US Higher Education System

1. General Information

In the United States, most standard academic programs are based on the four-year bachelor's degree (most often Bachelor of Arts, B.A., or Bachelor of Science, B.S.), a one- or two-year master's degree (most often Master of Arts, M.A., or Master of Science, M.S.; either of these programs might be as much as three years in length) and a further one or two years of coursework and research, culminating in comprehensive examinations in one or more fields, plus perhaps some teaching experience, and then the writing of a dissertation for the doctorate (most often doctor of philosophy,

Ph.D. or other types such as Ed.D., Psy.D., Th.D.) for a total of ten or more years from starting the bachelor's degree (which is usually begun around age 18) to the awarding of the doctorate. This timetable is only approximate, however, as students in accelerated programs can sometimes earn a bachelor's degree in three years or, on the other hand, a particular dissertation project might take four or more years to complete. In addition, a graduate may wait an indeterminate time between degrees before candidacy in the next level, or even an additional degree at a level already completed. Therefore, there is no time-limit on the accumulation of academic degrees.

In the United States, there is also another class of degrees called "First Professional degree." These degree programs are designed for professional practice in various fields rather than academic scholarship. Most professional degree programs require a prior bachelor's degree for admission (a notable exception being the PharmD program), and so represent at least about five total years of study and as many as seven or eight.

Some fields such as fine art, architecture, or divinity have chosen to name their first professional degree after the bachelor's a "master's degree" (e.g., M.F.A., M.Div.) because most of these degrees require at least the completion of a bachelor's degree while the professional degrees in medicine (the M.D.) and law (the J.D.) are doctorates.[8] There is currently some debate in the architectural community to rename the degree to a "doctorate" in the manner that was done for the law degree decades ago.It is important to recognize that first-professional degrees in these fields are different than research-oriented degrees and comparisons to the Ph.D. are problematic. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_degree

Notes on Higher Education System

There are no basic federal or national laws or decrees in the U.S. that govern the existence, nature, or operation of the postsecondary education community. The national government does not accredit institutions, regulate their operations, establish or monitor standards or curricula, or establish or govern the degrees and other credentials awarded. Responsibility for governing the conduct of higher education is decentralized in the various state governments. The federal Department of Education is restricted in its authority and competence to the following functions:

(1) collecting and providing information and statistics about U.S. education; (2) providing leadership and influence in behalf of national education policies and initiatives; (3) administering programmes of financial assistance to students, institutions, and local and state governments; (4) conducting programmes of research and technical assistance; and (5) administering and enforcing the federal laws governing equal educational access and opportunity for all citizens and the core principles of academic freedom, autonomy, corporate existence, authorized degrees and other awards, and membership (student, faculty, or

administration) standards.

 Composition of U.S. Higher Education

Degree-granting institutions are typically divided into four major groups, and a considerable amount of diversity exists within each group:

• America’s 1,100 public two-year institutions, or community colleges, enroll the largest share of undergraduates (6 million students in 2001). These vocational fields, prepare students for transfer to four-year institutions, and serve their communities by providing a wide array of educational services. These services range from specialized training for large employers, to English language instruction for recent immigrants, to recreational courses. Almost 4 million students attended community colleges part-time in 2001.

• There are only 630 public four-year colleges and universities in the United States. But these institutions—which include regional comprehensive universities that concentrate on undergraduate teaching and graduate preparation in professional fields such as teaching and business, as well as research universities that offer a comprehensive set of undergraduate, graduate, and professional degree programs—enrolled 6.2 million students in 2001. This figure includes 5 million undergraduates and slightly more than 1 million graduate students.2

• Private not-for-profit institutions are extremely diverse, including research universities, four-year liberal arts colleges that focus on undergraduate teaching, a small number of two-year institutions, faith-based institutions that maintain strong links with religious denominations, women’s colleges, historically black colleges and universities, and specialized institutions that focus on a single field, such as nursing or fine arts. Private not-for-profit institutions enrolled 3.2 million students in 2001, including 2.3 million undergraduates and more than 700,000 graduate students.

• For-profit institutions primarily offer vocational programs that result in certificates rather than degrees. Of the more than 2,400 for-profit institutions counted by the U.S. Department of Education, 500 offer two-year associate degrees and 320 offer bachelor’s and/or graduate degrees. In total, for-profit institutions enrolled more than 750,000 students in 2001, all but 50,000 of whom were at the undergraduate level.

Special Features of Higher Education:

Distance higher education

Distance education is considered to be a vehicle for delivering education to persons whose location, circumstances or work make remote links necessary or convenient. It is not considered to be a separate type of education. Rather, distance education is considered to be a modality of instruction that differs from traditional campus-based instruction but is no less legitimate. There is rapid growth in educational programmes at all levels delivered via radio, television, satellite downlink stations, videos, computer terminals and other means. Many programmes are offered for credit and lead to Certificates, Diplomas and Degrees; others are designed for leisure studies, personal enrichment or specific work-related education and training. Distance education programmes are accredited by recognized associations and the good programmes benefit from significant recent advances in designing, implementing and monitoring these learning environments and their support tools.

Lifelong higher education

Frequently called continuing education. Institutions operate specific continuing education

programmes, some very extensive and parallel to regular institutional degree offerings, whilst others are short or specialized programmes. Continuing education may be structured to lead to Certificates, Diplomas or Degrees, or unstructured and used to provide general and leisure study opportunities. Some continuing education is offered through distance learning methods while other programmes are offered at an institution or provided at a branch site. When offered in order to provide further education and training for professionals who already hold basic qualifications, it is usually called continuing professional education. Credit for work completed in such programmes may be recognized and accepted by regular higher education authorities through policies developed by institutions, and it is also recognized and accepted by state licensing authorities and professional associations.

Higher education training in industry

This is considered a specific form of continuing professional education and is referred to as employer-sponsored training. Programmes are offered by employers or through contract by postsecondary institutions, professional associations, unions or consulting organizations. Education or training may be provided at the work site or elsewhere. Continuing professional education or training ranges in length and depth from short courses intended to refresh or introduce new skills up to full degree programmes. Credit for work completed in such programmes may be recognized and accepted by regular higher education authorities through policies developed by institutions. A specific form of employer-sponsored training of major interest to many U.S. postsecondary institutions, especially at the sub-Bachelor's degree level, is training received in the U.S. armed forces and how to award credit for it when personnel re-enter civilian life. Detailed guidelines have been jointly developed by U.S. institutions and the armed forces.

Other forms of non-formal higher education

Many varieties of education and training opportunities exist that are not formally structured, do not result in recognized awards and are not intended to result in transferable credit or professional recognition. They include courses and programmes provided by libraries, museums, parks and recreation authorities, clubs and others that are intended for members or the public. Some programmes provided by employers are not intended to result in formal recognition, such as informal seminars and presentations on topics related to work issues and products.

 Source: http://www.euroeducation.net/prof/usa.htm

2. Policies and Regulations

United States Department of Education (ED) was created in 1980 by combining offices from several federal agencies. ED's mission is to promote student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal access. ED's role as governing body comprises the following responsibilities and tasks:

The Executive Branch agency responsible for federal education programmes of all types and levels and headed by the Secretary of Education, a Presidential Cabinet appointment. The federal role in education is strictly limited by the US Constitution and by federal statutes. The Department of Education does not function as a governing body but operates in cooperation with state and local authorities.

• Establishing policies on federal financial aid for education, and distributing as well as monitoring those funds.• Collecting data on America's schools and disseminating research.• Focusing national attention on key educational issues.• Prohibiting discrimination and ensuring equal access to education.

Further Information: WWW: http://www.ed.gov

Other Education Policy Making Bodies Education Commission of the States (ECS), which coordinates State Government authorities in each State WWW: http://www.ecs.org 

National Association of State Boards of Education (NASBE), which coordinates State Boards of EducationWWW: http://www.nasbe.org

State Higher Education Executive Officers Network (SHEEO), SHEEO coordinates and represents the state and territorial officials, offices and commissions that oversee postsecondary (higher) education institutions and programmes.WWW: http://www.sheeo.org

 United States Network for Education Information (USNEI), which is the official US information service on matters of student and professional mobility, recognition of institutions and qualifications and related issues. USNEI serves as the US ENIC under the Lisbon Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education Region and also cooperates with information centres outside the European Region.WWW: http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/edlite-index.html

American Council on Education (ACE)WWW: http://www.acenet.edu

American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers (AACRAO)WWW: http://www.aacrao.org

American Association of State Colleges and Universities (AASCU)WWW: http://www.aascu.org

 Association of American Universities (AAU)WWW: http://www.aau.edu

NAFSA: Association of International EducatorsWWW: http://www.nafsa.org

CQAIE: The Center for Quality Assurance in International Education

WWW: http://www.cqaie.org

Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA)WWW: http://www.chea.org

Council on International Educational Exchange (CIEE)WWW: http://www.ciee.org

 National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges (NASULGC)WWW: http://www.nasulgc.org

National Education Association (NEA)WWW: http://www.nea.org

American Association of University Presidents (AAUP)WWW: http://www.aaup.org

Policies and Decision Making within Education Department

Higher Education Program (HEP) establishes results-oriented policies and procedures governing the implementation of legislated programs.  It administers such programs to maximize performance and accountability, and evaluates the impact of programs it administers to measure their general efficiency in relation to their costs and effectiveness in achieving stated goals. HEP actively involves and works with public and private organizations (including institutions of higher education, public and private non-profit agencies and organizations, and elementary and secondary schools) to ensure maximum program effectiveness.  Working through ED, HEP reports to the President and Congress on all activities carried out under delegated authorities.

Accreditation and State Liaison Staff

The Accreditation and State Liaison Staff has the following general responsibilities:

Develops and implements criteria appropriate for the recognition of State approval agencies, national, regional, institutional and specialized accrediting associations, agencies as reliable authorities concerning the quality of education, and training offered by postsecondary institutions or programs within their respective scopes of operation.  

Evaluates all petitions for initial recognition, renewal of recognition, and scope of recognition by accrediting bodies and State approval agencies. These petitions include reports of Department of Education (ED) experts, outside consultants, experts in the field, and third parties regarding the work of such bodies.

Evaluates the standards and processes used by foreign countries to accredit/approve medical schools.  

Works cooperatively with officials of the State Departments of Education and licensing agencies to strengthen and advance the role of each State in grantingauthorization/licensure to postsecondary educational institutions to offer programs of instruction. 

Advances partnerships with States for policy-making and oversight purposes.  

Coordinates communication among ED, accrediting agencies, and States to foster cooperation in dealing with problem schools.

Conducts technical and programmatic reviews of responses to the Freedom of Information Act requests for appropriate disclosure or nondisclosure of documents.

 State Liaison Unit

State Liaison Unit works cooperatively with officials of the State Departments of Education, higher education coordinating boards, and State licensing agencies to promote effective gate-keeping and proper stewardship of Federal Student Aid (FSA) program funds.

Accrediting Agency Evaluation Unit

The Accrediting Agency Evaluation Unit (AAEU) administers the process whereby accrediting agencies and State approval agencies for public postsecondary vocational education and nurse education obtain initial and continued recognition by the Secretary of Education.  The Secretary is required by statute to publish a list of nationally recognized accrediting agencies and associations which the Secretary determines to be reliable authorities as to the quality of education and training offered by postsecondary institutions and programs. 

