HISTORY

GRADE 12

RESOURCE PACK

2020

TOPIC:

THE COLD WAR

EXTENTION OF THE COLD WAR: THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISES

CONTENT

1. CONCEPTS

2. SUMMARY-MIND MAP

3. INFORMAL ASSESSMENT TASK

CONCEPTS

COLD WAR

A state of hostility between nations without physical fighting.

An economic and ideological struggle between the super powers-United State of America and United Soviet Republic and their allies.

A period of tension from end of World War II to 1989.

A spark for the biggest arms race in history with fears of a nuclear war.

Definition Cold War

COMMUNISM

It is a doctrine (belief) that advocates a classless society in which private ownership has been abolished and means of production belongs to the community.

Communist countries are often one-party state in which industry and agriculture are controlled by the state.

The government controls most aspects of a person’s life and there is strong censorship of what is written and said.

CAPITALISM

It is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and distribution of goods, characterized by a free competitive market and motivated by profit.

DEMOCRACY

A system of government based on the will of the people.

It is a government for the people by the people in the form of their elected representatives.

It therefore means the citizens of a country have the ability to choose their representatives and to effectively take part in the decisions made on issues that affect them and society in general

BRINKMANSHIP

The practice, especially in international relations, of taking a dispute to the verge of conflict in the hope of forcing the opposition to make concessions

Complete the concepts below:

CONTAINMENT

QUARANTINE

BLOCKADE

NATIONALIZATION

CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

1. Background on the History of Cuba before 1959

· Why was Cuba important to the USA?

· Cuba served an economic purpose

· They were forced to sell raw materials to Americans for low prices.

· Cuba bought American manufactured goods.

· The USA invested heavily in Cuban economy

· Many businesses in Cuba were owned by the USA businesses

· Main crops such as sugar were sold to the USA

· The railway industry was run by the USA who controlled the telephone system and tobacco plantations.

· Guantanamo Bay was an important US naval base

· The US controlled Cuban politics making sure it was favourable to America.

· Cuba was a holiday island for rich Americans

· Batista ruled Cuba as dictator from 1952 – 1959

· Batista’s corrupt rule supported by the USA

· There was a wide gap between wealthy and poor Cubans

2. Events after 1959

· Cuba also a hot spot for Cold War tensions

· Fidel Castro and the Cuban revolutionaries wrestled Cuba from the Batista government and capitalist USA domination in 1959

· Castro adopts anti – USA stance

· All foreign assets seized and major industries nationalised

· Castro turns to USSR for help

· USSR provided economic and military aid

· Castro allows the USSR to establish and set up nuclear bases in Cuba

· The missiles when launched had the capacity to reach USA cities

USA’s response

· USA concerned, as Cuba is in close proximity

· They also feared the spread of communism

· USA refused to buy Cuban sugar and ended all other trade links with Cuba (1960)

3. The Bay of Pigs invasion

· The USA cut off diplomatic ties with Cuba in 1961

· CIA encouraged and funded a failed Bay of Pigs invasion by anti – Castro Cuban exiles

· President Kennedy supported the invasion by the exiles

· The invasion – Bay of Pigs – was a disaster

· There was no popular uprising to support the invasion

· Kennedy denied all involvement in the operation

· It was a humiliation for the new USA president

· Results of the invasion – Bay of Pigs

· Castro declared Cuba a Communist State in December 1961

· He approached the USSR to provide arms to defend Cuba against further attacks from the US

1961 - BAY OF PIGS

4. Cuban missile Crisis 1962

· Khrushchev announced it publicly that the USSR has agreed to provide arms

· The USA was concerned that this action will lead to the spread of communism in the region

· Kennedy responded by saying that the USA will isolate Cuba

· He warned the USSR not to put nuclear missiles Cuba in Cuba

· Increasing Superpower tension

· It was also broadened by the acceleration in the arms race

· The sending of missiles by Russia increased the Cold War tension

· Khrushchev’s reasons may have been:

· It would reduce the advantage held by the USA. The USA had missiles placed in Turkey and Italy, which bordered the USSR, (Jupiter missiles).

· To act as a deterrent against another attack.

· Cuba was the only communist country in the western hemisphere.

· To send out a message of strength to the USA

· The Soviet wanted a base close to the USA for its medium-range missiles.

· To increase the number of soviet war-heads. (close the gap)

The crisis unfolds 1962

· 1962 August - US spy planes observed weapons in Cuba.

· September - Khrushchev secretly started to send nuclear weapons to Cuba.

· 4 September - Kennedy warned the USSR not to put nuclear missiles in Cuba.

· 11 September - The Soviet government assured the USA it would not base nuclear missiles outside the USSR.

· 14 October - An American U-2 aircraft took a series of reconnaissance photographs 20 km above the island 5 October.

· 15 October - Defence experts concluded that the site was being prepared for a number of medium-range ballistic missiles. They would soon be ready to fire.

· 16 October - Alarmed by the intelligence reports, Kennedy quickly called a meeting of top level advisers, including his brother, Robert Kennedy, the Attorney General. This group, which met frequently during the crisis, became known as the Executive Committee (Ex-Comm). One member later recalled that Kennedy was more tense than he had ever seen him. He was ‘absolutely determined that the missiles would leave Cuba’.

