We sing

They simple form They sing

NOTE: Only THIRD PERSON SINGULAR subjects (he, she, and it) have to have a verb with -S.

RULES FOR FORMING THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE - S or - ES? With most verbs, the third person singular form is created simply by adding -S. However, with some verbs, you need to add -ES or change the ending a little. Here are the rules:

Verb ending

in...

How to make the 3rd person

singular (he, she it)Example

s, z, sh, ch Add -ES

He passesShe dozesShe wishesHe watches

consonant + y Change Y to I, then add -ES It flies

[anything else] Add -S He sings

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Verb ending in... How to make the -ING form Examples

1 vowel + 1 consonantDouble the consonant, then add -

ING

swim - swimminghit - hittingget - getting

1 vowel + 1 consonant +

ERemove E, then add -ING

come - cominglose - losinglive - living

[anything else] Add -INGsay - sayinggo - going

walk - walking

PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSERULES FOR FORMING THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSEWith many verbs, the you can simply add -ING to the end of the verb. However, with some verbs, you need to change the ending a little. Here are the rules:

SIMPLE PAST TENSERULES FOR FORMING THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE

With most verbs, the simple past is created simply by adding -ED. However, with some verbs, you need to change the ending a little. Here are the rules:

Verb ending in...How to make the simple

pastExamples

e Add -D live - liveddate - dated

Consonant + y Change y to i, then add -ED try - triedcry - cried

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One vowel + one

consonant

(but NOT w or y)

Double the consonant, then add -

ED

tap - tappedcommit - committed

[anything else] Add -EDboil - boiledfill - filled

hand - handed

THE VERB…TO BESIMPLE PRESENT TENSE … THE VERB… TO BE

Singular forms of the verb TO BE Plural forms of the verb TO BE

I am We areYou are You areHe is They areShe isIt is

The verb TO BE can be followed by a noun, by an adjective, or a prepositional phrase in statements or questions.

TO BE Followed by a Noun

Singular forms of verb TO BE followed by a noun.

STATEMENTS QUESTIONS

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I am a student. Am I a student?You are a student. Are you a student?He is a student. Is he a student?She is a student. Is she a student?It is a dog. Is it a dog?

Plural forms of verb TO BE followed by a noun.

STATEMENTS QUESTIONS

We are students. Are we students?You are students. Are you students?They are students. Are they students?

TO BE Followed by an Adjective

Singular forms of verb TO BE followed by an adjective.

STATEMENTS QUESTIONS

I am happy. Am I happy?You are sad. Are you sad?He is handsome. Is he handsome?She is smart. Is she smart?It is brown. Is it brown?Plural forms of verb TO BE followed by an adjective.

STATEMENTS QUESTIONS

We are intelligent. Are we intelligent?You are generous. Are you generous?They are crazy. Are they crazy?

TO BE Followed by a Prepositional Phrase

Singular forms of verb TO BE followed by a prepositional phrase.

STATEMENTS QUESTIONS

I am in the library. Am I in the library?You are on the base. Are you on the base?He is at the BX. Is he at the BX?She is in the store. Is she in the store?It is on the road. Is it on the road?

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Plural forms of verb TO BE followed by a prepositional phrase.

STATEMENTS QUESTIONS

We are at the school. Are we at the school?You are in the classroom. Are you in the classroom?They are on time. Are they on time?

________________________________________________________________________

SIMPLE PAST TENSE… THE VERB… TO BE

Singular forms of the verb TO BE Plural forms of the verb TO BE

I was We wereYou were You wereHe was They wereShe wasIt was

________________________________________________________________________

NOTE: You cannot use DO, DOES, or DID with the verb TO BE

COMPARISONS AND FORMATIONS OF DIFFERENT VERB TENSES COMPARISON OF SIMPLE PRESENT, PAST AND FUTURE TENSES

THE SIMPLE TENSESTENSE EXAMPLES MEANING

SIMPLE PRESENT

I watch TV everyday.She watches TV everyday.

Used to express events or situations that exist all the time. These events existed in the past, presently exist, and will probably exist in the future.

SIMPLE PAST

I watched TV yesterday.She watched TV yesterday.

Used to express events that happened at ONE time in the past. These events began and ended ONE time in the past.

SIMPLE I will watch TV tomorrow. Used to express events that will happen at

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FUTURE She will watch TV tomorrow.

ONE time in the future. These events will begin and end ONE time in the future.

COMPARISON OF PRESENT, PAST AND FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSES

THE CONTINUOUS (PROGRESSIVE) TENSESForm: be + ing

TENSE EXAMPLES MEANINGPRESENT PROGRESSIVE

I am watching TV.She is watching TV.

Used to express events or situations that began in the past and is in progress at the present time. It is used to express things that are happening right now.

PAST PROGRESSIVE

I was watching TV when Abdul arrived.She was watching TV when Abdul arrived.

Used to express events or situations that happened in the past and was in progress before another event that happened in the past.

FUTURE PROGRESSIVE

I will be watching TV tomorrow when Abdul arrives.She will be watching TV tomorrow when Abdul arrives.

Used to express events or situations that will be happening in the future prior to another event that will be happening in the future.

THE PRESENT SIMPLE AND PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSESThe present simple tense is used for actions that occur regularly or all the time.The present continuous tense is used for actions that occur right now or in the near future. The present simple tense can also be used for a future action if a time in the near future is added to the sentence.

. PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

STATEMENT I You work.We They

I am working.

You .We are working.They

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He She works.It

He She is workingIt

NEGATIVE I You don’t work.We They

He She doesn’t work.It

I am not working.

You are not (aren’t) working.We They

He She is not (isn’t) working.It

QUESTIONS IDo you work?

wethey

he Does she work?

it

Am I working?

you Are we working?

they

he Is she working?

it

NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words and contractions for both the simple past and the past continuous tenses.

Example: Full Words Contractions

Simple Past Tense Did you not work? Didn’t you work?Did we not work? Didn’t we work?Did he not work? Didn’t he work?

Past Continuous Are you not working? Aren’t you working?Tense Are we not working? Aren’t we working?

Is he not working? Isn’t he working?

THE SIMPLE PAST AND THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSESThe simple past tense is used for actions that began and ended in the past.The past continuous tense is used for actions that occurred in the past and continued over a period of time.

SIMPLE PAST TENSE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

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STATEMENT IYouHeShe worked yesterday.ItWeYouThey

IHe was working when the phone rang.She It

WeYou were working when the phone rang.They

NEGATIVE IYouHeShe didn’t work yesterday.ItWeYouThey

IHe wasn’t working when the phone rang.She It

WeYou weren’t working when the phone rang.They

QUESTIONS I you heDid she work yesterday? it we you they

IWas he working when the phone rang? she it

weWere you working when the phone rang? they

NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words and contractions for both the simple past and the past continuous tenses.

Example: Full Words Contractions

Simple Past Tense Did you not work? Didn’t you work?Did we not work? Didn’t we work?Did he not work? Didn’t he work?

Past Continuous Were you not working? Weren’t you working?Tense Were we not working? Weren’t we working?

Was he not working? Wasn’t he working?

THE SIMPLE FUTURE AND FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSES

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The simple future tense is used to express events that will happen at ONE time in the future. These events will begin and end ONE time in the future.The future continuous tense is used to express events or situations that will be happening in the future prior to another event that will be happening in the future.

SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

STATEMENT IYouHeShe will work tomorrow.ItWeYouThey

IHe will be working when the phone rings.She It

WeYou will be working when the phone rings.They

NEGATIVE IYouHeShe won’t work tomorrow.ItWe (won’t = will not)YouThey

IHe won’t be working when the phone rings.She It

WeYou won’t be working when the phone rings.They

QUESTIONS I you heWill she work tomorrow? it we you they

IWill he be working when the phone rings? she it

weWill you be working when the phone rings? they

NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words and contractions for both the simple future and the future continuous tenses.

Example: Full Words Contractions

Simple Past Tense Will you not work? Won’t you work?Will we not work? Won’t we work?Will he not work? Won’t he work?

Past Continuous Will you not be working? Won’t you be working?Tense Will we not be working? Won’t we be working?

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Will he not be working? Won’t he be working?

THE SIMPLE PERFECT TENSESForm: have + past participleTENSE EXAMPLES MEANING

SIMPLE PRESENT

I have already watched TV.She has already watched TV.

Used to express events or situations that finished sometime before now.

SIMPLE PAST

I had already watched TV yesterday.She had already watched TV yesterday.

Used to express events or situations that completely finished before another time in the past.

SIMPLE FUTURE

I will already have watched TV when you arrive.She will already have watched TV when you arrive.