The AAEU has lead responsibility, along with the National Advisory Committee on Institutional Quality and Integrity, for developing the Secretary’s policies, procedures, and recognition criteria and for carrying out the processes leading up to the Secretary’s recognition decision.  AAEU presents the Department’s analyses of agency petitions for recognition to the Advisory Committee for consideration.  In turn, the Advisory Committee makes recommendations to the Secretary on whether recognition should be granted.  In fulfilling its mission, the Advisory Committee receives logistical support and technical guidance from the AAEU. Publishes the official list of nationally recognized accrediting agencies.

 HIGHER EDUCATION PREPARATION AND SUPPORT SERVICE

The HEPSS defines and articulates program goals and objectives; identifies and implements policy changes needed to achieve goals and objectives; evaluates program effectiveness; develops and updates policy manuals, program regulations, and proposed legislative amendments; prepares program budget request; and prepares an annual funding schedule and funding strategy, incorporating the Secretary's goals and objectives where applicable; develops funding criteria and funding priorities for publication in the Federal Register, and manages the application review and awards process for programs administered by the HEPSS. Functions include assigned responsibilities relative to e-Grants and e-Reader and related processes and all other functions necessary for the administration and monitoring of new and continuation awards.

Program Management and Development Team

The Program Management and Development Team, in collaboration with the College and University Preparation Team and the College and University Support Team, is responsible for program planning and implementing of policy and procedures, including: the initiation and revision of regulations; developing and reviewing legislative proposals; and preparing an annual report for each program administered by HEPSS.  In addition, the Program Management and Development Team is responsible for managing and maintaining the HEPSS’ input into the HEP Computer Data system; defining statistical analysis needed; sampling techniques; research design; determining program data requirements for analysis of specific program trends and reporting needs; developing and generating reports on HEPSS programs; and maintaining an application tracking system for

HEPSS programs for funded and non-funded applicants. This team works closely with the office of the Director of HEPSS.

College and University Preparation Team

The College and University Preparation Team is responsible for planning, implementing, and managing the awards process for new applicants and non-competing continuation grantees for: Upward Bound, Upward Bound Math/Science, Educational Opportunity Centers, and Talent Search programs administered by the HEPSS.  Functions include: the development of the grant/technical review operation; design and approval of required forms; and review of applications by external readers and staff and selection of recipients. The team provides overall management of ongoing projects to ascertain adherence to regulations, policies, and procedures as well as technical assistance to funded grantees/contractors and to potential applicants for grant funding.

College and University Support Team

The College and University Support Team is responsible for planning, implementing and managing the awards process for new applicants and non-competing continuation grants for the Student Support Services Program, the McNair Post Baccalaureate Achievement Program, the TRIO Training Program, the Evaluation and Grants for Project Improvement and Dissemination Partnerships Projects, the Child Care Access Means Parents in Schools Programs (Title IV, Part A, Subpart 7), and the Thurgood Marshall Legal Educational Opportunity Program. Functions include the development of the grant/technical review operation; design and approval of required forms; and review of applications by external readers and staff and selection of recipients. This team provides overall management of ongoing projects to ascertain adherence to regulations, policies, and procedures as well as technical assistance to funded grantees/contractors and to potential applicants for grant funding.

Governance of Higher Education

Another of the philosophical underpinnings of U.S. higher education is the Jeffersonian notion of limited and, whenever possible, locally controlled government. Based on this model, the U.S. Constitution reserves for the states all government functions not specifically described as federal. Among those functions is education. As a result, each of the 50 states is responsible for governing public colleges and universities (which enroll 75 percent of students), rather than the federal government. The state board plays only an advisory function and has little direct authority over institutions. In many others, a state agency is poised between the institutions and state government, implementing statewide policy but also attempting to insulate institutions from ill-advised or overly intrusive state policies.

Some public universities are part of statewide multi-campus systems in which an additional layer of oversight exists between the campus and state government. System administrators may oversee campus budgets, set policies such as admissions standards, coordinate degree programs, and facilitate credit transfer and articulation between the state’s public colleges and universities. Additionally, and importantly, they advocate to the legislature on behalf of public colleges and universities. In some states, more than one multi-campus system exists, such as California’s distinct systems of community colleges, comprehensive state colleges and universities, and research universities.

Because the Constitution does not mention education as a federal responsibility, the federal government plays a limited role and the United States has never had an education ministry, such as those found in most other countries. With the important exception of the Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862, which donated federal territory to the states for the establishment of public universities,

the federal government played almost no role in higher education until the middle of the 20 th

century, when World War II necessitated the establishment of federal funding for scientific research at colleges and universities to build U.S. military capacity.

In 1944, President Franklin Roosevelt signed the G.I. Bill of Rights, which granted returning veterans funding to attend college as a way to integrate servicemen back into the U.S. workforce. As the civil rights movement took hold in the 1960s, the federal role in supporting students expanded to include grant and loan programs for low- and moderate-income students. Since that time, federal support has expanded so that it is now the primary financier of both scientific research and student financial

While the federal government generally does not provide direct operational support to colleges and universities, this special-purpose funding is an extremely important revenue source and, in turn, has increased the ability of the federal government to influence colleges and universities in areas outsideresearch and financial aid. For example, in order for institutions to participate in the financial aid programs, they must comply with a wide range of federal reporting requirements on topics ranging from teacher preparation to gender equity in intercollegiate athletics. However, despite the growing influence of the federal government, its role is still limited and has not yet intruded into core academic decisions, which are generally left to the institutions and, in the case of some public institutions, the states.

Two sets of voluntary organizations act as bulwarks against excessive government control of higher education: accrediting organizations that monitor quality assurance, and membership associations that represent institutions to the federal and state governments. Accrediting organizations are membership organizations of colleges and universities and rely on volunteers who work at colleges and universities and who agree to assist other institutions by providing evaluation through peer review. There are three types of accrediting organizations: regional organizations, which review the quality of entire institutions and focus almost exclusively on public and private not-for-profit degree-granting institutions; national organizations, which monitor the quality of most for-profit and non–degree-granting institutions; and specialized accrediting organizations, which evaluate academic programs within a specific field such as medicine, law, or teacher education.

American accreditation differs from the type of quality assurance conducted by governments in most other countries. Federal and state governments can and do impose their own accountability requirements on institutions, but they generally have left the assessment of academic quality to institutions themselves through the self-study and peer review processes of accreditation. The federal government, in particular, relies on recognized regional and national accreditation organizations to determine whether institutions are of sufficient academic quality and managerial soundness to merit inclusion in the federal student financial aid programs.

When the U.S. Department of Education officially recognizes an accrediting organization, it certifies that the organization adequately monitors quality in areas mandated by the federal government, such as fiscal soundness and managerial competence, fair admissions and recruiting practices, and evidence of student success.

Accrediting organizations establish minimum standards that institutions must meet in a range of areas such as the curricula, faculty qualifications, student learning outcomes, co-curricular student services, and financial health. Accrediting organizations do not, however, mandate how institutions go about meeting those standards. Further, because accreditation measures institutions against a set of standards, it generally does not provide a gauge of how well an institution is performing relative to other institutions. Accreditation is accomplished through institutional self-study and a peer review process to determine whether the institution has met the organization’s standards.

Accreditors typically review institutions on a three- to five-year basis (Eaton, 2000). Membership associations, which can have either institutions or individuals (such as business officers) as members, represent the interests of colleges and universities to the federal government and, in some cases, state governments. Many colleges and universities also employ their own staff to advocate for them, but in most cases, those staff work only on issues of concern to the individual institution, such as state appropriations or federal research contracts for the institution. Membership associations champion those public policies that are in the collective best interest of either all or some major segment of higher education. In Washington, DC, colleges and universities are represented by hundreds of organizations, which also provide networking and professional development opportunities for their members.

The National Science Foundation (NSF)

NSF is an independent federal agency created by Congress in 1950 "to promote the progress of science; to advance the national health, prosperity, and welfare; to secure the national defense…" With an annual budget of about $6.06 billion, NSF is the funding source for approximately 20 percent of all federally supported basic research conducted by America’s colleges and universities. In many fields such as mathematics, computer science and the social sciences, NSF is the major source of federal backing.

We fulfill our mission chiefly by issuing limited-term grants -- currently about 10,000 new awards per year, with an average duration of three years -- to fund specific research proposals that have been judged the most promising by a rigorous and objective merit-review system. Most of these awards go to individuals or small groups of investigators. Others provide funding for research centers, instruments and facilities that allow scientists, engineers and students to work at the outermost frontiers of knowledge.

NSF's goals--discovery, learning, research infrastructure and stewardship--provide an integrated strategy to advance the frontiers of knowledge, cultivate a world-class, broadly inclusive science and engineering workforce and expand the scientific literacy of all citizens, build the nation's research capability through investments in advanced instrumentation and facilities, and support excellence in science and engineering research and education through a capable and responsive organization."

Many of the discoveries and technological advances have been truly revolutionary. In the past few decades, NSF-funded researchers have won more than 170 Nobel Prizes as well as other honors too numerous to list. These pioneers have included the scientists or teams that discovered many of the fundamental particles of matter, analyzed the cosmic microwaves left over from the earliest epoch of the universe, developed carbon-14 dating of ancient artifacts, decoded the genetics of viruses, and created an entirely new state of matter called a Bose-Einstein condensate.

NSF also funds equipment that is needed by scientists and engineers but is often too expensive for any one group or researcher to afford. Examples of such major research equipment include giant optical and radio telescopes, Antarctic research sites, high-end computer facilities and ultra-high-speed connections, ships for ocean research, sensitive detectors of very subtle physical phenomena and gravitational wave observatories.

Another essential element in NSF's mission is support for science and engineering education, from pre-K through graduate school and beyond. The research we fund is thoroughly integrated with education to help ensure that there will always be plenty of skilled people available to work in new and emerging scientific, engineering and technological fields, and plenty of capable teachers to educate the next generation.

No single factor is more important to the intellectual and economic progress of society, and to the enhanced well-being of its citizens, than the continuous acquisition of new knowledge. NSF is proud to be a major part of that process.

Specifically, the Foundation's organic legislation authorizes us to engage in the following activities:

A. Initiate and support, through grants and contracts, scientific and engineering research and programs to strengthen scientific and engineering research potential, and education programs at all levels, and appraise the impact of research upon industrial development and the general welfare.

B. Award graduate fellowships in the sciences and in engineering.

C. Foster the interchange of scientific information among scientists and engineers in the United States and foreign countries.

D. Foster and support the development and use of computers and other scientific methods and technologies, primarily for research and education in the sciences.

E. Evaluate the status and needs of the various sciences and engineering and take into consideration the results of this evaluation in correlating our research and educational programs with other federal and non-federal programs.

F. Provide a central clearinghouse for the collection, interpretation and analysis of data on scientific and technical resources in the United States, and provide a source of information for policy formulation by other federal agencies.

G. Determine the total amount of federal money received by universities and appropriate organizations for the conduct of scientific and engineering research, including both basic and applied, and construction of facilities where such research is conducted, but excluding development, and report annually thereon to the President and the Congress.

H. Initiate and support specific scientific and engineering activities in connection with matters relating to international cooperation, national security and the effects of scientific and technological applications upon society.

I. Initiate and support scientific and engineering research, including applied research, at academic and other nonprofit institutions and, at the direction of the President, support applied research at other organizations.

J. Recommend and encourage the pursuit of national policies for the promotion of basic research and education in the sciences and engineering. Strengthen research and education innovation in the sciences and engineering, including independent research by individuals, throughout the United States.

K. Support activities designed to increase the participation of women and minorities and others underrepresented in science and technology.