· 19 October – Further reconnaissance photos revealed more missile sites, this time threatening a longer-range strike. The experts said that the Soviets were working non-stop and that the missile sites were nearly ready.

· 22 October - Kennedy announced a naval blockade of Cuba. All ships carrying weapons to Cuba were to be turned back. The armed forces were placed on high alert. The USSR was told that the USA would retaliate against any missile launched from Cuba against a Western nation. That evening Kennedy went on television to make a live broadcast to the American people. It was probably the most important speech made in the whole period of the Cold War.

· 23 October - The Soviet government insisted that it was simply helping Cuba to defend itself and that the USA was interfering in Cuba's affairs. Khrushchev accused the USA of pushing the world towards nuclear war.

· 24 October - The blockade was in place. Approximately twenty-five Soviet ships were spread across the Atlantic on their way to Cuba.Then, at 10.25 a.m. Kennedy received the most important message of his political career: a number of ships had stopped dead in the mid-Atlantic. One oil tanker was allowed through without being searched. The rest turned back.

· 26 October - Khrushchev sent a letter to Kennedy hinting that he was ready to make some sort of agreement. The USSR might withdraw the missiles if Kennedy promised not to invade Cuba. A second message then arrived insisting that the USSR would only remove their missiles from Cuba if the USA removed theirs from Turkey. The Executive Committee advised Kennedy not to give in to Soviet Kennedy not to give in to Soviet demands 'at the point of a gun'. Khrushchev was obviously coming under pressure from hard-line generals to stand up to the USA. Hence, the second message. The crisis seemed to be getting out of hand.

· 27 October - An American U-2 plane was shot down over Cuba, killing the pilot. Although Castro had acted on his own, Kennedy was stunned. He believed that the Cuban leader was following Soviet orders. Some of Kennedy's more hard-line advisers urged the president to attack Cuba. The world was on the brink of nuclear war. Kennedy had already moved his wife and children to Washington so that they could be in the presidential bunker. At this stage Kennedy's attitude softened. A second U-2 flew into Soviet air space. Kennedy apologised. It was at this stage that Robert Kennedy helped to solve the crisis. He suggested that the USA should reply to the first message and ignore the second, more aggressive one. Kennedy's reply to Khrushchev therefore said that the USA would promise not to invade Cuba but would not make a decision on Turkey until they had talked to their NATO allies. In return for the Cuban guarantee, America demanded the withdrawal of the Soviet missiles from Cuba.

· 28 October - Radio Moscow announced that the nuclear weapons would be removed. Privately, the Americans agreed to remove their missiles from Turkey as long as the USSR kept it a secret

5. The consequences of the Cuban Missile crisis

· Cuba remained Communist, / Khrushchev lost credibility:

· Marxist-Leninism failed to spread to other regions/ Communist China broke ties with USSR for backing down/

· USA Naval and trade blockade remained intact/

· Kennedy gained popularity: He was seen as the man that faced down the

Soviets/ He also ignored second letter which would have required an actual

withdrawal of missiles from Turkey – this would have been seen as a defeat for

· US. Instead he accepted the 1st letter which simply required JFK to say he would not invade Cuba (i.e. would not act). Thus there was no public retreat from policy for JFK. However, he did want to use the bargaining potential of removing his missiles without actually publically admitting to it so sent his brother (would seem like he was very sincere) to imply rather than promise a withdrawal of missiles –thus saving face, no written promises, so could deny if ever challenged

CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS-TED TALK

QUESTION FOCUS:THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

INFORMAL ASSESSMENT

ACTIVITY 1

KEY QUESTION: HOW DID CONTAINMENT AND BRINKMANSHIP DOMINATE THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS?

Hints

When working with sources you need to do the following:

REMEMBER: The key question provides the focus of the content in the sources.

It will also be asked as the paragraph question.

1. The source will be labelled e.g. Source 1A ; 1B ;1 C

2. Immediately after the label the part that follows tell you what it is about

(contextualised). In most cases it will indicate what the source is about, why it was written, who wrote (owner of) the source, when it was written and where the event took place. The colours used in the contextualisation answer the questions indicated here.

3. Read the source with understanding.

4. Highlight concepts / terms. In this source e.g. totalitarianism

SOURCE 1A

An extract from H. Khrushchev memoirs in which he recalls the Cuban Missile Crisis

I will explain what the Caribbean crisis (Cuban Missile crisis) of October 1962 was all about….. After Castro’s crushing victory over counter – revolutionaries. We intensified our military aid to Cuba ….

We were quite convinced that the Americans would never reconcile themselves to the existence of Castro’s Cuba. They feared as much as we hoped, that socialist Cuba might become a magnet that would lead other Latin American countries to socialism….. The fate of Cuba and the maintenance of Soviet prestige in that part of the world preoccupied me.

We had to establish a tangible and an effective deterrent to American interference in Cuba…. I had the idea of installing missiles with nuclear warheads in Cuba without letting the USA find out they were there until it was too late…. We had no desire to start a war.

We sent a note to the Americans saying that we agree to remove our missiles and bombers on condition that the President gave us the assurance there would be no invasion of Cuba. Finally Kennedy gave in…..