Used to express events or situations that completely finished before another time in the future.

THE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSESForm: have + been + ing

TENSE EXAMPLES MEANINGPRESENT PROGRESSIVE

I have been watching TV for 2 hours.She has been watching TV for 2 hours.

Used to express events or situations that are in progress before now and up to now.

PAST PROGRESSIVE

I had been watching TV for 2 hours before my friend arrived.She had been watching TV for 2 hours before her friend arrived.

Used to express events or situations that were in progress before another event in the past.

FUTURE PROGRESSIVE

I will have been watching TV for 2 hours before my friend arrives.She will have been watching TV for 2 hours before her

Used to express events or situations that will have been in progress before another event in the future.

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friend arrives.

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS TENSESThe present perfect simple tense is used when the action of the verb happened at an unspecified time in the past and when the action of the verb began in the past and continues until now.The present perfect continuous tense is used when the action of the verb began in the past and is continuing at the present time.

PRESENT PERFECT PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE TENSE CONTINUOUS TENSE

STATEMENT I You have finished.We They

He She has finished.It

I You have been finishing.We They

He She has been finishing.It

NEGATIVE I You have not (haven’t) finished.We They

He She has not (hasn’t) finished.It

I You have not (haven’t) been finishing.We They

He She has not (hasn’t) been finishing.It

QUESTIONS IHave you finished?

wethey

he Has she finished?

it

IHave you been finishing?

wethey

he Has she been finishing?

it

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NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words and contractions.

Example: Full Words Contractions

Present Perfect Have you not finished? Haven’t you finished?Simple Tense Have we not finished? Haven’t we finished? Has he not finished? Hasn’t he finished?

Present Perfect Have you not been finishing? Haven’t you been finishing?Continuous Tense Have we not been finishing? Haven’t we been finishing?

Has he not been finishing? Hasn’t he been finishing?

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE AND PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSESThe past perfect simple tense is used when the action of the verb began and ended before another time in the past. It is often combined with a clause using the simple past.The past perfect continuous tense is used to express events or situations that were in progress before another event in the past.

PAST PERFECT PAST PERFECTSIMPLE TENSE PROGRESSIVE TENSE

STATEMENT I You We They had left when Bob came.He She It

I You We They had been leaving when Bob came.He She It

NEGATIVE I You We They had not left when Bob came.He She (had not = hadn’t)It

I You We They had not been leaving when Bob came.He She It

QUESTIONS I you

weHad they left when Bob came?

he she

I you

weHad they been leaving when Bob came?

he she

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it it

NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words and contractions.

Example: Full Words Contractions

Past Perfect Had you not left when Bob came? Hadn’t you left when Bob came?Simple Tense Had we not left when Bob came? Hadn’t we left when Bob came?

Had he not left when Bob came? Hadn’t he left when Bob came?

Past Perfect Had you not been leaving when Bob came? Continuous Hadn’t you been leaving when Bob came?Tense Had we not been leaving when Bob came?

Hadn’t we been leaving when Bob came?Had he not left when Bob came?

Hadn’t he been leaving when Bob came?

FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE AND FUTURE

PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSESThe future perfect simple tense is used to express events or situations that completely finished before another time in the future.The future perfect continuous tense is used to express events or situations that will have been in progress before another event in the future.

FUTURE PERFECT FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE TENSE CONTUINUOUS TENSE

STATEMENT I You will have finished.We They

He She will have finished.It

I You will have been finishing.We They

He She will have been finishing.It

NEGATIVE I You will not have finished.We They (have not = haven’t)He

I You will not have been finishing.We They (have not = haven’t)He

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She will not have finished.It

She will not have been finishing.It

QUESTIONS IWill you have finished?

wethey

he Will she have finished?

it

IWill you have been finishing?

wethey

he Will she have been finishing?

it

NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words and contractions.

Example: Full Words Contractions

Present Perfect Will you not have finished? Won’t you have finished?Simple Tense Will we not have finished? Won’t we have finished? Will he not have finished? Won’t he have finished?

Present Perfect Will you not have been finishing? Won’t you have been finishing? Continuous Tense Will we not have been finishing? Won’t we have been finishing?

Will he not have been finishing? Won’t he have been finishing?

INFINITIVES An infinitive is the form of the verb, but it is not a verb. An infinitive can be a noun, an adjective or an adverb. It is always "to" plus a verb.

Examples: Students need to learn the parts of speech. (The infinitive to learn is the object of the verb. Therefore, it is a noun.)

The ants have arrived to grab the leftovers from the picnic. (The infinitive to grab is an adverb explaining why or where they have arrived.)

That attorney has the right to represent you. (To represent is an adjective telling us what kind of right.)

Use TO + INFINITIVE after the following verbs.

agree Mohammad agreed to go with us.aim Ali aims to become an officer.appear You appear to know all the answers.arrange We must arrange to send these boxes to Dallas.ask You shouldn’t ask to leave the class early.bother Don’t bother to return this pencil

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can/can’t afford Abdulrazac can’t afford to buy a new car.care Mohammad doesn’t care to watch television.choose Tared chose not to go with us.decide They have decided to go on vacation in June.demand He demanded to see the manager of the store.expect That student expects to complete the course.fail He failed to ask for permission to leave.happen Sam happened to get all of the answers correct.hesitate Do not hesitate to ask for help.hope He hopes to return by the end of the month.instruct He was instructed to come immediately.intend Where do you intend to study next year?invite I was invited to come next year.learn You must learn to read fast.manage I managed to pass the quiz.mean Ali didn’t mean to interrupt the meeting.need You need to study to get a good grade.neglect Don’t neglect to get a good nights sleep.offer I offered to give him a ride.plan I didn’t plan to go to Riyadh.prefer I prefer to study by myself.prepare I am prepared to take the test.pretend I am pretending to study.promise I promise to be a good student.refuse I refuse to move to Iraq.remember I remembered to bring my book.request I requested to see the Major.seem You seem to be upset.tend I tend to get upset easily.threaten I threaten to leave the program.try I tried to give him some advice.volunteer I volunteered to help him learn English.wait I will wait to go to Egypt.want I want to visit my mother.wish I wish to travel around the world.would like I would like to know you better.

Use TO + INFINITIVE after the following verbs when they are followed by a noun or pronoun.

advise We advised him to come early.allow The manager wouldn’t allow Ali to go.cause The sudden noise caused him to jump.

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direct He directed Mohammad to clean the aircraft.encourage Mr. Dann encourages his students to study.expect * He expects them to do well on the test.forbid The colonel forbids them to smoke.instruct He instructed them to replace the engine.invite Mohammad invited Abdul to come to dinner.motivate I motivate my students to try hard.order * The doctor ordered him to stop smoking permit They won’t permit us to leave.persuade * I persuaded Ali to go with uspromise * He promised her to send a post card.recommend * He recommended Ali to get a medal.remind * Ali reminded the students to arrive early.request * I requested the general to find a good location.want Mr. Smith wants all of his students to pass.

The verbs marked with * can be followed by a THAT clause.

The following verbs are followed by a WH question word and the infinitive.

ask They should have asked when to come.decide He must decide when to go on leave.find out We will find out what to do in an emergency.forget Abdul hasn’t forgotten how to cook steaks.know They don’t know where to put the new sofa.learn He needs to learn who to ask for help.remember Ali couldn’t remember which book to bring.show Mohammad showed him how to repair the engineteach I am teaching him how to drive.tell The teacher will tell him which homework to do.

MODAL VERBS (MODAL AUXILIARIES)Modal verbs are used to express ideas such as possibility, intention, obligation and necessity. CAN, COULD, WILL, WOULD, SHALL, SHOULD, OUGHT TO, DARE and NEED are some examples. Modal verbs have to do with degrees of certainty.

Most Degree of Certainty

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Will

Must

Can

Should

May

Might

Least Degree of Certainty

For Modal Verbs the Sentence Structures are always the same.

For statements: Subject + Modal Verb + Main Verb

For Questions: Modal Verb + Subject + Main Verb

Note: Modal auxiliary verbs are invariable (no conjugation). And the main verb is always the "bare infinitive" (the infinitive without "to").

No conjugation... means modal verbs do not change for present, past or future tenses.Bare infinitive… means do not use to before the verb… you can use ‘can eat’ ‘may eat’ ‘might eat’…but do not use ‘can to eat’ ‘may to eat’ ‘might to eat’

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USING MODAL VERBS TO EXPRESS DEGREES OF CERTAINTY

Will… Is used to express something that is certain. Example: I will go to Riyadh this weekend

Must… Is used to express something that is necessary.Example: I must go to Riyadh to see my doctor.