The National Science Board

The National Science Foundation Act of 1950, which created NSF, states that "The Foundation shall consist of a National Science Board ... and a Director." Jointly the Board and the Director

pursue the goals and functions of NSF, including the duty to "recommend and encourage the pursuit of national policies for the promotion of research and education in science and engineering."

In addition, The National Science Board has two important roles. It provides oversight for, and establishes the policies of, NSF within the framework of applicable national policies set forth by the President and the Congress. In this capacity, the Board identifies issues that are critical to NSF’s future, approves NSF’s strategic budget directions, approves annual budget submissions to the Office of Management and Budget, approves new programs and major awards, analyzes NSF’s budget to ensure progress and consistency along the strategic direction set for NSF, and ensures balance between initiatives and core programs. The second role of the Board is to serve as an independent body of advisors to both the President and Congress on broad national policy issues related to science and engineering research and education.

Current Legislation on Higher Education

The Higher Education Act of 1965 (Pub. L. No. 89-329) (the "HSA") was legislation signed into United States law on November 8, 1965 as part of President Lyndon Johnson's Great Society domestic agenda. The law was intended “to strengthen the educational resources of our colleges and universities and to provide financial assistance for students in postsecondary and higher education.” It increased federal money given to universities, created scholarships, gave low-interest loans for students, and established a National Teachers Corps. The "financial assistance for students" is covered in Title IV of the HSA.

The Higher Education Act of 1965 was reauthorized in 1968, 1972, 1976, 1980, 1986, 1992, 1998, and 2008. Current authorization for the programs in the Higher Education Act expires at the end of 2013. Before each reauthorization, Congress amends additional programs, changes the language and policies of existing programs, or makes other changes. For example, the Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs (GEAR UP) was first authorized under the Higher Education Amendments of 1998. Also in the amendments of 1998 is the Aid Elimination Provision, which prevents students with drug charges from receiving federal aid for colleges and universities. This is where question 31 on the FAFSA forms originates from. The question asks if the student has ever been convicted of a drug crime while receiving federal financial aid. If the answer is "Yes" or the question is left blank, the student is denied aid. There is currently a case supported by the ACLU going against this provision, titled Students for Sensible Drug Policy vs. Spellings.

Changes in 2003

In 2003, many of the parts of the Higher Education Act were set to expire. In order to be the most effective, different minority groups decided to come together and ask for these changes. They called themselves the Alliance for Equity in Higher Education. This group was made up of “the American Indian Higher Education Consortium, the Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities, and the National Association for Equal Opportunity in Higher Education, an advocacy group for historically black colleges and universities, [and they] presented their joint recommendations for the reauthorization of the Higher Education Act.”[1] These groups found that by coming together, they could help all minority groups achieve the same goals. The goals of the Alliance were to help minority students enter fields where they were underrepresented and to give incentives to minorities to enter these programs. These incentives included more lenient on loan collection and full government funding for minority education. The Alliance also advocated funding minorities in graduate programs. Just like with undergraduate programs, the Alliance called for the

government to create funding for students in the graduate programs of universities serving the minority population.[1] Yet, the Alliance was also asking for funds to help its institutions, as well as its students. There was a call for the federal government to give more funding to help keep these institutions up-to-date, and their programs current. Again, to keep students attending these universities, and to prepare these students for the real world, the Alliance was asking for the government’s help to make sure that they were on the same education level as other colleges and universities. Even though the Alliance was heard, with its request for change in the Higher Education Act, it did not mean that changed happened. In 2003, the request for increasing the amount offered in a Pell Grant, to better cover a student’s expenses, was denied by the Senate. Still, other issues were corrected. There was a section passed, by the House, that did allow more funds to go to institutions, in order to keep them current; and a grace period for colleges asking for more loans was eliminated. So, if more funding were needed, minority institutions would not have to wait.

Recent Activity

With the changes proposed in 2003, the actual Higher Education Act was not reestablished. Instead, many of its sections were renewed, with little radical change. Numerous extensions have followed, with the most recent extension lasting through August 15, 2008. The Senate passed an HEA reauthorization bill in July 2007, as did the House of Representatives in February 2008. The accompanying conference report passed both houses of Congress on July 31, 2008 and will be sent to the President for his signature.

Additionally, the College Cost Reduction and Access Act (CCRA), a budget reconciliation bill signed into law in September 2007, made significant changes to federal financial aid programs included in HEA. In addition to increasing the maximum Pell grant award and reducing interest rates on subsidized student loans, this bill capped loan repayment at 15 percent of an individual’s discretionary income, raised the income protection allowance, enacted loan forgiveness for public servants in the Direct Loan program, and took actions to address problematic practices in the lending industry. Most CCRA provisions took effect on October 1, 2007

Source. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_Education_Act_of_1965

3. International Education

Education USA under US Department of State

ECA/A/S/A provides support to more than 450 EducationUSA advising centers, which offer accurate, comprehensive, objective and timely information about educational opportunities in the United States and guidance to qualified individuals on how best to access those opportunities. This includes information about application procedures, standardized test requirements, student visas, financial aid, and the full range of accredited U.S. higher education institutions. See Opportunity Grants for information about one financial aid option for EducationUSA advisees.

ECA/A/S/A provides books, equipment and professional development opportunities to EducationUSA advisers located in a variety of organizations, including U.S. embassies and consulates, Fulbright Commissions, binational centers and non-governmental organizations. EducationUSA advising centers also provide assistance to American institutions seeking to recruit international students, and provide information on foreign educational issues and systems to help U.S. schools establish or expand study abroad programs for Americans. Centers are staffed by professional advisers, many of whom have studied in the United States and/or received State Department-approved training about United States higher education and the advising process. Regional Educational Advising Coordinators (REACs) provide regional support and also serve as a resource for U.S. institutions. More information can be found online at www.educationusa.state.gov/

ECA/A/S/A staff in Washington work with the U.S. higher education community, providing information on international education policy, global education systems, the importance of recruiting international students, how to cooperate with EducationUSA centers around the world, and how to maintain an international-student friendly campus and website. In addition, ECA/A/S/A sponsors two professional development programs for EducationUSA advisers. Professional Advising Leadership (PAL) fellowships are individually designed programs for senior advisors, and take place annually. The U.S.-Based Training program (USBT) is for mid-level advisers with two to five years experience. Held annually in May or October-November with 15-25 participants, USBT is a three-week program comprising a week in Washington, D.C., a week of campus visits or internships, and a week at a NAFSA national or regional conference.

Source: http://exchanges.state.gov/globalexchanges/index/educationusa.html

ED’S INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS SERVICE

The IEPS defines and articulates program goals and objectives; identifies and implements policy changes needed to achieve goals and objectives; evaluates program effectiveness; develops and updates policy manuals; program regulations; proposed legislative amendments; prepares program budget request; and in conjunction with the Deputy Assistant Secretary's office, prepares an annual funding schedule and funding strategy, incorporating the goals and objectives of the Secretary, where applicable; develops funding criteria and funding priorities for publication in the Federal Register, and manages the application review and awards process for programs administered by the IEPS.

Functions include assigned responsibilities relative to e-Grants and e-Reader and related processes and all other functions necessary for the administration and monitoring of new and continuation awards.

The Immediate Office of the Director, IEPS provides overall direction and coordination to the following teams: Advanced Training and Research TeamInternational Studies TeamThe programs administered by the Advanced Training and Research Team include the following: National Resource CentersForeign Language and Area Studies FellowshipsInternational Research and StudiesLanguage Resource CentersAmerican Overseas Research CentersDoctoral Dissertation Research AbroadFaculty Research Abroad  The programs administered by the International Studies Team include the following: Centers for International Business EducationBusiness and International EducationUndergraduate International Studies and Foreign LanguageInstitute for International Public PolicyGroup Projects AbroadSeminars Abroad/Special Bilateral Technological Innovation and Cooperation for Foreign Information Access

The IEPS Teams are responsible for performing the full range of activities related to program development, implementing, data gathering and analysis for the programs in their respective areas. Staff will participate in the implementation of the programs assigned to the teams, using their specialized knowledge and skills in areas where such backgrounds are required, as well as conduct program planning and development and data gathering and analysis activities for a variety of programs in their areas. Staff works in cross-team assignments on a variety of program planning and development, implementation, and analysis assignments and activities designed to ensure maximum coordination and utilization of IEPS’ resources. As appropriate, ad hoc teams of staff members drawn from the teams will work together to plan and carry out tasks such as regulations revisions, application forms approval, technical workshops, budget development, the annual plan, data gathering, and analysis.

4. Master’s Degree Studies

Definitions

Before one can understand the requirements for academic degrees, one first must understand some terms about academic credit for a class:

semester A semester is an academic term with a duration of 15 weeks. Typically in the USA, a university has two semesters per year: one begins in August and the other begins in January. (There is a third semester during the summer, but most students have jobs during the summer, instead of attending classes then.)

semester hour A so-called "one-hour" lecture class has a duration of 50 minutes. A lecture class that meets for a total of 3×50 minutes each week for one semester is worth "3 semester hours" of credit. A lecture class that meets for a total of 5×50 minutes each week for one semester is worth "5 semester hours" of credit.

quarter A quarter is an academic term with a duration of 10 weeks. A typical student attends classes for three quarters during the year. (There is a fourth quarter during the summer, but most students have jobs during the summer.) Some universities in the USA have quarters, instead of semesters.

quarter hour A class that is worth 3 quarter hours of credit is equivalent to a class that is worth 2 semester hours of credit, because a quarter has fewer weeks of classes than a semester.

Master's Degree

Minimum academic requirements for a master's degree (e.g., M.Sc.) from an accredited university in the USA in the year 1970 include:

A total of at least 30 semester hours of credit beyond the bachelor's degree must be earned in classes at accredited universities. At least 24 semester hours was in classes, of which at least half must be at the graduate level.

Traditionally, a candidate for a master's degree was required to complete a master's thesis, which was an original scholarly work. The candidate was required to defend the thesis before a meeting of the candidate's advisory committee, which other professors were welcome to attend. The student was given 6 semester hours of credit for a successful thesis.

Beginning in the late 1960s, universities in the USA began to devalue the master's degree by allowing students to take an extra six semester hours of classes instead of doing a master's thesis.

A Master's degree typically required one year of full-time study or two years of study while also doing teaching or research on campus (i.e., a half-time teaching or research assistant).

Source: http://www.rbs2.com/accred.htm#anchorRequire

In the United States, since the late 1800s, the threefold degree system of bachelor, master and doctor has been in place, but follows a slightly different pattern of study from the European equivalents.

In the United States, most standard academic programs are based on the four-year bachelor's degree (most often Bachelor of Arts, B.A., or Bachelor of Science, B.S.), a one- or two-year master's degree (most often Master of Arts, M.A., or Master of Science, M.S.; either of these programs might be as much as three years in length) and a further one or two years of coursework and research, culminating in comprehensive examinations in one or more fields, plus perhaps some teaching experience, and then the writing of a dissertation for the doctorate (most often doctor of philosophy, Ph.D. or other types such as Ed.D., Psy.D., Th.D.) for a total of ten or more years from starting the bachelor's degree (which is usually begun around age 18) to the awarding of the doctorate. This timetable is only approximate, however, as students in accelerated programs can sometimes earn a bachelor's degree in three years or, on the other hand, a particular dissertation project might take four or more years to complete. In addition, a graduate may wait an indeterminate time between degrees before candidacy in the next level, or even an additional degree at a level already completed. Therefore, there is no time-limit on the accumulation of academic degrees.