The two most powerful nations of the world had squared off against each other, each with its finger on the button

From. Khrushchev Remembers 1964

0. Refer to Source 1A

0. What do you understand by the concept “brinkmanship” in the context of the Cold War.

(1 x 2) (2)

1.1.2 Quote evidence from the source that supports the USA’s domino theory. (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.3 What, according to the source, was the main reason for Russia’sdecision to place missiles in Cuba?

(1 x 2) (2)

1.1.4 Explain the conditions laid down by USSR to remove missiles planted in Cuba.

(2 x 2) (4)

1.1.5How did the Americans respond to USSR’s demands?

(1 x 2) (2)

1.1.6 What is implied (suggested) by the following: ” each with its fingers on the button”? (2 x 2) (4)

Answer:

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INFORMAL ASSESSMENT

ACTIVITY 2

Refer to Source 1B

SOURCE 1B

An editorial cartoon depicting a western – style showdown between cowboys:

Left: USA president; Right: The Cuban president riding on a donkey and the Soviet leader riding on a horse; Illustration by Leslie Illingworth from the Daily Mail (London) Courtesy of the Library of Congress

1.

http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/uhic/ReferenceDetailsPage/

1.2.1 Identify the THREE Presidents shown in the source. (3 x 1) (3)

1.2.2 Do you think that the stance, as supported in the source by the

USA President, was an aggressive one?

Use the source to support your answer. (2 x 2) (4)

1.2.3 Explain why the Russian President rides a horse whilst the

Cuban President rides a donkey in the context of the Cold War. (2 x 2) (4)

1.2.4 How reliable is this source to a historian studying the Cuban Missile

Crisis? (2 x 2) (4)

Answer

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ACTIVITY 3

SOURCE 1C

John. F. Kennedy’s Speech on Radio and Television (an extract)

October 22, 1962

Good Evening, My Fellow Citizens:

This government, as promised, has maintained the closest surveillance of the Soviet military build-up on the island of Cuba. Within the past week, unmistakable evidence has established the fact that a series of offensive missile sites is now in preparation on that imprisoned island. The purpose of these bases can be none other than to provide a nuclear strike capability against the Western Hemisphere…

The characteristics of these new missile sites indicate two distinct types of installations. Several of them include medium range ballistic missiles, capable of carrying a nuclear warhead for a distance of more than 1,000 nautical miles. Each of these missiles, in short, is capable of striking Washington D.C., the Panama Canal, Cape Canaveral, Mexico City, or any other city in the south eastern part of the United States, in Central America or in the Caribbean area.

Acting, therefore, in the defence of our own security and of the entire Western Hemisphere, and under the authority entrusted to me by the Constitution as endorsed by the resolution of the Congress, I have directed that the following initial steps be taken immediately:

First: To halt this offensive build-up, a strict quarantine on all offensive military equipment under shipment to Cuba is being initiated. All ships of any kind bound for Cuba from whatever nation and port will, if found to contain cargoes of offensive weapons, be turned back. This quarantine will be extended, if needed, to other types of cargo and carriers. We are not at this time, however, denying the necessities of life as the Soviets attempted to do in their Berlin blockade of 1948…

Third: It shall be the policy of this nation to regard any nuclear missile launched from Cuba against any nation in the Western Hemisphere as an attack on the United States, requiring a full retaliatory response upon the Soviet Union…

Thank you and good night.

http://www.historywiz.com/primarysources/kennedyspeechcuba.html

ACTIVITY 3

Study Source 1A; B; C

Use your own knowledge and the relevant sources to write a paragraph of about EIGHT lines (about 80 words) explaining on how brinkmanship and containment dominated the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. (8)

ANSWER

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TOPIC: HOW DID CHINA RISE AS A WORLD POWER AFTER 1949?

QUESTION FOCUS ESSAY

Background: Events leading up to the Communist takeover in 1949

· Hostilities between the Guomindang and CCP eased during WW2, as the Chinese struggled against Japanese occupation.

· After WW2 the Civil War continued

· Years of corruption, mistreatment and pro-capitalist policies had made Chiang Kai-shek’s government unpopular, particularly with China’s 400 million peasants

· Chinese Communist party -Operated underground

· Supported peasant class

· Promise free land and abolishment of class system

· Communist Red Army skilled in guerrilla warfare

· After four more years of civil war, Chiang Kai-shek and his cohort were forced to flee to the safety of Taiwan.

· 1949 War ended- Communist gained victory

· In October 1949 thousands rallied in Tiananmen Square, Beijing, where Mao Zedong proclaimed victory and the birth of a new communist state:

· The People’s Republic of China (PRC).

Hundred Flowers Campaign

· In 1957 Mao asked for criticism and discussion about China's problems

· He wanted to establish which people were against him and punish them

· There was a lot of criticism of the Five Year Plan and its effects,

· Even Mao himself was criticised by some people

· Most of the critics were arrested, lost their jobs and were sent to labour camps for ‘re-education’

Great Leap Forward

Economic Changes

· 1953-57: 1st five-year plan (aimed to promote industrialisation)

· Mao considered Khrushchev’s thinking as ‘revisionism’ or a softening of communism

· Mao abandoned the Stalinist model of Five – Year Plans for the “Great Leap Forward”

· As a result of the successful economic reconstruction that had taken place in the early 1950s Mao Zedong considered the conditions ripe for a Great Leap Forward in early 1958

· 1958-61: ‘The Great Leap Forward’. –Transform China economy from agricultural based economy to industrial one

· The Great Leap was not merely a bold economic project. It was also intended to show the Soviet Union that the Chinese approach to economic development was more vibrant, and ultimately would be more successful, than the Soviet model that had been followed intensely until then

· It was an ambitious plan to turn China into a modern state in a single generation

· A massive industrialisation programme was followed with collectivisation of farm land

· Mao’s plans to industrialise China resulted in mass famine.