Can… Is used to express something that is possible, ability or to ask or give permission.

Examples: I can go to Riyadh on Thursday since it is a weekend.I can swim.Can he smoke here?

Should… Is used when we want something to happen, and it is reasonable to expect it to happen.Example: We should be able to go to Spain next summer if we save our money.

May… Is used when we wish to express the something will possibly happen.Example: We may go to the party but we haven’t made a decision

yet.

Might… Is used when we want to express that something will possibly happen, but we are less certain.Example: He might be at home, but he usually prays at this time.

OTHER MODAL VERBS

Could… Is used when we talk about what was possible in the past or to make requests.

Examples: I could swim when I was 5 years old.Could you tell me where the bank is, please?

Would… Is used when we want to express a condition, a doubt, or to make a polite request.

Examples: She would go to the movie if you would go with her.It would appear he was wrong.Would you please get me my hat?

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AUXILLARY (HELPING) VERB QUESTIONSAuxiliary verbs are verbs that COME WITH ANOTHER VERB. Any verb that is by itself is not a helping verb! For instance, in the sentence: He IS GOING to class. _The word "is" is a helping verb because it is with the action verb "going."

The helping verbs DO, DOES, DID, and MODALS are followed by the infinitive (verb one).

Examples: DO you know the phone number?DOES he drive to work everyday?DID they pass the test?WILL you eat lunch today?SHOULD I visit my mother?MAY I go to the washroom?CAN you swim?MUST she wear a uniform?

_________________________________________________________________________________

The helping verbs AM, ARE, IS, WAS, WERE, BE and BEEN auxiliary verbs (such as in the continuous tenses) are followed by the ING form of the MAIN VERB.

Examples: AM I DOING this correctly?ARE you COMING to class tomorrow?IS she MAKING dinner now?WAS he DRIVING carefully?WERE they SLEEPING in class?WILL they be EATING at 1:30?HAVE they been WRITING for 2 hours?

Note: AM, ARE, IS, WAS, WERE, BE and BEEN auxiliary (helping verbs) are not followed by the ING form of the MAIN VERB if the sentence is passive.

Examples: ARE the planes INSPECTED daily?WAS the job FINISHED early?Have the chairs BEEN PAINTED?

_____________________________________________________________________________

The helping verbs HAVE, HAS, and HAD are followed by the PAST PARTICIPLE.

Examples: HAVE you DONE your homework?HAS he ARRIVED yet?HAD they EATEN before they left?

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IRREGULAR VERBS

Base Form Simple Past Tense Past Participle

awake awoke awokenbe was, were beenbear bore bornbeat beat beatbecome became becomebegin began begunbend bent bentbeset beset besetbet bet betbid bid/bade bid/biddenbind bound boundbite bit bittenbleed bled bledblow blew blownbreak broke brokenbreed bred bredbring brought broughtbroadcast broadcast broadcastbuild built builtburn burned/burnt burned/burntburst burst burstbuy bought boughtcast cast castcatch caught caughtchoose chose chosencling clung clungcome came comecost cost costcreep crept creptcut cut cutdeal dealt dealtdig dug dugdive dived/dove diveddo did donedraw drew drawndream dreamed/dreamt dreamed/dreamtdrive drove drivendrink drank drunkeat ate eaten

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fall fell fallenfeed fed fedfeel felt feltfight fought foughtfind found foundfit fit fitflee fled fledfling flung flungfly flew flownforbid forbade forbiddenforget forgot forgottenforego (forgo) forewent foregoneforgive forgave forgivenforsake forsook forsakenfreeze froze frozenget got gottengive gave givengo went gonegrind ground groundgrow grew grownhang hung hunghear heard heardhide hid hiddenhit hit hithold held heldhurt hurt hurtkeep kept keptkneel knelt kneltknit knit knitknow knew knowlay laid laidlead led ledleap leaped/lept leaped/leptlearn learned/learnt learned/learntleave left leftlend lent lentlet let letlie lay lainlight lighted/lit lightedlose lost lostmake made made

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mean meant meantmeet met metmisspell misspelled/misspelt misspelled/misspeltmistake mistook mistakenmow mowed mowed/mownovercome overcame overcomeoverdo overdid overdoneovertake overtook overtakenoverthrow overthrew overthrownpay paid paidplead pled pledprove proved proved/provenput put putquit quit quitread read readrid rid ridride rode riddenring rang rungrise rose risenrun ran runsaw sawed sawed/sawnsay said saidsee saw seenseek sought soughtsell sold soldsend sent sentset set setsew sewed sewed/sewnshake shook shakenshave shaved shaved/shavenshear shore shornshed shed shedshine shone shoneshoe shoed shoed/shodshoot shot shotshow showed showed/shownshrink shrank shrunkshut shut shutsing sang sungsink sank sunksit sat sat

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sleep slept sleptslay slew slainslide slid slidsling slung slungslit slit slitsmite smote smittensow sowed sowed/sownspeak spoke spokenspeed sped spedspend spent spentspill spilled/spilt spilled/spiltspin spun spunspit spit/spat spitsplit split splitspread spread spreadspring sprang/sprung sprungstand stood stoodsteal stole stolenstick stuck stucksting stung stungstink stank stunkstride strod striddenstrike struck struckstring strung strungstrive strove strivenswear swore swornsweep swept sweptswell swelled swelled/swollen swim swam swumswing swung swungtake took takenteach taught taughttear tore torntell told toldthink thought thoughtthrive thrived/throve thrivedthrow threw thrownthrust thrust thrusttread trod troddenunderstand understood understooduphold upheld upheldupset upset upsetwake woke woken

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IRREGULAR VERBS

WITH SIMILAR ENDINGS

upset upset upsetwake woke wokenwear wore wornweave weaved/wove weaved/wovenwed wed wedweep wept weptwind wound woundwin won wonwithhold withheld withheldwithstand withstood withstoodwring wrung wrungwrite wrote written

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Verbs ‘ought’

Base Form Simple Past Tense Past Participle

bring brought broughtbuy bought boughtfight fought foughtseek sought soughtthink thought thought

Verbs ‘aught’catch caught caughtteach taught taught

Verbs ‘ent’bend bent bentgo went wentlend lent lentsend sent sentspend spent spent

Verbs ‘ang’ring rang rangsing sang sangspring sprang sprang

Verbs ‘ove’dive dove dovedrive drove drovestrive strove striven

weave wove Woven

Verbs ‘ew’blow blew blowndraw drew drawnfly flew flowngrow grew grownknow knew knewoverthrow overthrew Overthrownslay slew slainthrow threw thrown

Verbs ‘ame’become became Becomecome came Comeovercome overcame Overcome

Verbs ‘oke’awake awoke awokenbreak broke brokenlead led ledplead pled pledshed shed Shedspeed sped spedwed wed Wed

Verbs ‘aid’lay laid laidpay paid paidsay said Said

Verbs ‘id’bid bid biddo did donehide hid Hiddenrid rid Ridslide slid Slid

Verbs ‘ot’forget forgot forgottenget got gottenshoot shot Shot

Verbs ‘ook’forsake forsook Forsaken

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mistake mistook mistakenovertake overtook overtakenshake shook shakentake took Taken

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OTHER SIMILAR IRREGULAR VERBS Here you find irregular verbs listed according to there similarities and differences. ALL 3 FORMS ARE SIMILAR

INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLEbet* bet betburst burst burstcost cost costcut cut cuthit hit hithurt hurt hurtlet let letput put putread read readset set setshut shut shut

INFINITIVE AND SIMPLE PAST ARE SIMILAR

INFINITIVE SIMPLE PASTPAST PARTICIPLE

beat beat beaten

INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE ARE SIMILAR

INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE

come came comerun ran runbecome became becomeSIMPLE PAST AND PAST PARTICIPLE ARE SIMILAR

INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLEbring brought brought

Verbs ‘ore’bear bore bornshear shore shornswear swore sworntear tore tornwear wore worn

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build built builtbuy bought boughtcatch caught caughtdeal dealt dealtfeed fed fedfeel felt feltfight fought foughtfind found foundget got gothang hung hunghave had hadhear heard heardhold held heldkeep kept keptlay laid laidlead led ledleave left leftlend lent lentlight* lit litlose lost lostmake made mademean meant meantmeet met metpay paid paidsay said saidsell sold soldsend sent sentshine shone shoneshoot shot shotsit sat satsleep slept sleptslide slid slidspend spent spentstand stood stoodstick stuck stucksweep swept sweptswing swung swungteach taught taughttell told toldthink thought thoughtunderstand understood understoodwin won won

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ALL 3 FORMS ARE DIFFERENT

INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE be was/were beenbegin began begunblow blew blownbreak broke brokenchoose chose chosendo did donedraw drew drawndrink drank drunkdrive drove driveneat ate eatenfall fell fallenfly flew flownforget forgot forgottenfreeze froze frozengive gave givengo went gonegrow grew grownhide hid hiddenknow knew knownlie lay lainride rode riddenring rang rungrise rose risensee saw seenshake shook shakenshow* showed shownsing sang sungsink sank sunkspeak spoke spokenspring sprang sprungsteal stole stolenswear swore swornswim swam swumtake took takentear tore torn

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throw threw thrownwake woke wokenwear wore wornweave wove wovenwrite wrote written

ADJECTIVES

An adjective modifies a noun. It describes the quality, state or action that a noun refers to.