Some schools—mostly junior colleges and community colleges, but some four-year schools as well—offer an associate's degree for two full years of study, often in pre-professional areas. This may stand alone, or sometimes be used as credit toward completion of the four-year bachelor's degree.

In the United States, there is also another class of degrees called "First Professional degree." These degree programs are designed for professional practice in various fields rather than academic scholarship. Most professional degree programs require a prior bachelor's degree for admission (a notable exception being the PharmD program), and so represent at least about five total years of study and as many as seven or eight.

Some fields such as fine art, architecture, or divinity have chosen to name their first professional degree after the bachelor's a "master's degree" (e.g., M.F.A., M.Div.) because most of these degrees require at least the completion of a bachelor's degree while the professional degrees in medicine (the M.D.) and law (the J.D.) are doctorates.[8] There is currently some debate in the architectural community to rename the degree to a "doctorate" in the manner that was done for the law degree decades ago.[1] It is important to recognize that first-professional degrees in these fields are different than research-oriented degrees and comparisons to the Ph.D. are problematic. [2]

Titles and abbreviations

In some languages, a master's degree is called a magister, which is Latin for master (teacher), and magister or a cognate can also be used for a person who has the degree. Some universities use the Latin degree names, and because of the flexibility of word order in Latin, artium magister (A.M.) or scientiarum magister (S.M.) may be used; Harvard University and the University of Chicago for instance, use A.M. and S.M. for their master's degrees and MIT uses S.M. for its master of science degrees. Master of Science often is abbreviated MS in the USA[3] and MSc or M.Sc. in Commonwealth nations and Europe.

Duration

In the USA and Canada, a master's degree entails a one- or two–year program of study in which students would normally enroll after completing a bachelor's degree. It provides higher qualification for employment or prepares for doctoral studies. In general, though, the structure and duration will differ by university:

In some systems, such as in the United States and Japan, a master's degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded after the completion of an academic program of one to six years in duration.

In some countries, such as Denmark, a master's degree is an undergraduate academic degree awarded after the completion of an academic program of one to five years in duration.

In some countries, such as England, Scotland, Sweden (students entering their education after July 2007) and Ireland, a master's degree can be both an undergraduate academic degree awarded after the completion of an academic program of four (or sometimes five) years in duration, or a postgraduate academic degree awarded after the completion of an academic program of one to two years in duration.

Admission

Admission to a master's program normally requires holding a bachelor's degree (in the United Kingdom an 'honours' bachelor degree), although relevant work experience may qualify a candidate. Progressing to a doctoral program sometimes requires that the candidate first earn a master's degree. In some fields or postgraduate programs, work on a doctorate begins immediately after the bachelor's degree, but the master's may be earned along the way, as a result of the successful completion of coursework and certain examinations. In some cases the student's bachelor's degree must be in the same subject as the intended master's degree, or in a closely allied discipline; in others, the subject of the bachelor's degree is unimportant.

List of Master’s Degrees in the United States with links to Contents Descriptions 1 Master of Laws (LL.M.) 2 Master of Applied Anthropology (MAA) 3 Master of Accountancy (MAcc or MAcy) or Master of Professional Accountancy (MPA) 4 Master of Arts in Christian Education (MACE) 5 Master of Arts in Education (M.A.Ed. or MA Ed.) 6 Master of Arts in Teaching (MAT) 7 Master of Arts in Finance, Accounting and Management 8 Master of Arts in History 9 Master of Arts in international economics and finance (MAief) 10 Master of Arts in International Hotel Management [MAIHM] 11 Master of Arts in Liberal Studies (MALS), Master of Liberal Arts (ALM), Master of Liberal

Studies (MLS) 12 Master of Arts Management (MAM) 13 Master of Arts in Organizational Leadership 14 Master of Arts in Professional Writing (MAPW) 15 Master of Arts in Public Service (MAPS) 16 Master of Architecture (MArch I. and MArch II.) 17 Master of Archival Studies (MAS) 18 Master of Engineering (MASc, ME, MEng, MIng) 19 Master of Business Informatics 20 Master's Degrees in Administration or Management (various) 21 Master of Criminal Justice (MCJ or MSJA) 22 Master of Clinical Medical Science (MCMSc) 23 Master of Digital Media (MDM)

24 Master of Divinity (MDiv), Master of Theology (ThM or MTh), and Master of Sacred Theology (STM)

25 Master of Education (MEd) 26 Master of Education of the Deaf (MED) 27 Master of Educational Technology (MET) 28 Master of Environmental Studies (MES) 29 Master of Health Administration (MHA) 30 Master of Industrial Design or Master of International Development (MID) 31 Master of Fine Arts (MFA) 32 Master of Forensic Sciences (MFS) 33 Master of Health Science (MHS) 34 Master of Management in the Network Economy (MiNE) 35 Master of Management Sciences / Master of Applied Sciences (MMSc/MASc) 36 Master of Information Systems Management (MISM) 37 Master of Labor and Human Resources (MLHR) 38 Master of Landscape Architecture (MLA) 39 Master of Library Science (MLS), Master of Library and Information Science (MLIS),

Master of Science in Information Studies (MSIS), Master of Science in Library Science (MSLS)

40 Master of Mass Communications (MMC) 41 Master of Marketing Research (MMR) 42 Master of Ministry (M.Min) 43 Master of Music (MMus, MM)

o 43.1 Master of Music Education (MME) 44 Master of Medical Science (MMS) 45 Master of Ministry (MMin) 46 Master of Nonprofit Organizations and Master of Nonprofit Management 47 Master of Occupational Therapy (MOT) 48 Master of Pacific International Affairs (MPIA) 49 Master of Public Administration (MPA) 50 Master of Physician Assistant Studies (MPAS) 51 Master of Public Health (MPH) and Master of Science in Public Health (MSPH) 52 Master of Pharmacy (MPharm) 53 Master of Philosophy (MPhil)

o 53.1 Master of Public Management (MPM) 54 Master of Project Management (MPM) 55 Master of Public Policy (MPP) 56 Master of Professional Studies (MPS or MProfStuds) 57 Master of Science in Education (M.S.Ed. or MS Ed.) 58 Master of Science in Dentistry (MSD) 59 Master of Science in Finance (MSF) 60 Masters of Science in Medical Education 61 Master of Science in Information (MSI) 62 Master of Science in Information Management (MSIM) 63 Master of Science in Information Systems (MSIS) 64 Master of Sacred Music (MSM) 65 Master of Science in Funeral Direction (provisional name) 66 Master of Science in Nursing (MSN or MNur) 67 Master of Science in Natural Sciences (MSNS) 68 Master of Science In Organizational Leadership (MSOL) 69 Master of Science in Strategic Leadership (MSSL) 70 Master of Science in Taxation (MST) 71 Master of Social Work (MSW)

72 Master of Urban Planning (MUP), Master of City and Regional Planning (MCRP), Master of Urban and Regional Planning (MURP), Master of City Planning (MCP), Master of Environmental Design (MEDes) (planning)

73 Master of Urban Studies (MURB)

Main grading system used by higher education institutions

Full Description: Many institutions use either a letter grading system similar to that described for secondary school linked to a numerical system based upon points earned. The latter system is typically based on a five-, four-, or three-point scale. Some institutions do not use grades or provide them only upon request. Grading systems are determined by each institution.

Highest on scale: A, 4.0 (Excellent)

Pass/fail level: C, 2.0 (Marginal)

Lowest on scale: D or F, 1.0 or below (Failure)

Other main grading systems

Advanced research studies (Masters thesis, Doctoral dissertations), practica and projects or presentations in the fine or performing arts are often not assigned letter or numerical grades but rather evaluated on an "honours", "pass", or "fail" basis by the supervising faculty. NOTE: US grading systems at both the secondary and higher education levels are generally based on the principle of starting with an assumption of a perfect grade and then subtracting points for errors, omissions, poor expression, unsound reasoning, etc. Numerical scores are often converted into letter grades, or vice-versa. Since there are five common letter grades (A,B,C,D,F) and ten-point score ranges are frequently issued to denote letter grade separations, it is common for any score/grade of less than 60 (D) to be considered unsatisfactory. This is an important difference from systems where scoring begins at zero and points are added to achieve a final grade.

5. Doctoral Degree Studies

Definitions

Before one can understand the requirements for academic degrees, one first must understand some terms about academic credit for a class:

semester A semester is an academic term with a duration of 15 weeks. Typically in the USA, a university has two semesters per year: one begins in August and the other begins in January. (There is a third semester during the summer, but most students have jobs during the summer, instead of attending classes then.)

semester hour A so-called "one-hour" lecture class has a duration of 50 minutes. A lecture class that meets for a total of 3×50 minutes each week for one semester is worth "3 semester hours" of credit. A lecture class that meets for a total of 5×50 minutes each week for one semester is worth "5 semester hours" of credit.

quarter A quarter is an academic term with a duration of 10 weeks. A typical student attends classes for three quarters during the year. (There is a fourth quarter during the summer, but most students have jobs during the summer.) Some universities in the USA have quarters, instead of semesters.

quarter hour A class that is worth 3 quarter hours of credit is equivalent to a class that is worth 2 semester hours of credit, because a quarter has fewer weeks of classes than a semester.

The requirements for a doctoral degree (e.g., Ph.D.) from an accredited university in the USA have a great deal of variation from one subject area to another, and from one university to another. The one common feature everywhere is that the doctoral degree is the highest academic degree offered by universities in the USA.

The minimum academic requirements for a doctoral degree in the year 1970 include:

A total of at least 50 semester hours of credit beyond the bachelor's degree must be earned in classes at accredited universities. Most of these classes will be in the student's major subject and most of these classes will be at the graduate level. Classes that were taken for a Master's degree can also be used to satisfy part of the requirements for a doctoral degree. (The student was given at least 12 semester hours of credit for a successful doctoral dissertation. Variation in the amount of credit given for a dissertation causes most of the variation in the total number of semester hours required for a doctoral degree.)

The most important part of a doctoral degree is the completion of a doctoral dissertation, which is a significant, original scholarly work that is suitable for publication in professional journal(s).

There is a sequence of three examinations: 1. A written examination, typically about six hours in length covering the

undergraduate syllabus. A student typically is given two chances to pass this examination, a failure on the second time expels the student from the graduate program.

2. A written proposal of a dissertation topic and research methods, followed by a oral examination by the candidate's advisory committee, which other professors are also welcome to attend.

3. And, most significantly, the candidate is required to defend his/her dissertation before a meeting of the candidate's advisory committee, which other professors are also welcome to attend.

A doctoral degree typically required between four and six years of full-time study and research beyond a bachelor's degree. Most universities required the candidate for a doctoral degree to spend at least three years on campus, taking classes and doing research.

Source: http://www.rbs2.com/accred.htm#anchorRequire

Research Doctorate:

The Research Doctorate represents the third and highest stage of higher education in the United States and may be awarded in academic disciplines and some professional fields of study. This degree is not awarded by examination or coursework only, but requires demonstrated mastery of the chosen subject and the ability to conduct independent, original research. Doctoral programmes require intensive study and research in at least one subfield and professional level competence in several others. Following a series of research seminars designed to prepare the individual research proposal, come candidate examinations (covering at least two subfields in addition to the field of research focus, one of which must be in a subject outside the doctoral student's own faculty but related to his/her research). If the candidate examinations are passed at a satisfactory standard (excellent or higher), the student is advanced to candidacy for the doctorate and selects a research committee of senior faculty who will approve the dissertation topic, monitor progress, and examine the student when the research is finished.