· An estimated 20 million people died. The policy was abandoned.

· After 1976 : China embraced aspects of capitalist economy.

· SOCIAL CHANGES

· New emphasis on improving the health, welfare and literacy of the majority peasant population.

· Literacy increased from 20% in 1949 to 90% by mid-1960s.

· POLITICAL CHANGES

· China became one party state and Chairman Mao became a virtual ruler

Outcome/ consequences/ results of the Great Leap Forward

· Agricultural output decreased

· 1959 famine (drought) worsened poor production – many peasants died of starvation

· Steel production – poor quality

· Corrupt officials and bad planning

· Failed and abandoned within 3 years (lack of support from farmers)

· State taxed farmers production heavily

· Mao relaxed authoritarian form of government to accommodate the moderates in the CCP – but not for long

· GREAT LEAP FORWARD

The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)

· The Aims of the Cultural Revolution(Great proletarian Cultural Revolution) were to:

· Reinforce communist principles: Mao’s ‘Little Red Book’-Mao philosophies about communism

· Re-establish Mao’s authority as leader of China Chairman of the Communist Party (NB: context of Mao’s failed Great Leap Forward).

· Prepare China’s youth to inherit socialism.

· Purge China of the four ‘Olds’: Old customs, old culture, old habits, old ideas.

· Red Army-Red Guards-killed anti-revolutionary

· Meant to reinforce communist principles

· Led to killings of those opposed to Communism

· Red army (joined by many students) became Red Guards and got rid of communist opponents

· Red Guards killed (purged) anti-revolutionaries (intellectuals, educators, doctors, lecturers, writers & economists)

· Schools and universities were closed

· Economy suffered

· The ‘Little Red Book’ explained Mao’s philosophies (thoughts) and became a source of ‘propaganda’

Impact of the Cultural Revolution

· Around 1 million of opponents of communism were killed

· Schools/ universities were closed

· Red Guards taught reading and writing

· Economy suffered

· Anti - communist art work, books and monuments were destroyed

· Red Guards fought against their colleagues (mistrust)

· Oct 1968, Liu Shao-chi’s expulsion signified end of Cultural Revolution. Other historians, believe it continued until his death in 1976

China – Cultural Revolution

ESSAY QUESTION

HOW TO WRITE ESSAYS

· Essay questions require learners to take a stance and to develop a relevant and coherent line of argument.

· The line of argument must be supported with relevant historical evidence, that is organised and connected chronologically to the question posed.

· Good essay writing involves structure, and this should be emphasised to learners.

· The essay must have a relevant introduction, a coherent and convincing body of evidence and a compelling conclusion for example:

Introduction

· Should make it clear to the reader, what is going to be discussed and the line of argument that is going to be followed in the rest of the essay.

· If you read the first sentence of a paragraph or the first paragraph of a longer piece of writing and you cannot work out clearly what the original question was, then the introduction has failed in its primary purpose.

BODY (PEEL)

· P = POINT: The opening sentence of your paragraph must make a clear statement or point.

· E = EXPLAIN: The next few sentences in your paragraph should explain the point you have just made.

· E = EVIDENCE: The next few sentences should give evidence to substantiate [support] the statement [point] you have made above. This will be the dates, details, facts, figures from reading your textbook and source material.

· L = LINK: At the end of your paragraph you must link back to the essay question and/ or forward to the next paragraph.

· Should contain all the relevant factual material/content and should be explicitly linked to the line of argument.

· Should be well structured in a chronological and coherent manner, displaying good synthesis of information.

· Give examples to reinforce the stance taken

CONCLUSION

· Learners should round off the argument by reverting to the question posed.

· In many cases this will consist of restating the main line of argument.

ESSAY TYPE QUESTION:

QUESTION: THE COLD WAR: CASE STUDY CHINA

“Mao Zedong”s policies of the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural revolution failed to stabilize China’s economy “

Do you agree with the statement? Use relevant historical evidence to support your line of argument.

HISTORY ESSAY WRITING FRAME

Question: (Write the Essay Question in the space below)

· Underline the Key ‘instruction’ words?

· Any terms/names/dates need explaining.

Introduction: (Write your introduction below)

Your introduction should contextualise the question (Who? what? where? when?) and directly address or answer the essay question.

PARAGRAPH 1:

(A) First sentence of first paragraph (PEEL)

(Check: Have you made your key point?)

(B) Development/explanation of point? (PEEL)

(C) Evidence to support your argument? (PEEL)

1.

2.

3.

(D) Check: Have you referred back to the question/linked the point explicitly to the question? YES? NO

(E) Link to next paragraph/point? (PEEL)

PARAGRAPH 2:

(A) First sentence of second paragraph

Check: Have you made your key point? YES/ NO

(B) Development/explanation of the point?

(C) Evidence to support your argument?