USING ADJECTIVESi) Adjectives can come before nouns: a new carii) Adjectives can come after verbs such as be, become, seem, look, etc.: that car looks fastiii) Adjectives can be modified by adverbs: a very expensive cariv) Adjectives can be used as complements to a noun: the extras make the car expensive

NOTE: When we change a plural noun into an adjective we must add a hyphen (-) and remove the “s”Examples: The shirt costs ten dollars… becomes… It’s a ten-dollar shirt.

The general has five stars… becomes… He’s a five-star general.

NOTE: We can change some verbs into adjectives:Examples:interest interested interesting amaze amazed amazingsurprise surprised surprising annoy annoyed annoyingirritate irritated irritating excite excited exciting

The book interested Ali. It is an interesting book. Ali is interested in the book.The story amazed Ahmed. It is an amazing story. Mohammad is amazing.The news surprised the boys. The news is surprising. The boys are surprised.The game excited people. It is an exciting game. They were excited people.The noise irritated us. It was an irritating noise. They were irritated students.

COMPARATIVE & SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVESComparatives and Superlatives are special forms of adjectives. They are used to compare two or more things. Generally, comparatives are formed using -er and superlatives are formed using -est.

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HOW TO USE COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVESCOMPARATIVES are used to compare two things. You can use sentences with THAN, or you can use a conjunction like BUT.

Examples: Abdul is taller than Ali. Ali is tall, but Abdul is taller.

SUPERLATIVES are used to compare more than two things. Superlative sentences usually use THE, because there is only one superlative.

Examples: Abdul is the tallest in the class. Ali is tall, and Mohammad is taller, but Abdul is the tallest.

RULES FOR FORMING REGULAR COMPARATIVES & SUPERLATIVES

How these forms are created depends on how many syllables there are in the adjective.

Adjective form Comparative Superlative

One syllable, ending in E. wide, fine, cute

Add -R:wider, finer, cuter

Add -ST:widest, finest, cutest

One syllable word, with one consonant one vowel and one consonant at the end (except words ending in w). hot, big, drop

Double the consonant, and add -ER:

hotter, bigger, fatter

Double the consonant, and add -EST:

hottest, biggest, dropped

One syllable, with more than one vowel or more than one consonant at the end. light, neat, fast

Add -ER:

lighter, neater, faster

Add -EST:

lightest, neatest, fastest

All words ending in wslow, new, narrow

Add –ERslower, newer, narrower

Add –ESTslowest, newest, narrowest

Two syllables, ending in Y.

happy, silly, lonely

Change Y to I, then add -ER:happier, sillier, lonelier

Change Y to I, then add -EST:happiest, silliest, loneliest

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Two syllables or more, not ending in Y. modern, interesting, beautiful

Use MORE before the adjective:more modern, more interesting, more beautiful

Use MOST before the adjective:most modern, most interesting, most beautiful

IRREGULAR COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES

Examples:

GOOD / BETTER / BEST

These tools are GOOD.These tools are BETTER than those tools.These are the BEST tools you can buy.

BAD / WORSE / WORST

Abdullah is a bad driver.Abdullah is a worse driver than Ali.Abdullah is the worst driver in the class.

ADJECTIVE

FORM

COMPARATIVE

ADJECTIVE

SUPERLATIVE

ADJECTIVE

bad worse the worstgood better the bestwell better the bestfar further the furthestfar farther the farthest

little less the leastmuch more the mostmany more the most

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LITTLE / LESS / LEAST

I have a little money.I have less money than you.I have the least money of everyone in the class.

__________________________________________________________________________________ Use AS ____________ AS to show equality.

Examples: This boy is as heavy as that boy.Ali is as intelligent as Mohammad.He studies as much as I study.

ADVERBS Most adverbs in English are formed by adding -ly to an Adjective. An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a Verb; an Adjective; another adverb; a Noun or Noun Phrase; Determiner; a Numeral; a Pronoun; or a Prepositional Phrase and can sometimes be used as a Complement of a Preposition.

Adverb Spelling Notes:i) Adjectives ending -l still take -ly; careful-carefully.ii) Adjectives ending -y change to -ily; lucky-luckilyiii) Adjectives ending -ble change to -bly; responsible-responsibly

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ADVERBS

ADVERBS OF MANNERAdverbs of manner modify a verb to describe the way the action is done.Example: She did the work carefully. ('Carefully' modifies the verb to describe the

way the work was done, as opposed to quickly, carelessly, etc..)

ADVERBS OF PLACE or LOCATIONAdverbs of place show where the action is done.Example: They live locally.

ADVERBS OF TIMEAdverbs of time show when an action is done, or the duration or frequency.Example: He did it yesterday. (When)

They are permanently busy. (Duration)She never does it. (Frequency)

ADVERB OF DEGREE

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Adverbs of degree increase or decrease the effect of the verb.Example: I completely agree with you. (This increases the effect of the verb,

whereas 'partially' would decrease it.)

ADVERBS MODIFYING ADJECTIVESAn adjective can be modified by an adverb, which precedes the adjective, except 'enough' which comes after.Example: That's really good.

It was a terribly difficult time for all of us.It wasn't good enough. ('Enough' comes after the adjective.)

ADVERBS MODIFYING ADVERBSAn adverb can modify another. As with adjectives, the adverb precedes the one it is modifying with 'enough' being the exception again.Example: She did it really well.

He didn't come last night, funnily enough.ADVERBS MODIFYING NOUNS

Adverbs can modify nouns to indicate time or place.Example: The concert will start late tomorrow.

The room is upstairs.

ADVERBS MODIFYING NOUN PHRASESSome adverbs of degree can modify noun phrases.Example: We had quite a good time.

They're such good friends.Quite; rather; such; what (What a day!) can be used in this way.

ADVERBS MODIFYING DETERMINERS, NUMERALS & PRONOUNSAdverbs such as almost; nearly; hardly; about, etc., can be used:Example: Almost half the students passed the course.

Nearly everybody came in the end.I don’t know anything about him.

PARTICIPLESThere are two participles in English: the present participle and the past participle. They can both be used as adjectives.

Present Participle:The present participle is formed by adding -ing to the base form of a verb.

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It is used in: i) Continuous or Progressive verb forms - I'm leaving in five minutes.

ii) As an adjective: A dying man

Past Participle:The past participle is formed by adding -ed to the base form, unless it is an irregular verb.

It is used: i) As an adjective - A tired group

ii) With the auxiliary verb 'have' to form the perfect tense – They have just

arrived.

iii) With the verb 'be' to form the passive - He was robbed a couple of days ago.

ADVERBS OF FREQUENCYAdverbs of frequency tell a person how often something happens.

This chart will help you understand the meaning of the adverbs of frequency. These meanings are subjective (which means everyone has a different understanding of their meaning) and are not exact. These percentages will give you a general idea of their meaning.

Frequency Adverbs Always (All of the time) 100%Almost always 90%Usually / Normally / Generally / Frequently(Most of the time) 80%

Very Often 70%Often (Much of the time) 60%Sometimes (Now and then / From time to time) 25% - 40%Occasionally 30% - 40%Infrequently 20%Seldom / Rarely / Almost never 10%Never (None of the time) 0%

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OTHER ADVERDS OF FREQUENCY

Daily = Every Day Weekly = Every Week I eat lunch daily. I visit my mother weekly.

I eat lunch every day. I visit my mother every week. Monthly = Every Month Yearly = Every Year

The meeting is held monthly. We have one vacation yearly.The meeting is held every month. We have one vacation every year

Adverbs of Frequency usually come:

1. Before the main verb. Example: I always come to class on time

2. After the verb to be Example: I am never sick

NOTE: Daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly always come after the main verb.

Examples: I get paid monthly. or We go to school daily.