The conduct of research and preparation of the dissertation can take anywhere from one to several years depending on the chosen subject, available research funding, and the location of the research. When the dissertation is finished and approved as a document by the chair of the research committee, that individual convenes the full committee plus any outside faculty and public guests and presides over the candidate's oral defense of the dissertation. An unanimous vote of the research committee and examiners is generally required to award the doctorate. Most doctoral degrees take at least 4 or 5 years of full-time study and research after the award of a Bachelor's degree or at least 2 to 3 years following a Master's degree. The actual time to obtain the degree varies depending upon the subject and the structure of the programme. Research Doctorates are awarded in the academic disciplines and for theoretical research in some professional fields. The most common of such degrees is the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). There are a variety of equivalent degree titles used in some institutions and disciplines.

Source: http://www.euroeducation.net/prof/usa.htm

Fields of doctoral studies in the United States

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

These are fields of research-oriented doctoral studies, leading mostly to the awarding of the degrees of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.), Doctor of Education (Ed.D. or D.Ed.), and Doctor of Science (Sc.D. or D.Sc.) in the United States. (In the academic year

2004-2005, 90.3% of the 43,354 research-oriented doctorates awarded in the U.S. are Ph.D.s; 7.0% are Ed.D.s.) Studies that lead to professional doctorates, such as Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) and Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.D.), are not included.

Content 1 Agricultural sciences/Natural resources 2 Biological sciences/Biomedical sciences 3 Health sciences 4 Engineering 5 Computer and Information sciences 6 Mathematics 7 Physical sciences

o 7.1 Astronomy o 7.2 Atmospheric Science & Meteorology o 7.3 Chemistry o 7.4 Geological & Earth Sciences o 7.5 Physics o 7.6 Ocean/Marine Sciences

8 Psychology 9 Social Sciences 10 Humanities

o 10.1 History o 10.2 Letters o 10.3 Foreign Languages & Literature o 10.4 Other Humanities

11 Education o 11.1 Research and Administration o 11.2 Teacher Education o 11.3 Teaching Fields o 11.4 Other Education

12 Professional fields o 12.1 Business Management/Administrative Services o 12.2 Communications o 12.3 Other Professional Fields

o 12.4 Other Fields

Distance Education - Online Doctoral Programs

Doing an Online Doctoral Program - Benefits of studying online: In recent years, accredited online doctoral programs have become increasingly more accepted and respected in academia and in the wider employment market. In recognition of this, many educational institutions that offer doctoral programs in a traditional classroom setting are now also providing online programs

Alternatively, you can also choose to complete your doctoral program with an educational institution that is based solely online. There are many reasons why you may choose to complete your doctoral program online. Perhaps your geographic location or a physical disability makes it difficult for you to attend a full-time course. Studying online also gives you the advantage of being able to schedule your study at your own pace around your family or work commitments. You do not have to interrupt

your career and your lifestyle and income are not affected

Choosing a doctoral course: A doctoral qualification is the highest level of education you can formally achieve through a college or university. A qualification such as a Ph.D allows you to work within your professional community as a researcher, a teacher or as a consultant. Once you have completed an accredited course, you will be recognized as a leader in your field and may go on to write books or academic papers on your chosen area of expertise.

While doctoral programs are offered for a wide variety of subjects, some of the most popular courses are in the fields of Psychology; Education; Engineering; Public Health and Business. Your areas of specialization within these fields depend on your career goals. For example, if you are completing a online doctorate degree in Business Administration (DBA), you could focus on areas such as Accounting; Strategic Planning, Business Research or Organizational Theory among others. Graduates of an online doctoral program in Psychology can specialize in areas such as Human Development; Social Psychology and Multicultural Issues among others.

If you are completing an online doctoral degree in preparation for becoming a full-time faculty member of a university, you should ensure that you are aware of the specific qualifications required by that particular university

What is involved: The length of time required to complete a doctoral program online varies for each institution but will generally be between two and four years and require very intensive study. They are considered research degrees and you will be expected to carry out independent research in addition to coursework. Courses in research methodology will usually be included in the curriculum and you will also be expected to produce a dissertation or thesis.

When studying online, you generally download your lecture notes and assignments. Alternatively, lectures can be supplied via streaming audio or web conferences. You are often expected to contribute to online discussions with your classmates on various topics. Some assignments may also require you to collaborate with classmates. The use of web-based technologies such as instant messaging can make these tasks easier

Accreditation: It is essential that you select an accredited online doctoral program. Accredited programs have been evaluated to ensure that they meet high standards of education. They will give you a competitive edge in the marketplace. Many unaccredited courses are not recognized by universities or by employers.

If you are unsure whether the doctoral program you are interested in is accredited, you should contact the educational institution directly to ask. You should also ask when the accreditation was granted and when the school is due for their next review. There are regional and national agencies involved in the accreditation process. For example, the accrediting body for doctoral programs in Business Administration is The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB).

However, there are also six regional accrediting agencies in the US that your doctoral program could be accredited by. Many accredited online doctoral programs, particularly in fields such as business or the health professions, are given rankings from various institutions or publications such as US News and World Report magazine to help potential students make informed choices about the best program for their needs. Some aspects of the course measured to determine the rankings include faculty resources, starting salaries for graduates, peer assessment etc.

Career Options: Graduates of online doctoral programs are suited for research-oriented careers, particularly within academia. A Ph.D is essential for those who aspire to becoming professors and highly recommended for anyone who wants to be considered for a teaching position in third level institutions. Graduates also work as consultants within their chosen field and can command high

salaries as recognized experts in their areas of specialization.

Source: http://www.learn4good.com/distance_learn/online_doctoral_degree_programs.htm

6. Professional Postgraduate Studies

Certification in Higher Education

Certifications are earned from a Professional society and, in general, must be renewed periodically, or may be valid for a specific period of time (e.g., the life-time of the product upon which the individual is certified). As a part of a complete renewal of an individual's certification, it is common for the individual to show evidence of continued learning — often termed continuing education — or earning continuing education units (CEU).

It is important to note that certifications are usually earned from a professional society, not the government. If a demonstration of ability or knowledge is required by law before being allowed to perform a task or job, this is referred to as licensure. In the United States, professional licenses are usually issued by state agencies. The assessment process is often similar, even the same; certification and licensure differ only in terms of legal status.

Certifications are very common in aviation, construction, technology and other industrial sectors, as well as health care and finance. In USA, the Federal Aviation Administration regulates aviator certifications.

The National Organization for Competency Assurance (NOCA) is a US-based organization that helps certification bodies, primarily in healthcare and related fields, by providing them with information on the latest trends and issues of concern to practitioners and organizations focused on certification, obtaining licenses, and human resource development. Many members of the Association of Test Publishers (ATP) are also certification organizations.

Types of certifications

There are three general types of certification. Listed in order of development level and portability, they are: corporate (internal), product-specific, and profession-wide.

Corporate, or internal certifications, are made by a corporation or low-stakes organization for internal purposes. For example, a corporation might require a one-day training course for all sales personnel, after which they receive a certificate. While this certificate has limited portability - to other corporations, for example - it also is the simplest to develop.

Product-specific certifications are more involved, and are intended to be referenced to a product across all applications. This approach is very prevalent in the information technology (IT) industry, where personnel are certified on a version of software or hardware. This type of certification is portable across locations (for example, different corporations that use that software), but not across other products.

The most general type of certification is profession-wide. In order to apply professional standards, increase the level of practice, and possibly protect the public (though this is also the domain of licensure), a professional organization might establish a certification. This is intended to be portable to all places a certificant might work. Of course, this generalizability increases the cost of such a program; the process to establish a legally defensible assessment of an entire profession is very extensive. An example of this is a certified public accountant, who would not be certified for just one corporation or one piece of accountancy software but for general work in the profession.

Areas of certification

In accountancy

Accountants are the accountancy and financial experts that are legally certified in different jurisdictions to work only in public practices, selling advice and services to other individuals and businesses. Today, however, many work within private corporations, financial industry, and government bodies. There are many professional bodies for accountants throughout the world; some of them are legally recognized in their jurisdictions.

British qualified accountants Chartered Accountant (FCA, CA or ACA) Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (ACMA or FCMA) Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA or FCCA) Association of International Accountants (AAIA or FAIA) American qualified accountants Certified Public Accountant (CPA) Certified Internal Auditor (CIA) Certification in Control Self Assessment (CCSA)

There are non-statutory accountancy qualifications that are established by the industries, such as:

Certified Management Accountant (CMA) and Chartered Cost Accountant (CCA) designations from the American Academy of Financial Management (AAFM)

Certified Fraud Examiner (CFE) by the ACFE

In aviation

Aviators (Aviation Pilots) are certified through theoretical and in-flight examinations. Requirements for certifications are quite equal in most countries and regulated by each National Aviation Authority. The existing certificates or pilot licenses are:

Private pilot (PPL) Commercial pilot (CPL) Airline Transport Pilot (ATPL)

Licensing in these categories require not only examinations but also a minimum of flight hours. All categories are available for Fixed-Wing Aircraft (airplanes) and Rotatory-Wing Aircraft (helicopters). Within each category, aviators may also obtain certifications in:

Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Multiengine aircraft Turbojet Engines Jet Engines Experimental aircraft Amphibious aircraft Seaplanes

Usually, aviators must be certified also in their log books for the type and model of aircraft they are allowed to fly. Currency checks as well as regular medical check-ups with a frequency of 6 months, 12 months, or 36 months, depending on the type of flying permitted, are obligatory . An aviator can fly only if holding:

A valid pilot license A valid medical certificate

Valid certifications for the type of aircraft and type of flight.

In Europe, the ANSP, ATCO & ANSP technicians are certified according to ESARRs (according to EU regulation 2096/2004 "Common Requirements").

In business

see main article at Professional certification (Business)

In computer technology

see main article at Professional certification (Computer technology)

Certification is often used in the professions of software engineering and information technology.

In economic development

The International Economic Development Council, IEDC,[1] based in Washington, D.C. recognizes economic developers around the world who have achieved a level of excellence in their understanding of the tools and programs of economic development. In order to become a Certified Economic Developer (CEcD) one must sit through the exam and fulfill a number of requirements [[2]]

In health sector

Certified Nursing Assistants (CNA) and Certified Opticians are a couple of the many types of career health certificates below the level of a licensed practitioner that are able to give some recognition for achievement of educational requirements in their fields.These are introductory certifications only, and recognition of higher achievements in the health sciences are usually given by an affiliated association, school, or board of practitioners. Other professional certifications include certifications such as medical licenses, Membership of the Royal College of Physicians, nursing board certification, diplomas in social work. The Commission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacy certifies pharmacists that are knowledgeable about principles of geriatric pharmacotherapy and the provision of pharmaceutical care to the elderly. The Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies administers a voluntary accreditation program for law enforcement agencies.

See also

Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Radiologists Fellow of the American College of Emergency Physicians Fellow of the Royal Australasian College of Physicians Fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons Fellow of West African College of Physicians (FWACP) Membership of the College of Emergency Medicine Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology American Registry for Diagnostic Medical Sonography

In language teaching

TESOL is a large field of employment with widely-varying degrees of regulation. Most provision worldwide is through the state school system of each individual country, and as such the instructors tend to be trained primary- or secondary-school teachers that are native speakers of the

language of their pupils, not English. Though native speakers of English have been working in non-English speaking countries in this capacity for years, it was not until the last twenty-five years or so that there was any wide-spread focus on training particularly for this field. Previously, workers in this sort of job were anyone from backpackers hoping to earn some extra travel money to well-educated professionals in other fields doing volunteer work, or retired people. These sort of people are certainly still to be found, but there are many who consider TESOL their main profession.