1.

2.

3.

(D) Check: Have you referred back to the question/linked the point explicitly to the question? YES / NO

(E) Link to next paragraph point?

Repeat steps (A) – (E) for each paragraph in your essay.

CONCLUSION:

This essay writing frame can be used for structuring any History essay.

Use it with the paragraph structuring frame (Point > Explain >Example >Link) and guidelines for writing introductions and conclusions.

Learners can adapt this frame to include as many paragraphs as they need.

TOPIC: INDEPENDENT AFRICA

QUESTION FOCUS: CASE STUDY ANGOLA

CONTENT

1. CONCEPTS

2. SUMMARY-MIND MAP

3. ASSESSMENT

African Socialism

This is a belief in sharing economic resources in a traditional African way.

Afro-Marxism

This is ideology adopted by many African countries wherein there is a one party state that exercises centralized policy making. There is economic collectivization and a nationalized economy.

Neo-Colonialism

Refers to the continued exploitation of Africa’s resources by the former colonial powers and the develop world.

Private sector

The part of the economy that is not state controlled and is run by individuals in companies for profit.

Socialism

An economic system based on the idea that the enterprises which produce wealth should be owned by those who work in them.

Capitalism

An economic system where individuals own the enterprises which produce wealth, such as factories, farms and mines

Marxism

A particular version of socialism developed by karl Marx which is also called communism

Secede

Break away

Africanisation

To transfer to African control

Eurocentric

Focusing on European culture or history to the exclusion of a wider view of the world

Proxy war

A war supported by major powers without them fighting each other

Policy of destabilization

The actions of making governments and countries less stable

Communism

is a political and economic system whereby the state takes full responsibility for its citizens. Centrally controlled economic and political system which is an alternative to capitalism.

Democracy

A political system in which all citizens are free to elect representatives to establish a multi-party government

Neo-colonialism

(neo-meaning new or revived colonialism) ironically Africa with its rich resources enriched foreign powers in a one-sided relationship (exploitation) which favored the former colonial powers. African nations were given political independence but did not attain economic freedom.

One-Party State

System of government where only one political party is legally permitted to exist/function

Dictatorship

An individual ruler who takes total control of all state power. Often results in the creation of a personality cult through the use of security forces to eliminate all forms of opposition

INDEPENDENT AFRICA: CASE STUDY ANGOLA

How Africa was drawn into the Cold War?

· African decolonization occurred during the Cold War.

· Both USA and USSR used aid packages, technical assistance and even military assistance to liberation movements to draw African countries into their spheres of influence.

· Angola is rich in minerals: Oil, diamonds, gold, uranium, copper + fishing industry – a very desirable colony and ally.

Angola: Colonialism and Independence

· Portuguese presence / trade in Angola from the 1480s

· Berlin Conference 1885: control formalized

· 1951: Portugal considered Angola to be an oversees province of Portugal: Policy of Assimilation

· Portugal rejected calls for Independence from 1950s

· War of Independence (1961 – 1974)

· Coup by pro-democracy army officers in Portugal 1974

· Jan. 1975: Alvor Accords: to prepare for take-over by 3 liberation movements (were not honored).

· Elections set for 11/ 11/1975 (did not happen)

Civil War Broke out in 1974

· In 1974 each of the three liberation movements declared themselves the official government from their separate capital cities.

MPLA : LuandaUNITA : HuamboFNLA : Ambriz

· Angola’s civil war soon became a proxy in which East and West played out their Cold War politics.

Reasons for international involvement in Angola  

· USSR: to support liberation from colonialism; strategic importance of Angola; a communism base in the region; within reach to give financial and military support to SWAPO.

· USA: Policy of containment – feared the spread of communism in the region; secretly sent arms to FNLA and UNITA. USA’s Clark Amendment ‘76 called for reduction of involvement in Angola - repealed in 1985 and funding for resumed: NB: Angola has OIL.

· Cuba: Castro wished to spread the revolution (US vigilantly preventing this in South America) , sent military assistance to MPLA from 1966; Number of troops deployed increased to a peak of 50 000 in late 1980s.

· China: committed to anti-imperialist struggle + to prevent spread of USSR’s influence.

· South Africa: NP’s policy of destabilization in region to stop spread of communism ; to destroy SWAPO bases.

Angola the War- Short documentary

Significance of Cuito Cuanavale (1987 – 1988

· SADF helped by UNITA and FNLA attempted to take control of Cuito Cuanavale (small town of strategic importance)

· Who Won? (Multi- perceptivity)

· Viewpoint 1:

· Defeat for Angolan Army (Fapla) by UNITA + SA

· USSR & Cuba forced to withdrew from Angola

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· Viewpoint 2

· SA(SADF) defeated by Angolan army (Fapla) and Cuban forces and forced to withdraw.

· Liberation of SWA (Namibia)

Changing nature of international relations

· 1988: New York Treaty, negotiated independence of Namibia

· Withdrawal of foreign troops from Angola

· 1989: Gbadolite Accord (famous handshake – dos Santos and Savimbi)

· 1991 (31 May): Bicesse Peace Accords

· 1992 (September) elections to be supervised by UNO

UNITA refused to accept MPLA victory – war resumed.