PREPOSITIONSA preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb. There are no exceptions to this rule. By "noun" we include:

noun (dog, money, love) proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary) pronoun (you, him, us) noun group (my first job) gerund (swimming)

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ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS LIST

There are about 150 prepositions in English. Yet this is a very small number when you think of the thousands of other words (nouns, verbs etc). Prepositions are important words. We use individual prepositions more frequently than other individual words. In fact, the prepositions of, to and in are among the ten most frequent words in English. Here is a short list of 70 of the more common one-word prepositions. Many of these prepositions have more than one meaning. Please refer to a dictionary for precise meaning and usage.

aboard about above across after against along amid among anti around as at

before behind below beneath beside besides between beyond but by

concerning

considering

despite down during

except excepting excluding

following for from

in inside into

like

minus

near

of off on onto opposite outside

over

past per plus

regarding round

save since

than through to toward towards

under underneath unlike until up upon

versus via

with within

without

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME

Preposition Use Examples

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in

in months in July; in September; in June; in December

year in 1985; in 1999; in 2006

seasons in summer; in winter; in spring; in autumn; in the fall

part of the day in the morning; in the afternoon; in the evening

duration in a minute; in two weeks; in three years; in three days

at

part of the day at night

time of day at noon; at midnight; at 6 o'clock; at 3:15, at 4:25

celebrations at Christmas; at Easter; at Ramadan

fixed phrases at the same time; at a different time

on

days of the week on Sunday; on Friday; on Thursday

date on the 25th of December*

special holidayson Good Friday; on Easter Sunday; on my birthdayon labor day; on independence day

a specific part of a day on the morning of September the 11th*

afterfollowing something; later than something

after school; after lunch; after class; after swimming

agohow far something happened (in the past)

6 years ago; 1 month ago; 3 days ago; 5 weeks ago; 3 hours ago

beforeearlier than something; prior to something

before Christmas; before Ramadan; the day before yesterday

betweentime that separates two points

between Monday and Friday; between 3 o’clock and 4:20; between now and 4 PM; between 2005 and 2006

bynot later than a special time

by Thursday; by November; by 2007; by 3 o’clock; by next month; by next year; by Ramadan

duringthroughout an entire period of time

during the holidays; during Ramadan; during March; during 2006; during my vacation

for a specific period of time for 3 weeks; for a month; for a day; for 2 years

from ... tofrom... till/until

connects two points in time together

from Monday to Wednesdayfrom Monday till Wednesdayfrom Monday until Wednesday

past for telling time of the day 23 minutes past 6 (6:23); a quarter past 3; half past 2

sincepast time to present time… use since with a specific date or time

since Monday; since his birthday; since Ramadan

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till/until (up to)

up to a specific time or datetill tomorrow; a quarter till 3; till the year 2007until tomorrow; a quarter until 3; until next month

to for telling time of the day 23 minutes to 6 (5:37); a quarter to 3

up to (until) until a specific time or dateup to 6 hours a day; up to May 1/06; up to the end of March; up to 2007; up to tomorrow; up to a quarter to 3

within during a period of time within a day; within a month; within an hour

COMMONLY USED PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE AND DIRECTION

Preposition Use Examples

in

within enclosed spaces

in the garden; in a box; in my pocket; in a building; in my wallet; in a car; in a taxi; in a helicopter; in a boat;in an elevator; in an office; in a room; in a classroom; in the swimming pool; in the bathtub

bodies of water in the water; in the sea; in a river; in the ocean

with lines in a row; in a line; in a queue

names of countries, counties; continents; towns, cities, states

in Riyadh; in America; in the United States; in Saudi Arabia; in New York; in Texas; in Hafer Al-Batin

at

with placesat the bus stop; at the corner; at the door; at the end of the road; at the entrance; at the exit; at the cinema; at the back of the class; at the front of the class

with places on a pageat the top of the page; at the bottom of the pageBUT: in the middle of the page

onwith surfaces

on the ceiling; on the wall; on the floor; on the table on the baseball field; on the tennis court; on the base

with directions on the left; on the right; straight on

towith verbs of movement such as go, come, drive, etc.:

go to work; drive to California; come to me

IMPORTANT NOTES:

In / at / on the corner We say 'in the corner of a room', but 'at the corner (or 'on the corner') of a street'

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In / at / on the front We say 'in the front / in the back' of a car We say 'at the front / at the back' of buildings / groups of people We say 'on the front / on the back' of a piece of paper

NOTE: With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no

preposition.

I went home at 8 PM. She went inside the house.

They went downtown. The dog is going outside the building.

She went uptown. He is going downstairs to the basement.

OTHER PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE AND DIRECTION

Preposition Use Examples

abovea position directly overhead or higher than something

The picture hangs above my bed.

across from one side to the other sideYou mustn't go across this road here.There isn't a bridge across the river.

after later in time than something else The dog ran after the cat.

against to strike or come in contact with The bird flew against the window.

along in a line; from one point to another They're walking along the beach.

among in a group I like being among people.

around in a circular way We're sitting around the campfire.

behind at the back of Our house is behind the supermarket.

below lower than something, under something Death Valley is 86 metres below sea level.

beside next to Our house is beside the supermarket.

between something or somebody is on each side Our boy is between his dog and cat.

by beside He lives in the house by the river.

close to near, by Our house is close to the supermarket.

down going from a high place to a low place He came down the hill.

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from the source or beginning of something Do you come from Tokyo?

in front of the part that faces forward Our house is in front of the supermarket.

insideopposite of outside, being within something

You shouldn't stay inside the castle.

into entering something You shouldn't go into the castle.

near close to, by Our house is near the supermarket.

next to beside Our house is next to the supermarket.

off movement away from something The cat jumped off the roof.

onto to move on the top of something The cat jumped onto the roof.

opposite on the other side, across from Our house is opposite the supermarket.

out of leaving something The cat jumped out of the window.

outside opposite of inside, outdoors Can you wait outside?

over above something or somebody The cat jumped over the wall.

pastmovement that involves passing by somebody or something

Go past the post office.

round in a circle We're sitting round the campfire.

through movement from one side to another You shouldn't walk through the forest.

to towards something or somebody Can you come to me?

towards in the direction of something They walk towards the castle.

under below something The cat is under the table.

up going from a low place to a high place He went up the hill…He went up the stairs.

How to use FOR / SINCE / AGO / ALREADY / YET when referring to TIME

SINCEUse SINCE with a specified time. Refers to the time between a point in the past and now.Examples: SINCE last week SINCE Monday SINCE three o’clock

SINCE 1975 SINCE I arrived SINCE May 21 1992

Use the PRESENT PERFECT or the PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS tense with SINCEExamples: I HAVE STUDIED here SINCE last month.

I HAVE BEEN STUDYING here SINCE last month.

FOR

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Use FOR with how much time. Refers to a length of time.Examples: FOR three hours FOR one day FOR a few minutes

FOR a week FOR two months FOR several yearsFOR a long time FOR a night FOR a couple of hours

All tenses can be used with FORExamples: I study for 3 hours each day. (Simple Present)

I have been studying for 3 hours. (Present Perfect Continuous)I studied for 3 hours each day (Simple Past)I will have studied here for one week. (Present Perfect)

AGOUse AGO with the SIMPLE PAST & PAST CONTINUOUS TENSES.Examples: They left a few hours AGO. (Simple Past)

They were studying a few minutes AGO. (Past Continuous)

ALREADYUse ALREADY to refer to something that occurred before now (before this time). It is often used with the PRESENT PERFECT or PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS tenses.Examples: John has ALREADY eaten.

Note: ALREADY is used with affirmative sentences and comes in the middle of the sentence.

YETUse YET to refer to something that occurs or should occur up to and including the present time. It is often used with the PRESENT PERFECT or PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS tenses.Examples: The plane hasn’t arrived YET. The plane has YET to arrive.

He hasn’t been studying YET. He has YET to study.

Note: When YET is used in negative sentences it comes at the end of a sentence.

How to use SO / TOO / EITHER / NEITHER / ALSO / AS WELL (AS) to connect sentences.

NO NEGATIVES

If there are NO NEGATIVES in a combined sentence use SO, TOO, ALSO, AS WELL

Examples: I enjoy my work. He enjoys his work.I enjoy my work AND SO does he.

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I enjoy my work AND he does TOO.I enjoy my work and he does ALSO.I enjoy my work and he does AS WELL.

ONE NEGATIVE

If there is ONE NEGATIVE in your combined sentence use NEITHER.

Examples: He didn’t like the film. I didn’t like the film.He didn’t like the film and NEITHER did I.

TWO NEGATIVES

If there are TWO NEGATIVES in your combined sentence use EITHER.