One of the problems facing these full-time teachers is the absence of international governing body for the certification or licenture of English language teachers. However, Cambridge University and its subsidiary body UCLES are pioneers in trying to get some degree of accountability and quality control to consumers of English courses, through their CELTA and DELTA programs. Trinity College, London has roughly equivalent programs, the CertTESOL and the LTCL DipTESOL. They offer initial certificates in teaching, in which candidates are trained in language awareness and classroom techniques, and given a chance to practice teaching, after which feedback is reported. Both institutions have as a follow-up a professional diploma, usually taken after a year or two in the field. Although the initial certificate is available to anyone with a high school education, the diploma is meant to be a post-graduate qualification and in fact can be incorporated into a Master's degree program.

In legal affairs

An increasing number of lawyers are choosing to be recognized as having special knowledge and experience by becoming certified specialists in certain fields of law. According to the American Bar Association, a lawyer that is a certified specialist has been recognized by an independent professional certifying organization as having an enhanced level of skill and expertise, as well as substantial involvement in an established legal specialty. These organizations require a lawyer to demonstrate special training, experience and knowledge to ensure that the lawyer's recognition as a certified specialist is meaningful and reliable. Lawyer conduct with regard to specialty certification is regulated by the states.

In logistics & transport

Logistician is the Profession in the logistics & transport sectors, including sea, air, land and rail modes. Professional qualification for logisticians usually carry post-nominal letters. Common examples include:

CPIM/CSCP conferred by the Association for Operations Management (APICS), FCILT/CMILT conferred by The Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT), EJLog/ESLog/EMLog conferred by the European Logistics Association (ELA), CML /CPL conferred by the International Society of Logistics (SOLE), JrLog/Log/SrLog conferred by the China Federation of Logistics & Purchasing (CFLP), FHKLA/MHKLA conferred by the Hong Kong Logistics Association (HKLA), PLS/CTL/DLP conferred by the American Society of Transportation & Logistics (AST&L)

In project management

Certification is of significant importance in the project management (PM) industry. Certification refers to the evaluation and recognition of the skills, knowledge, and/or competence of a practitioner in the field.

Project management certifications come in a variety of flavors:

Competence-based programs wherein an individual must provide evidence of actual, on-the-job performance

Knowledge-based programs wherein an individual must pass an exam Experience-based programs wherein an individual must provide evidence of training or

education in the field.

PM organizations which run certification programmes include:

Stanford University Advanced Project Management (SAPM) Association for Project Management (APM) Project Management Institute (PMI) International Project Management Association (IPMA) Australian Institute of Project Management (AIPM)

In security

ASIS International administers the Certified Protection Professional - Board-Certified in Security Management (CPP)

ASIS International administers the Physical Security Professional, Board-Certified (PSP) ASIS International administers the Professional Certified Investigator, Board-Certified (PCI) Association of Certified Fraud Examiners administers the Certified Fraud Examiner (CFE) International Foundation of Protection Officers administers the Certified Protection Officer

(CPO) Society of Payment Security Professionals (SPSP) administers the Certified Payment-Card

Industry Security Manager

Other applications

The Certified Beer Judge Program (BJCP) has certified over 2000 amateur brewers and beer-lovers, mainly in the United States

Certified Professional Ergonomist (CPE) and Certified Human Factors Professional (CHFP).

The International Marina Institute (IMI) has certified over 180 marina management professionals globally through its Certified Marina Managers (CMM) program.

The Association of Pool & Spa Professionals (APSP) certifies pool builders and service technicians.

Help Desk Institute certifies for the Help desk service industry The Telecommunications Certification Organization provides vendor-independent

certification of telecommunications, VoIP, networking, IP and wireless technology knowledge for individuals and employers.

The Council-certified Indoor Environmental Consultant (CIEC) certification covers a wide range of indoor environmental quality disciplines focusing on managing indoor environmental quality in relation to building design, maintenance and operations to ensure an optimal environment for building occupants.

The Society of Permanent Cosmetic Professionals (SPCP) certifies permanent cosmetic professionals worldwide (CPCP).

The Canadian Association of Family Resource Programs certifies family life educators in Canada through their Certified Canadian Family Educator (CCFE) program.

MBA in the United States

The MBA in the US is traditionally a two-year (full-time study), professional master’s degree providing general training in business administration/management for students holding a first degree, not necessarily in business.

Other Related Degrees

Other related postgraduate degrees in the business field are the Master of Science in Business Administration (MS), Doctor of Philosophy in Business (PhD), Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) and Doctor of Commercial Sciences (DCS). The MS is designed to provide a high level of competence in a specialised field for students holding bachelor’s degrees in business or related fields. The PhD, DBA and the DCS are intended for those planning to teach at the university level or to undertake research.

Curriculum

Core SubjectsThe MBA consists of two components: the core and the elective courses. The core is made up of a group of courses designed to provide fundamental business skills. They are the basis of the MBA and therefore are taught first. Most universities will have some compulsory subjects from the core courses. Usually in the second year an MBA programme will offer concentration in one or a combination of the core subjects. The core can include or be a blend of the following subjects:

Economics Human resource management Microeconomics Information management and technology

Finance/Accounting Marketing and marketing strategies

Quantitative business analysis Organisational and operational management

The amount of time allotted to each subject, as well as the required courses, will vary from school to school.

Elective SubjectsElective subjects complement the core courses and also vary greatly between MBA programmes. Some electives are core subjects at a more advanced level. Among the elective courses you may see are the following:

Distribution and logistics Leadership Manufacturing issues Taxation

Multinational accounting Entrepreneurship

Some electives are related to specific areas of business like property management, health administration, and educational administration. Other electives are much broader business-related subjects such as international law, environmental policies and computer studies.

AccreditationUnlike many other countries, the establishment and maintenance of educational standards in the US are not the responsibility of a federal education ministry. The US has a system of voluntary non-governmental evaluation called accreditation.

There are two main types of US voluntary accreditation: institutional and professional. Regional accreditation is the most important type of institutional accreditation and is carried out by regional commissions which collectively serve most of the institutions chartered or licensed in the US. Professional accreditation is carried out by specialised accrediting professional bodies

in such fields as law, social work and nursing, and generally applies to schools or departments within an institution.

The main body concerned with the accreditation of US academic programmes in business administration and management is the AACSB-International Association for Management Education. AACSB accredits over 300 US bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral programmes.

AACSB accreditation indicates that a business school has met AACSB standards in areas such as the adequacy of faculty resources, qualifications of the faculty, design and content of the curriculum, quality of entering students and the adequacy of library, computer, classroom and other support facilities.

Business programmes may not be accredited by AACSB either because they have been recently established, because they have not sought accreditation or because they have not met accreditation prerequisites or standards. The fact that a business programme does not have AACSB accreditation does not necessarily mean that the programme is deficient. Questions about the absence of accreditation should be addressed to the administration of the school not to AACSB.

International students considering studying at US business programmes that do not hold AACSB accreditation should base their decision on whether enrolment in an unaccredited programme will have an effect on the careers they plan to pursue upon returning to their home country. Many governments and private firms have established procedures for the recognition of degrees earned outside of the home country. It is important, therefore, for international students to investigate the regulations that will affect their employment opportunities at home before they select US business programmes to which they will apply.

Length of MBA ProgrammesDegree requirements and the length of the programmes vary depending on the school and the design of the programme. The traditional MBA programme, studied full-time, takes two academic years. During the summer months students are encouraged to complete an internship. It is possible to arrange vacation work through the programme (see employment placement services below).

One-year programmesOne-year MBA programmes are offered to business undergraduates who have already completed the basic business courses and have some work experience. It is possible to pursue a one-year MBA course with little previous work experience as long as the core business course requirements have already been completed. However, many business schools will require that applicants to one-year MBA programmes have two to five years of work experience. One-year programmes are more intensive and sometimes entrance is more competitive than for two-year programmes, as they bring down the cost of an MBA. It is also possible to obtain an MBA in conjunction with an undergraduate business degree. You would then graduate with two degrees in five years. Check with individual institutions to find out the exact requirements and allowances for each.

Part-time ProgrammesPart-time MBA programmes are less accessible for international students because of visa regulations that require students to be enrolled full-time. There is an exception, however, for spouses of F-1 visa holders, who can enrol in part-time study. Many people choose to pursue a part-time MBA because they would like to further their education without having to give up employment. Many students are able to fund their degree, partially or in full, in this way. Part-time studies last for more than two years and can take up to ten years for some students. Part-time course content varies depending on the individual institution. Part-time students will still complete the core MBA courses, but may have limited elective choices. Night and weekend classes are often typical for part-time programmes.

Other Types of Programmes

Open/Distance LearningThese programmes are becoming more available and practical as advances in computer technology allow students to learn via the Internet and videoconferencing. Distance courses may also include seminar visits, weekend sessions and summer school. Please visit our Distance Learning web page for more information.

On-line MBAAs with other MBA courses, the on-line course varies with each university. The bulk of the degree is done via the Internet. Because physical presence at an institution is not required, self-motivation is key to successfully completing an on-line MBA. If you choose to pursue an on-line MBA, you can expect to conduct your course independently, communicating with professors and fellow students via email and on-line discussion groups.

Executive MBA ProgrammesThese programmes are for individuals within the upper levels of management, who have considerable work experience. The curriculum differs from regular MBA programmes in that the programme provides peer group experience. The curricula are streamlined and often operate outside of conventional business hours. In addition to the universities themselves, there is an Executive MBA Council within the AACSB, which can answer questions about such programmes.

Choosing an MBA School

Typically, an MBA will require you to forego two years' salary in addition to spending considerable time and money applying to programmes. It makes sense, therefore, to do careful research when selecting programmes. Give particular consideration to your future professional career and make a personal choice based on factors that are important to you. The EAS Reference Library and Fulbright Technology Centre have business school directories. Rankings of business schools are available but should not be heavily relied upon as they are unofficial, subjective and can be misleading. In choosing a programme, prospective applicants may want to consider the following criteria:

CompetitivenessThere is a wide range of selectivity between business schools, and you need to take into account your own competitiveness as an applicant. In most MBA guides, you can find out how many applicants there were to individual programmes the previous year and how many were actually accepted. Included in some statistics are the grade point averages and average GMAT scores achieved by US students. Some schools do not like to publish this information so as to encourage a variety of applicants. The more competitive a school is the less likely it is going to grant credit for business courses taken elsewhere.

Costs and Availability of Financial AidThis varies between state-supported schools and private schools and between international students and US students (See the Financing Section below). Be sure to take into consideration the availability and affordability of living.

Teaching MethodsSome schools favour the case-study method, studying actual problems encountered by real corporations. Alternatively, there are schools that use a quantitative and analytical approach, concentrating on theory rather than on practice. As the MBA is a professional degree, you may want to research how prospective employers view different programmes and their design. Most schools offer specialisations, and these may affect the direction of your future career.