· 1994 (November)Lusaka protocol(international pressure)

· 1998 (December) Fourth MPLA congress

· 2002 (22 February) Savimbi killed

· 2002 (4 April) Luena Memorandum of Understanding

The Struggle for Independence in Angola:

· Angola does not border South Africa.

· This point is important to understand why the South Africans became militarily involved there.

· A major reason was that the Angolan economy was not as integrated into the South African economy as the other economies of Southern Africa are.

· Angola is potentially one of the wealthiest countries in Africa:

· International capital is still involved in a fierce competition for its resources.

· It is one of Africa’s leading oil producers, and before 1973 it was a major diamond and coffee source, and, with a population of just over 8 million, has been underpopulated since the time of the slave trade.

· Portugal was so poor that it could never fully exploit the resources of its colony and opened it to capital from other exploiters.

· U.S. investments dominated in petroleum, British capital in diamonds and the Benguela railway, German capital in the iron mines at Kassinga, and Japanese, French, and other capital in other resources.

· This multinational character of capital in Angola meant that Portugal was de facto administering its colony on behalf of the European Economic Community and the United States.

The First Defeat of South Africa, 1975–1976:

· The anticolonial struggle in Angola, which led to the 1974 coup in Portugal, was a turning point for Southern Africa.

· South Africa intervened with CIA support by land, sea, and air to stop the MPLA from coming to power.

· The Angolans asked for Cuban help to defeat the invasion led by South Africans, Zairian regulars, and CIA mercenaries.

· The South African invasion was turned back outside Luanda.

· South Africa never accepted its defeat.

· the 1987–1988 siege of Cuito Cuanavale was only the most recent in a number of stages in the ensuing military buildup.

· But the 1976 defeat at Luanda, and that in Mozambique a year earlier, also inspired the generation that was maturing in the South African townships.

· The 1976 Soweto uprisings and their aftermath formed an important watershed in the militarization of the state and society in Southern Africa.

· After the defeat in Angola and the uprisings in Soweto, a number of stages led up to the South African humiliation at Cuito Cuanavale

The War in 1976–1980:

· In this period, the South Africans were on the defensive politically and diplomatically, but were staging a massive military buildup in Namibia.

· They began conscription, constructed new military bases, and made raids against the Southwest African People’s Organization (SWAPO), which had moved its headquarters to Luanda from Dar es Salaam after 1976.

· Thousands of youths dodged conscription in the tribal regiments and joined SWAPO.

· It was at this point that the South Africans organized UNITA, which had previously been wandering in Angola without a clear mission.

· The role of UNITA changed drastically when the Carter administration persuaded the Chinese to give it 800 tons of weapons.

· This kind of weaponry enabled UNITA to wage conventional war;

· its officers were trained in Morocco, and it was thoroughly integrated into the military strategy of the SADF.

· This was a strange twist of history, for UNITA got its first weapons from SWAPO, to fight against the Portuguese.

· UNITA was now used to track SWAPO while the South African air force bombed its concentrations in Angola.

· It was in one such raid that the South Africans carried out the Kassinga massacre, in which over 800 people were killed at a SWAPO refugee camp in 1978.

· The ensuing international outcry led to the adoption of UN Resolution 435 in 1978, detailing steps leading to the independence of Namibia:

· (1)The withdrawal of South African troops, (2) the return of Namibian refugees, (3) UN-supervised elections, and (4) the “granting” of independence.

Angola Battle of Cuito Cuanavale

The Lusaka Accord of 1984

· The next major South African invasion took place in August 1983.

· Here UNITA announced it had taken Cangamba.

· The South African air force destroyed it and turned the rubble over to UNITA to show off to journalists flown in from Zambia.

· South Africa wanted UNITA to take Cuvelai so that the front of the war could be driven northward.

· Its self-confidence was heightened by the invasion of Grenada, when anticommunist rhetoric in the United States reached an incredible peak.

· The South African government intended an all-out attack on Luanda, the capital of Angola.

· This was a case in which operational objectives were confused with the political rhetoric of anticommunism.

· The South African generals said that it was operationally impossible to take Luanda, but the Magnus Malan faction within the State Security Council wanted to intensify the war.

· The Angolans were getting more experienced, and the South Africans’ Operation Askari failed.

· This failure led the United States to intercede on behalf of South African troops encircled in Angola.

· The resulting accord was named after the Zambian capital, Lusaka.

· It set up a joint military commission to oversee the withdrawal of South African troops.

The Third Period: 1984–1987

· In September, FAPLA forces started to drive against Jamba, near the Namibian border.

· South Africa intervened, but with the uprisings in the townships it could not carry the battle and called upon the United States to help.

· The United States supplied Stinger missiles to UNITA and $15 million additional aid.

· UNITA itself lacked the administrative and military infrastructure to manage this assistance, which in fact went indirectly to the South Africans.

· During the siege of Cuito Cuanavale, Savimbi complained that the South Africans worked out the cost of the battle and told him he had to “ask his friends to pay.”

· The United States also reactivated the base at Kamina in Zaire, where the CIA was dropping supplies for the South Africans via UNITA.

· The U.S. support for UNITA, and in essence the SADF, led to the final stage of the war.

QUESTION 2: INDEPENDENT AFRICA

QUESTION FOCUS: CASE STUDY ANGOLA

INFORMAL ASSESSMENT

ACTIVITY 1

WHY DID THE CIVIL WAR IN ANGOLA BECOME AN INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT?