Examples: Tom isn’t coming. Fred isn’t coming.Tom isn’t coming and Fred isn’t coming EITHER.

SO AND NEITHER

SO and NEITHER come after ‘and’ in the second clause and the VERB comes before the subject.The order of the words = and + (SO or NEITHER) + VERB + subjectExamples: He likes rice. We like rice.

He likes rice and SO DO we.They haven’t gone. We haven’t gone.

They haven’t gone and NEITHER HAVE we.

NOTE: In the four cases cited above the verb in the second clause MUST have the same tense as the verb in the first clause!!! Substitute the correct auxiliary or modal verb for the main verb in the second clause of the sentence.

AS WELL AND AS WELL AS

AS WELL comes AT THE END of a sentence.AS WELL AS comes IN THE MIDDLE of a sentence.Do not use AND with AS WELL AS.

Examples: He smokes a pipe AND cigarettes AS WELL.He smokes a pipe AS WELL AS cigarettes.

How to use PREPOSITIONS TOO, SO, SUCH, ENOUGH to stress an idea or something else in a sentence.

TOO55

TOO + ADJECTIVE + INFINITIVEExample: This coffee is TOO hot to drink.

This homework is TOO hard to do.The car is TOO expensive to buy.

TOO + ADJECTIVE + FORExample: This coffee is TOO hot for me.

This homework is TOO hard for me.The car is TOO expensive for me.

TOO + ADJECTIVE + FOR + INFINITIVEExample: This coffee is TOO hot for me to drink.

This homework is TOO hard for me to do.The car is TOO expensive for me to buy.

NOTE: TOO carries a negative idea. It indicates the impossibility of the event that follows. Example:

This coffee is TOO hot to drink. = I cannot drink this coffee because it is very hot. This homework is TOO hard for me. = I cannot do this homework because it is hard. The car is TOO expensive for me to buy. = I cannot buy this car because it is expensive.

SO

SO + ADJECTIVE or ADVERB + THAT + (CLAUSE) Example: This process is SO complex that I do not understand it.

This pizza is SO bad that I can’t eat it.This car is SO old that it shouldn’t run.

SUCH

SUCH + (ADJECTIVE) + NOUN + THAT + (CLAUSE)Example: He is SUCH a busy man that it is difficult to see him.

He is SUCH a good player that he will be an all-star.The car is SUCH a piece of junk that it should be destroyed.

ENOUGH

ADJECTIVE + ENOUGH + INFINITIVEExample: It is warm ENOUGH to remove your coat.

She is beautiful ENOUGH to win the contest.We were angry ENOUGH to kill someone.

ADJECTIVE + ENOUGH + FORExample: The coffee is sweet ENOUGH for me.

The water is warm ENOUGH for us to go swimming.

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The Omani people were hospitable ENOUGH for them.

ADJECTIVE + ENOUGH + FOR + INFINITIVEExample: The process is simple ENOUGH for us to understand.

Skiing was easy ENOUGH for us to learn.They were kind ENOUGH for the children to love them.

ENOUGH + NOUN + FORExample: There is ENOUGH heat for us.

There is ENOUGH candy for all the children.There isn’t ENOUGH food for all of us.

ENOUGH + NOUN + FOR + INFINITIVEExamples: There are ENOUGH chemicals for us to finish the experiment.

There isn’t ENOUGH money for us to keep working.There is ENOUGH heat for us to melt the metal.

How to use PREPOSITIONS IN, INTO

IN

A preposition indicating that something or somebody is within or inside something.Expressions using IN:

in between means betweenin for indicates that somebody will experience something such as a surprise in on having knowledge about or involvement in somethingin that introduces an explanation of a statementin with associated with or friendly withthe ins and outs all the detailed facts and points about something

INTO

A preposition indicating that something or somebody moves or is moved from outside to inside or toward the inner part of something

CONDITIONALSConditionals are used to talk about possible or imaginary situations.

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FIRST CONDITIONALThe first conditional is for future actions dependent on the result of another future action or event, where there is a reasonable possibility of the conditions for the action being satisfied.It is often called the "real" conditional because it is used for real - or possible - situations. These situations take place if a certain condition is met.For the first conditional the if clause (the conditional clause) uses the simple present tense.

Examples: I will go if I have enough money. OR If I have enough money I will go.I can go I can go.I may go I may go.

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SECOND CONDITIONALIt is often called the "unreal" conditional because it is used for unreal - impossible or improbable - situations. This conditional provides an imaginary result for a given situation. It is often used to express a wish. For the second conditional the if clause uses the simple past tense.

Example: I would go if I had enough money. OR If I had enough money I would go. I could go I could go.I might go I might go.

NOTE: Use were after if in the SECOND CONDITIONAL. Don’t use wasExample: If I were rich I would buy an airplane.

If he were lost he would telephone.___________________________________________________________________________

THIRD CONDITIONALThe Past Unreal Conditional is used to talk about imaginary situations in the past. You can describe what you would have done differently or how something could have happened differently if circumstances had been different.For the third conditional the if clause uses the past perfect tense.

Examples:

I would have passed the exam if I had worked harder. could have might have

ORIf I had worked harder I would have passed the exam.

could have might have

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EXPRESSIONS OF PURPOSEExpressions of purpose tell the reason why something is done.

If you want to tell the REASON WHY use these words.

TO + SIMPLE VERBIN ORDER TO + SIMPLE VERB

Examples: WHY do you come to school?I come to school TO study English.I come to school IN ORDER TO study English.

BECAUSE + clause (subject + verb) to indicate the reason.SO + clause (subject + verb) to indicate the result.

Examples: WHY did he leave early?He left early BECAUSE he was sick.He left early SO he could go to bed

FOR + NOUN

Examples: WHY will they go to the store?They will go to the store FOR some milk.I will go to Miami FOR my vacation.

TO + SIMPLE VERB or FOR + VERB ING

Examples:What are hammers used for? WHAT are knives used for?Hammers are used TO drive nails. Knives are used TO cut meat.We use hammers TO drive nails. We use knives TO cut meat.

Examples:What are hammers used for? WHAT are knives used for?Hammers are used FOR driving nails. Knives are used FOR cutting meat.We use hammers FOR driving nails. We use knives FOR cutting meat.

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CAUSATIVESThe causative is a common structure in English. It is used when one thing or person causes another thing or person to do something.

BASIC CAUSATIVE SENTENCE STRUCTURE

This is the basic structure of the active form.

person + have + agent + action verb + thing

Examples: Susan had her brother do her homeworkThe police had the suspect stop his car.We had the carpenter fix the window.

PASSIVE CAUSATIVE SENTENCE STRUCTURE

In the passive form, there is usually no agent. The action verb is in the past participle, and the object comes before it:

person + have + thing + action verb

Examples: We had our door fixed.Alice had her hair cut.Ali had the windows cleaned.

THE CAUSATIVE WITH HAVE

Use a verb word after a person and use a participle after thing

have + person + simple verb

Examples: I have the students read aloud in class.The man had the mechanic inspect the engine.They will have the barber cut their hair.We are having the men take out the furniture.

have + thing + participle

Examples: We have the building cleaned. The teacher had the lesson reviewed.He will have the car repaired next week.We are having the furniture removed.

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THE CAUSATIVE WITH GET

Use an infinitive after a person and use a participle after thing (No verb word)

get + person + infinitive (when you have someone do something)

Examples: I will get the clerk to write the report.You should get Ali to arrange the desks.Mohammad hasn’t gotten anyone to make the tape yet.

get + thing + participle (when you have something done to something)

Examples: I will get the report written.He got his book published.You should get the files arranged.

THE CAUSATIVE WITH MAKE

Use A verb after a person or thing (No infinitive, No -ing form)

make + person + verb

Examples: I can make your friend work part time.I can make him do his homework.I can make him study.

make + thing + verb

Examples: I make this radio work.I can make this car run.I make it go fast.

THE CAUSATIVE WITH LET

Let means a person gives permission for another person to do it. Use a verb after a person or thing (No -ing form, No infinitive)

let + person + verb

Examples: Would you let me join your party?Let him go home.Please let Ali go to see the colonel.

let + thing + verb word

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Examples: I can let this car cool.I let the ice melt.Ali let the cat go free.

THE CAUSATIVE WITH HELP

Help means a person assists another person to do it.Use a verb or infinitive after a person (No -ing form)

help + person + infinitive

Examples: Would you help me deliver this box?He helped me study for the exam.Ali helped Mohammad cook dinner

help + person + verb

Examples: I helped her to pack the luggage.He helped me to study for the exam.Ali helped Mohammad to cook dinner.