Educational Institutions with MBA Programs

American Intercontinental UniversityAuburn UniversityUniversity of AlabamaUniversity of MobileAlaska Pacific UniversityArkansas State UniversityCalifornia Baptist UniversityCalifornia State University ChicoClaremont Graduate UniversityColorado State UniversityUniversity of DenverFairfield UniversityUniversity of BridgeportUniversity of DelawareWilmington CollegeJacksonville UniversityGeorgia Southwestern State UniversityEmory UniversityUniversity of Hawaii at ManoaUniversity of IdahoBoise State UniversityNorthwestern UniversityIllinois State UniversityIllinois Institute of TechnologyOakland City UniversityIndiana University South BendUniversity of IowaIowa State University of Science and TechnologyColumbia UniversityAdelphi UniversityPittsburg State University

DeVry UniversityBenedictine CollegeWestern Kentucky UniversityUniversity of KentuckySoutheastern Louisiana UniversityLouisiana State University in ShreveportUniversity of MaineSalisbury UniversityJohns Hopkins UniversityFrostburg State UniversityHarvard UniversityBoston UniversityAndrews UniversityMichigan Technological UniversityWalden UniversityMetropolitan State UniversityUniversity of MississippiMississippi State UniversitySaint Louis UniversityNorthwest Missouri State UniversityUniversity of Montana-MissoulaUniversity of Nebraska LincolnUniversity of New HampshireNew Jersey City UniversityMonmouth UniversityGeorgian Court CollegeNew Mexico State UniversityMount Saint Mary CollegeWake Forest UniversityAmerican University

Duke UniversityUniversity of North DakotaOhio State UniversityCleveland State UniversityUniversity of OklahomaOklahoma State UniversityCameron UniversityPortland State UniversityOregon State UniversityBloomsburg UniversityUniversity of Rhode IslandJohnson and Wales UniversitySouth Carolina State UniversityClemson UniversityUniversity of South DakotaTennessee Technological UniversityTennessee State UniversityMidwestern State UniversityHardin-Simmons UniversityBaylor UniversityAbilene Christian UniversityUniversity of UtahSouthern Utah UniversityCollege of St. JosephGeorge Mason UniversityCollege of William and MaryPacific Lutheran UniversityEastern Washington UniversityWest Virginia UniversityMarshall UniversityMarquette UniversityEdgewood CollegeUniversity of Wyoming

 

7. Postgraduate Education Institutions

Higher education in the U.S. is also called postsecondary education, but the latter term also refers to all formal education beyond secondary school, whether higher education (defined as degree-granting education) or not. Postsecondary education is broadly divided into two different sectors: postsecondary vocational education and training, which is non-degree but can produce some transferable credits under certain circumstances; and higher education, which includes studies undertaken in degree-granting institutions for academic credit.

However, the U.S. higher education system is not legally organized into separate university and non-university sub-systems as are some other national systems, but is comprehensive. It is a diverse and autonomous community of publicly and privately supported institutions. Current data indicate that there are 6,479 postsecondary institutions, including 4,182 non-degree institutions. Of the degree-granting higher education institutions, some 1,732 award only the associate degree plus sub-bachelor's certificates and diplomas; 702 award only the bachelor's degree; 1,094 award degrees and certificates beyond the bachelor's degree but not the research doctorate; and 654 institutions award the research doctorate.

The United States does not use an official classification or typology for its higher education institutions. While different institutions offer varying levels of degrees, U.S. accreditation policies result in degrees at any given level adhering to certain minimum standards regardless of the institution that grants them. The privately derived but popular Carnegie Classification organizes U.S. institutions according to different schemes. For more information, see: http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/Classification/ The U.S. higher education system is characterized by accessibility, diversity, and autonomy and is known for both its size and quality. The federal government has no jurisdiction or authority over the recognition of educational institutions, members of the academic professions, programmes or curricula, or degrees or other qualifications. Nearly all U.S. postsecondary institutions are licensed, or chartered, by a state or municipal government to operate under the ownership of either a government (if public) or a private corporation (if independent), and may be for-profit or not-for-profit enterprises. Religious institutions are considered independent, or private.

Quality assurance is achieved via the system of voluntary accreditation by specific accrediting agencies that are recognized by the U.S. Secretary of Education and meet the standards for membership in the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA). Accreditation is a self-regulating process of quality control engaged in by the U.S. postsecondary education community to ensure minimum standards of academic capability, administrative competence, and to promote mutual recognition of qualifications within the system. Six (6) regional accreditation associations set minimum standards for institutions chartered in the states of their respective jurisdictions. In addition, there are recognized accrediting agencies for specialized institutions and programmes. While all recognized and accredited institutions are licensed or chartered by state governments, states vary greatly in the degree of supervision and quality control that they exercise, and there is relatively limited reciprocity of recognition across state borders. Accreditation by recognized agencies, therefore, remains the primary means of ensuring academic and institutional quality and the mutual acceptance of credits and qualifications across and outside the United States.

Source: http://www.euroeducation.net/prof/usa.htm Top US Masters Degree and PhD Degree Programs (listed by US state)

Here is where you will find top US universities and US colleges offering US master's degree and PhD programs, listed by the state they are located in. These US universities and US colleges offer cutting-edge

master's and PhD courses, leading to Master's and PhD (doctoral) degrees. The schools offering these top US Master's degree programs and US PhD degree programs are waiting to hear from you and send you detailed information. Contact the appropriate graduate universities and colleges below that meet your criteria.

Alabama

Auburn UniversityUniversity of AlabamaUniversity of Mobile  Alaska

Alaska Pacific UniversityUniversity of Alaska Fairbanks Arizona

DeVry University Prescott College

  Arkansas

Arkansas State UniversityArkansas Tech University  California

DeVry University American Intercontinental UniversityCalifornia Baptist UniversityCalifornia State University ChicoClaremont Graduate University

 Colorado

DeVry University Colorado State UniversityUniversity of Denver

  Connecticut

Fairfield UniversityUniversity of Bridgeport  Delaware

University of Delaware

Louisiana

Louisiana State University in ShreveportSoutheastern Louisiana University  Maine

University of MaineUniversity of New England  Maryland

Frostburg State UniversityJohns Hopkins UniversitySalisbury UniversityUniversity of Maryland  Massachusetts

Boston UniversityHarvard UniversityLesley University  Michigan

Andrews UniversityMichigan Technological UniversityOakland University Minnesota

Metropolitan State UniversityWalden University   Mississippi

Mississippi State UniversityUniversity of Mississippi Missouri

Ohio

DeVry University Cleveland State UniversityOhio State University  Oklahoma

Oklahoma State UniversityUniversity of Oklahoma  Oregon

Eastern Oregon UniversityOregon State UniversityPortland State University  Pennsylvania

DeVry University Bloomsburg UniversityLa Roche College

  Rhode Island

Johnson and Wales UniversityRhode Island CollegeUniversity of Rhode Island  South Carolina

Clemson UniversitySouth Carolina State University  South Dakota

Northern State UniversityUniversity of South Dakota  Tennessee

Tennessee State University

Wilmington College  Florida

DeVry University Jacksonville University

  Georgia

DeVry University Emory UniversityGeorgia Southwestern State University

  Hawaii

University of Hawaii at Manoa  Idaho

Boise State UniversityUniversity of Idaho  Illinois

DeVry University Illinois Institute of TechnologyIllinois State UniversityNorthwestern University

  Indiana

Indiana University South BendOakland City University  Iowa

Iowa State University of Science and TechnologyUniversity of Iowa  Kansas

Benedictine CollegePittsburg State University  Kentucky

University of Kentucky

DeVry University Northwest Missouri State UniversitySaint Louis University

Montana

University of Great FallsUniversity of Montana-Missoula Nebraska

University of Nebraska Lincoln New Hampshire

Antioch New England Graduate SchoolUniversity of New Hampshire New Jersey

Georgian Court CollegeMonmouth UniversityNew Jersey City University  New Mexico

College of the SouthwestNew Mexico State University  New York

DeVry University Adelphi UniversityBuffalo State CollegeColumbia UniversityMount Saint Mary College

  North Carolina

Duke UniversityWake Forest University 

Tennessee Technological University Texas

DeVry University

Abilene Christian University

Baylor University

Hardin-Simmons University

Midwestern State University  Utah

Southern Utah University

University of Utah  Vermont

Castleton State College

College of St. Joseph  Virginia

College of William and Mary

George Mason University  Washington

DeVry University

Eastern Washington University

Pacific Lutheran University  Washington D.C.

American University

Catholic University of America

Western Kentucky UniversityNorth Dakota

University of North Dakota 

Howard University  West Virginia

Marshall UniversityWest Virginia University  Wisconsin

Edgewood CollegeMarquette University  Wyoming

University of Wyoming 

 

8. ICT Studies and Use in HE Sector

American higher education is undergoing substantial change in terms of the way colleges and universities are organized and function. This change is being driven by the combined forces of demographics, globalization, economic restructuring, and information technology (IT)—forces that will, over the coming decade, lead us to adopt new conceptions of educational markets, organizational structures, how we teach, and what we teach. The purpose of this article is to describe these forces and speculate on their effects on higher education in the US and other mature industrial societies.

Demographic Forces

Today, four demographic changes are affecting higher education. First, the ethnic identification mix of the general population is changing both in the US and in the world, although the changes vary by geographical area. This is perhaps best represented by examining the proportion of the white population in these areas. Between 1970 and 2000, New York City’s population shifted from two-thirds to one-third white. In several states white children are no longer the majority in the elementary grades. Before the end of this century, demographers generally expect Euro-descended Americans to make up less than half of the U.S. population (Nasser, 2000). This change is reflected worldwide, in that the proportion of the population that is white is decreasing and is projected to continue to decrease. To be effective in this environment, colleges and universities must ensure that their curriculums provide opportunities for students to learn how to function effectively in an increasingly diverse, multi-cultural global environment.

Second, the demand for access to some form of postsecondary education is increasing dramatically. An ever-greater proportion of high school graduates is enrolling in college (67 percent today vs. 56 percent in 1980), and the size of the high school graduating class will grow by more than 20 percent between 1996 and 2005. The National Center for Education Statistics (2001a) reported a 2 percent increase in college enrollments in 2001 and projects that enrollment will grow by an additional 16 percent over the next decade, mainly because of an increase in the college-age population. The demand for education is exacerbated by a general shortage of postsecondary faculty members; the US Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that the number of college and university faculty will need to grow by 16.6 percent during this decade to meet replacement and growth demands (Snyder et al.,  2002).

Third, the age demographic within the US and other industrialized countries is changing. The National Center for Educational Statistics (2001b) estimates that in the US, 43 percent of adults will be age 50 or older by 2010, and 50 percent of all college students will be over 21. By 2004, 100 million Americans will take part in adult education programs (for 1995, this figure was 76 million). The “graying” of the population is also reflected in the graying of the workforce, a workforce that needs continuing education to remain viable.

Fourth, within this decade, more than 20 percent of college and university faculty members will retire (American Demographics, 2001), thereby allowing new talent into the ranks of the professorate—talent that is comfortable using information technology tools in their work. 

Globalization and the Economy

IT industries play a major role in the global economy. In the US, 60 percent of the GNP is related to them. Since 1995, IT has sustained more than one-third of U.S. economic growth. In five years, most new US jobs will be in computer-related fields: The US Bureau of Labor Statistics (2002) projects that computer-related occupations will grow 86 percent from 2000 to 2010.

In this environment, business-to-business e-commerce is also expanding rapidly. The Gartner Group projects that this economic sector will exceed $7 trillion dollars by 2004 (Iwata, 2000). Consequently, some 95 percent of the workforce will soon need to use some type of information technology in their jobs.