SOURCE 2A

An extract from I Filatova and A Davidson, The Hidden Thread. Russia and South Africa in the Soviet Era. Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball Publishers, 2013, pp. 273-4.

But what were the South Africans doing there (in Angola) in the first place? . . . General Jannie Geldenhuys, commander of the South West African Territorial Force – an auxiliary force of the SADF which had been created to combat Namibian guerrillas – and later chief of the SADF, explained:

In 2011 some arrogant and malicious critics still pose the question: whatever did South Africa have to do with the situation in Angola during the 1970s and 1980s? Now: the Soviet Union mainland is only 70 miles . . . from the United States (Alaska); Cuba’s littoral (shoreline) is only 90 miles away from the United States . . . the Soviet Union at a distance of 3800 miles as the crow flies from Angola – over the Mediterranean and eight European and African countries! On the other hand, at the time of the war in Angola, SWA/Namibia was still legally in international terms under the administration of South Africa; and Namibia has common borders with Angola and South Africa. Obviously, any decent person would ask the much more valid question: What did the island of Cuba and the Soviet Union have to do with Angola?

2.1 Refer to Source 2A

2.1.1 What was the position of Geldenhuys in the SADF? (1 x 1) (1)

2.1.2 Give a reason for his unhappiness about the presence of

The Soviet Union & Cuba in Angola. (1 x 1) (1)

2.1.3 Explain how he defended South Africa’s presence in Angola? (2 x 2) (4)

2.1.4What, according to the source, is his reaction to those who questioned South Africa’s presence in Angola? (1 x 2) (2)

Answer

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ACTIVITY 2

SOURCE 2B

An extract from I Filatova and A Davidson, The Hidden Thread. Russia and South Africa in the Soviet Era. Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball Publishers, 2013, pp. 275-6

A (USSR) veteran of the Angolan war, Sergei Kolomin, wrote: . . . What were we doing in this far-off African country, what values were we defending? Officially Soviet military advisers and specialists were fulfilling their ‘international duty’, defending the values of socialism and assisting friendly Angola in building its national army and repulsing (turning away) external aggression. But the then Soviet leadership had other motives for sending thousands of Soviet citizens to take part in a bloody civil war. Maybe they thought of further economic cooperation? Yes, several economic projects were being realised. But the main goals were political. To spread their influence into Angola . . . and in future into Namibia, illegally occupied by South Africa, and finally into South Africa itself. Moreover, Angola was an object of interest for the leadership of the Soviet armed forces in terms of the global confrontation with the USA.

2.2 Refer to Source 2B

2.2.1 Define the term “African socialism”. (1 x 2) (2)

2.2.2 List two reasons, given by Kolomin, for the USSR’s

Involvement in Angola. (2 x 1) (2)

2.2.3Explain the reference, “global confrontation with the USA”

in the context of the Cold War. (2 x 2) (4)

2.2.4How useful is the source to a historian studying the USSR’s

involvement in Angola? (2 x 2) (4)

Answer

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ACTIVITY 3

STUDY THE CARTOON 2C

SOURCE 2C

A cartoon drawn by a South African, Fred Mouton, and published in Die Burger, 1976. Die Burger was widely associated with the National Party government in South Africa at the time. The cartoon shows a large hand knocking ash from a cigar into an ashtray.

2.4 Refer to Source 2C

2.4.1 Identify the two symbols which link the USSR and Cuba to

Angola. (2 x 1) (2)

2.4.2 How does the use of symbols in 2.3.1 enrich our

understanding of events in Angola? (2 x 2) (4)

2.4.3 What message is being conveyed in Source 2C? (2 x 2) (4)

2.4.4 What natural resource has attracted foreign powers to Angola?

(1 x 2) (2)

Answer

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TOPIC: CIVIL SOCIETY PROTEST 1950’s to 1970’s

QUESTION FOCUS ESSAY: CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

Reasons and origins of the Civil Rights Movement in the USA

· Many African American people believed that their lives would change after the World wars.

· They had fought for their country and expected to be treated as equals.

Black American activists were frustrated by:

· the federal and state government’s lack of action to implement desegregation.

· They were also angered by the huge resistance of white Americans against the ending of segregation and

· the ongoing violence against black people, particularly in the southern states.

· It was in this context that the Civil Rights Movement emerged.

Role and influence of Martin Luther King Junior

· He was 26 years old when he was appointed a

Baptist minister in Montgomery, Alabama.

· At the beginning of Montgomery Bus boycott King spoke to a large congregation of people at Holt Street Baptist Church in Montgomery.

· He became spokesperson for African American rights

· He challenged racial segregation and injustice.

· He was a gifted speaker.

· He believed in using non-violent protest.

The influence of passive resistance (Gandhi) on Martin Luther King

· King had been influenced by liberation struggle which Gandhi led against British colonial rule in India.

· India gained its independence in 1947

· Martin Luther King Junior adapted Gandhi’s passive resistance philosophy.

· King believed that such action could win full civil rights for black people in America.

· People from all religions as well as non-believers embraced his call for non-violent civil disobedience.

Forms of protest through civil disobedience

MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT

· First phase of Civil Rights Movement was sparked off by Rosa Parks’ arrest in December 1955.