REPORTED SPEECHDirect speech or reported speech is the original words of the speaker. Quotation marks (“”) are used around direct speech. Reported or indirect speech uses a noun clause (that) to tell us what someone has said. Quotation marks are not used and pronouns will change from direct to indirect speech.

When the verb of the reported speech is in the past tense (said, told, asked). The verb in the noun clause will also be in the past tense. When the reported speech is a Yes / No question (do does etc.) use if or whether to begin the clause. When the reported speech is a question word (where, when etc.) the clause begins with the question word and is a sentence, not a question. Study the examples below.

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECHCommand Infinitive (to + simple verb)The police man said “Stop!” The police man said to stop.Present PastHe said, “I write letters on Tuesdays.” He said (that) he wrote letters on Tuesdays. Present Continuous Past ContinuousHe said, “I’m writing a letter.” He said (that) he was writing a letter.Present Perfect Past PerfectHe said, “I have written a letter.” He said (that) he had written a letter.Past Past PerfectHe said, “I wrote a letter yesterday.” He said (that) he had written a letter yesterday.

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Will WouldHe said, “I will write a letter tomorrow.” He said (that) he would write a letter tomorrow.Am, Is, Are going to Was, Were going toHe said, “I’m going to write a letter He said (that) he was going to write a lettertomorrow. tomorrow.Can CouldHe said, "I can write a letter next week." He said (that) he could write a letter next week.May MightHe said, “I may write a letter to John.” He said (that) he might write a letter to John.Must MustHe said, “I must write a letter to Alice.” He said (that) he must write a letter to Alice.Have to Had toHe said, “ I have to write a letter to Rob.” He said (that) he had to write a letter to Rob.Yes / No Question If or Whether Clause (no do, does, or did)He asked, “Do you want to write a letter?” He asked if (whether) I wanted to write a letter.

WH Question Word Question WH Noun ClauseHe asked, “When do you usually write He asked when I usually wrote letters.letters?”

He asked, “Where is the letter?” He asked where the letter was.

NOTE: The verb tenses change for yes / no and WH questions as above, and in reported speech there is no question. (The speaker is reporting a question not asking a question.)

PASSIVE VOICETo make a verb passive use a form of BE (am, is, are, was, were, has been, have been, had been, will be) and the past participle.

With the passive voice the subject does not do anything. Something or someone does it to the subject.

Examples: The streets are cleaned every morning.The book was written by Ali.The house was damaged by fire.

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The verb TO BE indicates the verb tense in the passive voice.

Examples: The planes are inspected daily (Present Tense)He is being punished now. (Present Continuous Tense)The job was finished yesterday. (Past Tense)A new school was being built. (Past Continuous Tense) The chairs have been painted. (Present Perfect Tense)The letter had been mailed. (Past Perfect Tense)

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Use the verb TO BE or HAVE BEEN + PAST PARTICIPLE after MODALS

Examples: The tire MUST BE CHANGED.A new procedure WILL BE FOLLOWED.Such conduct WOULD not HAVE BEEN ALLOWED.You COULD HAVE BEEN KILLED.

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GET is also used in a passive tense.

The verb combination is TO GET + PAST PARTICIPLE orMODAL + TO GET + PAST PARTICIPLE

Examples: John sometimes GETS confused in class.Ali GOT worried by the heavy traffic.Mohammad HAS GOTTEN married since we last saw him.Careless pedestrians MIGHT GET hit by a car.Abdulaziz MIGHT HAVE GOTTEN bored by the movie.

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NOTE: When the subject of the equivalent active sentence is a non-specific word like he, they, or someone, we usually leave it out of the passive sentence.

Examples: He left the book on the desk. The book was left on the desk. Someone makes this car in Japan. This car is made in Japan.They inspected the planes. The planes were inspected.

NOTE: When the subject of the equivalent active sentence is specific we usually include it in the passive sentence as the AGENT with the preposition BY.

Examples: Mr. Smith taught us last year. We were taught BY Mr. Smith last year.

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Shakespeare wrote that play. That play was written BY Shakespeare.The heavy traffic worried Ali. Ali got worried BY the heavy traffic.The fire will damage the house. The house will be damaged BY the fire.

TENSE ACTIVE PASSIVE(BE + PAST PARTICIPLE)

SIMPLE PRESENT

Mr. Smith teaches me.Ali writes many letters.I help ten students.

I am taught by Mr. Smith.Many letters are written by Ali.Ten students are helped by me

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

Mr. Smith is teaching me.Ali is writing many letters.I am helping ten students.

I am being taught by Mr. Smith.Many letters are being written by Ali.Ten students are being helped by me

SIMPLE PAST

Mr. Smith taught me.Ali wrote many letters.I help ten students.

I was taught by Mr. Smith.Many letters were written by Ali.Ten students were helped by me

PAST PROGRESSIVE

Mr. Smith was teaching me.Ali was writing many letters.I was helping ten students.

I was being taught by Mr. Smith.Many letters were being written by Ali.Ten students were being helped by me

PRESENT PERFECT

Mr. Smith has taught me.Ali has written many letters.I have helped ten students.

I have been taught by Mr. Smith.Many letters have been written by Ali.Ten students have been helped by me

FUTURE Mr. Smith will teach me.Ali will write many letters.I will help ten students.

I will be taught by Mr. Smith.Many letters will be written by Ali.Ten students will be helped by me

MODALS Mr. Smith will teach me.Ali can write many letters.I should help ten students.I would help ten students.I ought to help ten students.I must help ten students.I have to help ten students.I might help ten students.

I might have helped ten students.Ali should have sent it.

Mr. Smith will be teaching me.Ali could be writing many letters.I should be helping ten students.I would be helping ten students.I ought to be helping ten students.I must be helping ten students.I have to be helping ten students.I might be helping ten students.

I might have been helping ten students.It should have been sent by Ali.

TAG QUESTIONSA tag question can be made by making a statement and putting an auxiliary verb and a pronoun at the end. Use must be careful to use the proper auxiliary (helping) or modal verb to make a tag question.

AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE NEGATIVE TAG QUESTIONS

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He came, didn’t he?

He is coming, isn’t he?

They agree. don’t they?

You will help, won’t you?

We have seen it, haven’t we?

We can leave, can’t we?

She was here, wasn’t she?

He should be here, shouldn’t he?

NEGATIVE SENTENCES AFFIRMATIVE TAG QUESTIONSHe didn’t come, did he?

He isn’t coming, is he?

They don’t agree, do they?

You won’t help, will you?

We haven’t seen it, have we?

We can’t leave, can we?

She wasn’t here, was she?

He shouldn’t be here, should he?

NOTE: The tag question after I AM is AREN”T I

Examples: I’m next in line. AREN”T I?I am on duty tomorrow. AREN”T I?

EMBEDDINGEmbedding is a way to include yes / no and WH question word questions in another sentence. The embedded question becomes a noun clause. The new sentence is no longer a question. If the embedded question is originally a yes / no question it is introduced by if or whether. The order of the words changes from the original question when the question is embedded in another sentence. In other words:

Original Question Word Order = Auxiliary (Helping Verb) + Subject + Main Verb

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Embedded Question Word Order = Subject + Auxiliary (Helping Verb) + Main Verb

Examples:

Original Question Word Order Embedded Question Word OrderIs he sick? I don’t know if he is sick.Do they know John? I wonder if they know John.

If the question is a WH question word question the clause is introduced by the WH question word and the other words changes as follows:

Original Question Word Order = WH ? + Auxiliary (Helping Verb) + Subject + Main Verb Embedded Question Word Order = WH ? + Subject + Auxiliary (Helping Verb) + Main Verb.

Examples:

Original Question Word Order Embedded Question Word OrderWhen can we leave? They didn’t tell us when we can leave.Where is the post office? They want to know where the post office is.How will he go? He hasn’t decided how he will go.What has he decided? I have no idea what he has decided.Why is he doing that? I don’t know why he is doing that.Who are they? I have no idea who they are.

Note: The subject of the embedded question clause comes immediately after the WH question word or IF or WHETHER. DO, DOES, and DID cannot be used in this kind of clause. DON’T, DOESN’T, and DIDN’T can be used. Other auxiliary (helping) verbs and modals can be used but remember that they come after the subject in the clause.

Embedded question clauses are often used as the object after verbs like know, wonder, understand, ask, tell, find out, learn, hear, be sure, decide, remember and have.

This kind of verb can also occur as the subject of a sentence (What he told us surprised everyone.)

Note: Remember that the verb TO BE does not have auxiliary (helping) verbs in the present and past tenses. In embedded clauses the verb TO BE must come after the subject and it is often the last word in the clause. (I don’t know where they ARE. He hasn’t heard what the answer IS.)