· Rosa Parks, civil rights activist boarded a city bus and moved to the back where African Americans were required to sit.

· As bus filled up Parks was asked by bus driver to give up her seat to a white man. She refused.

· Rosa Parks’ arrest resulted in year-long Montgomery Bus Boycott which ended in legal victory when the Supreme Court ruled that segregation on Montgomery buses was illegal.

· During the boycott, Martin Luther King emerged as a powerful speaker and a nationally respected leader.

· 1957 King and other religious leaders formed Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to lead struggle.

· Montgomery Bus boycott had been a victory for African Americans

Sit - Ins

· Students also played an important role in Civil Rights Movement.

· 1960 a group of students in Greensboro sat down at a ‘whites only’ lunch counter and waited to be served.

· The waiting staff ignored them.

· The students sat peacefully and refused to move.

· The next day a larger group of students returned and resumed their protest.

· Their courageous action inspired others and within two weeks there had been similar protests in eleven cities - students were arrested.

· Students also played an important role in Civil Rights Movement.

· 1960 a group of students in Greensboro sat down at a ‘whites only’ lunch counter and waited to be served.

· The waiting staff ignored them.

· The students sat peacefully and refused to move.

· The next day a larger group of students returned and resumed their protest.

· Their courageous action inspired others and within two weeks there had been similar protests in eleven cities - students were arrested.

Freedom Rides

· Although segregation on buses had been ruled unconstitutional, segregation was still practiced in Southern states - May 1961, an interracial group of 13 students travelled on two Greyhound buses from Washington DC to the South

· These protests became known as ‘Freedom Rides’

The Birmingham Campaign

· Early 1963 King and the SCLC organised an economic boycott of white businesses and a series of protest marches in Birmingham, Alabama - to desegregate Birmingham’s downtown department stores.

· Many were arrested including King.

· Birmingham business leaders decided that the protest campaign was bad for business and agreed to desegregate their lunch counters, restrooms and drinking fountains.

· The jailed protestors were set free.

· In Birmingham, King took a controversial decision to enlist school children to join demonstrations.

· On 2 May 1963 thousands of black children gathered at the Baptist Church instead of going to their schools.

· In groups of fifty they marched straight into the full force of Birmingham’s white police.

· Commissioner of Public Safety, Eugene Bull Connor ordered high-pressure water hoses be used against “Children’s Crusade” as it became known

· Over 500 children were arrested that day , thousands were traumatized.

· Newspapers, radio, television reporters and cameramen documented events in Birmingham making sure it received national and international attention.

· Americans were made aware of brutal attacks on people by Birmingham police.

· Many Americans were shocked and support for Civil Rights Movement grew.

KENNEDY’S RESPONSE

· President Kennedy was faced with a public outcry about treatment of black people in southern states.

· June 1963 President Kennedy went on television to make a public statement about situation in Birmingham - He declared that racial segregation had no place in American life.

· This was a great victory for Civil Rights Movement

MARCH TO THE LINCOLN MEMORIAL

· 1963 black unemployment stood at 11 percent.

· It was in this context of inequality that Philip Randolph, a 74-year-old veteran activist decided to organize a march on Washington.

· This march became known as ‘The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.’

· Despite initial fears that it would result in more violence, President Kennedy gave the march his authorization.

· On 28 August 250 000 people of all faiths about 60 000 of them white, descended on Washington.

· It was the largest demonstration for human and civil rights in America’s history – and it was peaceful.

· It was Martin Luther’s “I have a Dream” speech though which is remembered.

· On 22 November 1963 President Kennedy was assassinated .

· Lyndon B Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act on 2 July 1964

SELMA MONTGOMERY MARCH

· In March 1965 King led a demonstration to Montgomery, Alabama.

· Two marches to Montgomery failed as a result of state troopers blocked the marches at Edmund Pettus Bridge across the Alabama river.

· Accompanied by federal troops to Montgomery black people be allowed to register to vote.

·  The first attempt to complete the march ended in an event called “Bloody Sunday”.

· State troops attacked peaceful demonstrators with whips and batons.

· President Johnson called upon Congress to work with him “around the clock” to prepare new federal legislation to secure rights of all people to vote.

· On 6 August 1965, Johnson signed Voting Rights Act which eliminated all voting literacy tests, poll taxes and other legal loopholes which had been used to prevent black people from registering to vote in southern states.

· The Civil Rights Movement achieved its aim of equality before the law.

Short and long-term gains of the Civil Rights Movement

· As President Johnson signed Voting Rights Act into law in 1965.

· Martin Luther King Junior had mobilised thousands of black and white Americans to participate in campaigns of civil disobedience between 1955 and 1965.

· The signing of 1964 Civil Rights Act and 1965 Voting Act were important gains for Civil Rights Movement

· Civil Rights Movement arguably ended racial segregation in South.

· Prejudice did not disappear with new legislation and African Americans still faced racial discrimination.

· Many African Americans rejected Martin Luther King Junior’s philosophy of non-violence

· They believed that a more militant approach to white racism was necessary and adopted the slogan ‘Black Power.’

ESSAY: CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

Question

Explain TO WHAT EXTENT the different forms of civil-rights protests that occurred in the United States of America made an impact on the struggle for human rights 1960.

Answer

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