CLAUSESDefinition of Clause:

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A Clause is a part of a sentence that usually contains a Subject and a Verb. It is usually connected to the other part of the sentence by a conjunction. It is not a complete sentence on its own.

Example: I don't know what I'm going to wear to the wedding.The boy who sits next to me never does his homework.I believe that she told the truth.

Independent ClauseThe independent clause is the main idea (main clause) of the sentence. It is not dependent on

another clause for meaning and context. (see examples following dependent clause definition)

Dependent Clause The dependent clause is the subordinate idea of the sentence. It is dependent on another clause

for meaning and context. A dependent clause can be a relative clause such as a noun clause, and an adjective clause or it can be an adverb clause. Basically any clause can be a dependent clause if it is not the subject (main idea or independent clause) of a sentence

Examples of: I don't know what I'm going to wear to the wedding.independent I don't know = independent clause& dependent what I'm going to wear to the wedding = dependent clauseclauses The boy who sits next to me never does his homework.

The boy never does his homework = independent clausewho sits next to me= dependent clause

I believe that she told the truth.I believe = independent clausethat she told the truth = dependent clause

Relative Clause Any clause that modifies a noun in a sentence, or a noun phrase, is a relative clause.

Defining Relative Clause A defining relative clause gives essential information about the noun or noun phrase it modifies, without which the sentence wouldn't make sense as the listener or reader would not be able to identify the noun in the sentence.

Example: The boy who sits next to me never does his homework.who sits next to me… This clause gives essential information about the boy. It answers the question which boy.

Non-Defining Relative Clause: A non-defining relative clause gives extra information about a noun or noun phrase and has commas at both ends.

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Example: The actor, pausing for a moment, looked at the crowd.pausing for a moment… This clause gives extra information about a noun (the actor) but this information is not essential to the sentence.

Noun Clause Noun clauses serve as subjects and objects of verbs and prepositions, just like regular nouns.

Noun Clauses as SubjectsNoun clauses are not complete sentences all by themselves. A noun clause is used as either the subject of a sentence or an object. If the noun clause is acting as the subject of the sentence, then you still need a verb (and possibly other words) to make a complete sentence.

Example: That she is telling the truth should be obvious to everyone.

In this sentence, the noun clause, "That she is telling the truth," is the subject of the sentence. We make a complete sentence by adding the verb, "should be" and the other words, "obvious to everyone."

Noun Clauses as ObjectsWhile noun clauses can serve as the subjects of a sentence, they usually serve as objects. When they are objects, you need to have a subject and verb in order to make a complete sentence.

Example: I need to know if the meeting has been cancelled.

In this sentence, the noun clause, "if the meeting has been cancelled," is the object of the verb, "need to know." We make a complete sentence by having a subject and verb, "I need to know," before the object.

Adjective Clause Adjective clauses generally describe nouns to make them clear to the reader.

Subject Adjective ClauseA subject adjective clause is like an adjective except it comes after the noun.

In subject adjective clauses we substitute WHO, WHICH, or THAT for the subject of the clause.

For people use WHO or THATExample: The man looks mean. The man is holding a gun.

WHO… The man WHO is holding the gun looks mean.THAT… The man THAT is holding the gun looks mean.

For things use WHICH or THATExample: This is the letter. The letter arrived yesterday.

WHICH… This is the letter WHICH arrived yesterday.

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THAT… This is the letter THAT arrived yesterday.

NOTE: The subject adjective clause must immediately follow the noun it describes.

Subject adjective clauses which contain is, are, was or were can be shortened. The verb TO BE is removed along with the relative word (who, which, that). Notice that when this happens the noun can be followed by a prepositional phrase, the ING form of the verb (present participle), or the past participle of the verb (passive)(verb three).

Examples: The students who are in the class should pass.

The students in the class should pass. (prepositional phrase)

The man who is wearing the jacket is his father. The man wearing the jacket is his father. (present participle phrase = active)

The students who were taught by Tom are happy. (past participle phrase = passive)The students taught by Tom are happy.

Object Adjective Clause In object adjective clauses the noun which the clause describes is the object of the verb in the clause.

Examples: The house is very beautiful. He built the house in Riyadh.The house WHICH he built in Riyadh is very beautiful.The house THAT he built in Riyadh is very beautiful.The house he built in Riyadh is very beautiful.

The student is from Jeddah. They are talking to the student.The student WHO they are talking to is from Jeddah.The student THAT they are talking to is from Jeddah.The student they are talking to is from Jeddah.The student WHOM they are talking to is from Jeddah.

IMPORTANT1. As in subject adjective clauses WHO is used for people, WHICH is used for things, and

THAT can usually be substituted for WHO or WHICH.

2. The relative pronouns WHO, WHICH, or THAT can usually be left out of the clause without making the meaning unclear.

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3. Subject Adjective Clauses and Object Adjective Clauses must follow immediately after the word it describes.

Possessive Adjective ClauseA possessive adjective clause is like an adjective except it comes after the noun. In possessive adjective clauses we substitute the possessive pronoun WHOSE for the noun the adjective clause describes.

Example: The woman whose baby cried during dinner was my sister.

Location Adjective ClauseA location adjective clause is like an adjective except it comes after the noun. In location adjective clauses the WH question word where comes after the noun the adjective clause describes.

Example: The house where we had the party belongs to my Uncle Kenneth.

Adverb Clause

An adverb clause is not a relative clause since it does not modify a noun or noun phrase. It acts like an adverb because it describes a verb. Adverb clauses tell us WHEN, WHERE, HOW, WHY, and to WHAT extent something happened.

Use WHERE for place.

They drove down the street. A new hotel is being built on the street.They drove down the street WHERE a new hotel is being built.They drove… WHERE a new hotel is being built.WHERE a new hotel is being built describes where (the place) they drove.

Use WHEN for time or date.Spring is a season. Many flowers bloom in the spring.

Spring is the season WHEN many flowers bloom.Spring is… WHEN many flowers bloom.WHEN many flowers bloom tells us the time. It relates back to the verb is.

Use WHY for reason.

He was absent for a reason. The reason was that his father was sick.The reason WHY he was absent was that his father was sick.The reason… he was absent was that his father was sick. In this sentence the clause that his father was sick describes why he was absent. It refers back to the verb absent so therefore is an adverb clause.

Use HOW for method.71

He wants to cook a cake. He can’t remember what to do. He can’t remember HOW to cook a cake.HOW to cook a cake. describes what he cannot remember. It refers back to the verb remember therefore it is an adverb clause.

Use WHAT for clarification.

I do not understand. Please say your words clearly.I do not understand WHAT you are saying.WHAT you are saying is an adverb clause because it describes WHAT he does not understand. It refers back to the verb understand.

PHRASESPhrase: A phrase is a group of related words that does not contain BOTH a subject and a verb.

Prepositional PhrasePrepositional phrases start with a preposition (such as in, at, by, for, to, over, etc.), have a noun or pronoun object of the preposition, and may also have other modifiers. Prepositional phrases function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.

Examples:The announcement for the play arrived after it was over. (as adjective)

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He walked into the meeting just as the president arrived. (as adverb)For you to pass your test is the reason for having a tutor. (as a noun; the subject)

Participial PhraseParticipial phrases are formed from participles and all the related words. Participles are formed from verbs and end in "ing" or "ed." Participles function as adjectives; therefore, participial phrases also function as adjectives. They often describe the subject of the sentence.

Examples;Laughing wildly, she ran down the path. (Describes "she")The actor, pausing for a moment, looked at the crowd. (Describes "actor")He showed us the cabinet, painted a brilliant green. (Describes the object "cabinet")

Infinitive PhraseAn infinitive phrase is formed from an infinitive and other related words. An infinitive is the word "to" followed by a verb. This type of phrase functions as a noun, adjective, or an adverb.

Examples:To get an appointment with him requires a great amount of patience. (As a noun subject)He wrote a letter to raise funds for the foundation. (As an adverb)The decision to eliminate vacations was very unpopular. (As an adjective)

Gerund PhraseA gerund phrase if formed from a gerund plus its related words. A gerund is a verb with an "ing" ending that functions as a noun. Gerund phrases look like some participial phrases. The difference is that participial phrases function as adjectives; gerund phrases function as nouns.

Examples:Geraldine's singing always enthralls the audience. (As subject)Sam hates getting a headache when he works late. (As direct object)His favorite activity is sailing down the Nahanni River. (As subject complement)

Verb PhraseA verb phrase consists of a verb and all the related helping words such as participles.

Example:I have been asking for a raise for ten years.

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