In response to emerging free trade initiatives, business organizations are downsizing and restructuring to adapt to an increasingly competitive global economy. Workers need constant retraining if their employers are to remain in business and if they are to retain their jobs. The American Society for Training and Development estimates that 75 percent of the current workforce will need to be retrained just to stay sufficiently qualified for employment (Marklein, 1997).

To summarize, in the US and in mature industrial democracies around the world, there is increasing demand for access to higher education from increasing numbers of secondary school graduates. When we combine this demand for higher education from youth with the growing need to retrain employees mid-career, we can confidently assume that the existing labor-intensive, bricks-and-mortar campuses will not have the resources (physical or financial) to meet the demand.

In order to meet unprecedented demand for access, colleges and universities need to expand their use of IT tools via online learning, which will enable them to teach more students without building more classrooms. Moreover, in order for professors to prepare their pupils for success in the global economy, they need to ensure that students can access, analyze, process, and communicate information; use information technology tools; work with people from different cultural backgrounds; and engage in continuous, self-directed learning.

Information Technology (IT) Development

IT has a major effect on our lives today and will continue to do so in the future. According to Moore’s Law, formulated more than 20 years ago by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore, the power of computer technology effectively doubles every 18 months while the price of technology decreases at the same rate. Intel, for example, has recently developed transistors with elements as narrow as three atoms wide. Chips with these miniscule elements can contain approximately 400 million transistors and can consequently run at 10 GHz on less than one volt of power. (In contrast, current Pentium 4 chips contain 42 million transistors and run at 1.5 GHz.) Although Moore’s Law has remained valid to date, researchers have speculated about when the laws of physics might stop it. Early in the last decade, Moore himself estimated that the trend would probably cease when transistors shrunk to around 0.25 microns. But chips with transistors that size came out in 1997. Since then, IBM has developed a gigabyte hard drive that is the size of two quarters pasted together, yet is large enough to contain 1,000 books. In August 2002, Seagate announced that it had exceeded IBM, squeezing 50 terabits to a square inch, and indicated that it will eventually offer a 1 terabyte (2-3 million books) drive for $300.00 (Ng, 2002).

The implications of Moore’s law are profound. We can expect machine intelligence to be embedded in smaller and more powerful devices, which may lead to computers that are capable of thought and that can support visualizations, simulations, modeling, and animation.

Metcalf’s law states that available bandwidth will double with no change in price every 18 months. Along with advances in wireless technology, this trend will make it possible to stay continuously connected to networks, anywhere and anytime. When we combine smaller, more powerful, and less expensive (and therefore more accessible) computers with the power of the Internet to quickly connect people across the globe via audio, video, and text, we have the means to transform our culture. And that is precisely what is happening now. We can anticipate that, in the future, computers will be as easy to use and as ubiquitous and reliable as telephones are today. These machines, equipped with decision algorithms and expert systems, will enable schools to greatly enrich the educational experience through virtual reality simulations and through such tools as peer-to-peer groupware to facilitate project-based team learning.

IT Complemented by Telecommunications

As the success of the Internet and other networks services became readily apparent, leading players of the telecommunications industry (especially cable providers and the local Bell Telephone companies) came up with a stunning realization. The nation is almost completely "networked" in terms of telephone and cable lines - why not use these wires for more than just conversations and one-way broadcasting? With an additional, although hefty, investment in networking technology and services, this pre-existing network structure could be used as the building blocks of an entirely new system, one which would allow users all over the country to exchange data, video, music, information, and anything else they could think of, in real time.

The various telecommunication technologies of the present - telephones, TV's, fax machines, etc., would all converge into a singular, computer-driven system. This mega-network of networks and new technology became known as the Information Highway (other transportation metaphors, such as the Superhighway, I-Way, Infobahn, etc. are also common). But many people have found these nicknames to be romantic, if not misleading, monikers used more to capture attention rather than convey an accurate image of this network. In order to avoid the confusion caused by such rhetoric-ladened metaphors, the U.S. government officially adopted a new name instead - The National Information Infrastructure, or NII.

The official clarion call for the development of the NII was sounded publicly in September, 1993 with the release of the NII report, Agenda for Action. Sponsored by the Clinton Administration and authored by its Information Infrastructure Task Force, Agenda for Action was the first official "vision" of what the NII should look like. Although vague in terms of method and planning, the report laid out a set of basic goals to be used as parameters in the design of the NII. Though the government would encourage private industry to develop the NII with a variety of economic incentives, its creation and form would not be a government design. No matter the final result, the use of the NII should be available and affordable to all people, and it should be seamless and interactive. Additionally, information security, intellectual property, and personal privacy would be maintained. Beyond these and several other general demands, the structuring of the NII would be determined entirely by telecommunications companies and special interest groups, which would be guided by the regulatory powers of Congress and the Federal Communications Commission.

Signals of Change

All around us, there are a number of signals that higher education is headed for a major transformation. Consider the following:

    The number of e-mails sent on an average day was 10 billion in 2000; 35 billion are expected in 2005 (Zuckerman, 2001).

    Cable and phone companies are consolidating to provide more efficient forms of interactive multimedia programming (Stern, 2002).

    Educational courses and programs are being designed, produced, and distributed by corporations.

    The UK Higher Education Funding Counsel has estimated the global online learning market to be $70 billion (Kelly, 2000).

    Merrill Lynch calculated that the higher-education market outside the US is worth $111 billion a year, and it projected a potential consumer base of 32 million students. More than half of the market, in terms of both students and money, is based in China (Moe, 1998).

    The National Institute of Standards and Technology estimates that by 2004, the US e-learning market will grow to $46 billion; the International Data Corporation projects that it will expand to more than 35 percent of the total training market by 2004, up from 10 percent in 1999 (Morton, 2001).

    Army online (eArmyU.com) started last year and expects to have 85,000 online students by 2005 (Lorenzo, 2002).

    The distance-learning market for fully online degree programs is growing at an annual rate of 40 percent (Gallagher & Newman, 2002).

    A Pew-funded program at the University of Rochester has sponsored projects at VPI and other institutions to demonstrate how colleges and universities can use Web-enabled courses to handle more students more efficiently, and less expensively, without loss of quality (Morrison & Twigg, 2001).

    Cisco's classroom programs cost as much as $1,800 per worker, whereas Web-based classes cost approximately $120 per worker (Sunday Times, 2001).

    The total number of corporate universities expanded from 400 in 1990 to 2,000 in 2000. Average enrollment in these institutions is increasing 30 percent per year. By 2003, corporations will provide 96 percent of their training online. By 2010, corporate training universities are likely to outnumber traditional colleges and universities (Morrison & Meister, 2001).

    The dean of the University of Chicago School of Business predicts that “Corporate training and distance learning will ‘wipe out’ many of the 700 MBA programs that issue 100,000 MBAs each year” (Jones, 2000, B1).

    The Western Governors University, a virtual university sponsored by 10 western states, awards competency-based degrees (Morrison & Mendenhall, 2001).

    At the University College of the Caribou (Canada), students pay monthly tuition until they have completed their courses (Morrison & Twigg, 2001).

    At Rio Salado College (Arizona), student enrollment is continuous, with new classes beginning every 2 weeks (Morrison & Twigg, 2001).

    In 2001, 72 percent of colleges and universities offered distance education courses; in 1999, only 48 percent of institutions offered such courses.

    In 2000, 49 percent of colleges provided Internet connections in classrooms; in 2002, this figure grew to 64 percent.

    According to a survey by the National Association for College Admission Counseling, 77 percent of colleges provided online enrollment to prospective students in 2001, up from 68 percent in 1998. Some colleges (e.g., West Virginia Wesleyan and MIT) require all prospective students to submit their applications online.

    In collaboration with its partner libraries, the Library of Congress is launching a pilot project to form a global reference desk so that librarians’ expertise will be available to users 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.

    Five percent of all postsecondary institutions currently require students to have a personal computer.

    In spring 2001, Stanford University graduated the first 25 students from its global online engineering program (Harmon, 2001).

    Universitas 21—a high-profile international consortium of 17 universities in Asia, Australia, Europe, and North America—plans to sell online degrees to a global market. Created in 1997, the consortium intends to offer a master's degree throughout Asia in early 2003 (O’Hagan, 2002).

Finally, younger students are changing. On the whole, they are far more comfortable using computers, telecommunications, and multimedia than their elders. In light of current trends in household computer use, most members of the upcoming Generation Z may be computer literate before they hit grade school. Currently, more than 50 percent of US school districts depend on some form of student assistance to maintain computer networks and to help instructors use IT tools.

In a recent article in On the Horizon, Marc Prensky (2002) coined the phrase “Digital Natives” to describe the current breed of young students, who are accustomed to hypertext, phones in their pockets, a library on their laptops, and instant messaging. They have little patience for in-class lectures or modes of instruction that require them to regurgitate information through pencil-and-paper tests. Their cultural background is also reflected in their speech: For example, one kindergartener expressed his feelings at lunchtime by saying “www.hungry.com,” while a high school student reportedly said, “Every time I go to school I have to power down.”

Visions of the National Information Infrastructure (NII)

Though the actual structuring of the NII is only beginning to fall into place, a variety of special interests have stated their visions of what the information highway will look like, in terms of services to offered, the availability of those services and the actual technology used to transmit them. Though the lines drawn between the different visions may be somewhat vague and shifting at times, comparing and contrasting some of the basic issues should prove to be helpful. To accomplish this, we'll explore two of the major thematic designs of the NII: a commercial

telecommunications network for entertainment and business, and a noncommercial civic network for research, education and community use.

ICT, NII and Contemporary Education

Today’s students are part of a technology-savvy generation, but they are often still at a loss when it comes to using their critical thinking and problem-solving skills in a digital environment; a skill set identified as Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Literacy.

ETS organized the 2001 International ICT Literacy Panel — an international group of leaders in education, business and government — to analyze issues and approaches to measuring ICT literacy. From this research, ETS partnered with a consortium of institutions of higher education to develop the iSkills™ assessment.

The iSkills assessment helps you ensure your students are ready for success in academia and the workforce. The iSkills assessment:

measures your students’ ability to navigate, critically evaluate and make sense of the wealth of information available through digital technology — so you can make the necessary changes to narrow skill gaps

is the only ICT literacy test that assesses critical thinking in the digital environment tests the range of ICT literacy skills aligned with nationally recognized   Association   of

College and Research Libraries (ACRL) standards helps you identify where further curriculum development is needed so students have the

ICT literacy skills they need to succeed

Who should use the iSkills assessment?

Any curriculum, department or resource library class can use the iSkills assessment to gain valuable information about student ICT literacy. The assessment is offered at 2 levels of difficulty to measure ICT literacy at different stages of a student’s academic career.

Core Assessment

Appropriate for students transitioning into 4 year college programs or completing their freshman or sophomore undergraduate studies

Identifies the technical skills needed to complete entry-level coursework

Advanced Assessment

Appropriate for students transitioning to upper-level coursework or the workplace Designed with more challenging tasks to help rising juniors and institutions determine

student readiness for advanced-level study Evaluates mastery of skills necessary for workplace success

Source: http://horizon.unc.edu/courses/papers/InTransition.aspSource: http://www.ets.org/portal/site/ets/menuitem.1488512ecfd5b8849a77b13bc3921509/?vgnextoid=159f0e3c27a85110VgnVCM10000022f95190RCRD&vgnextchannel=e5b2a79898a85110VgnVCM10000022f95190RCRD

9. Quality Issues in Higher /Postgraduate Education

Educational accreditation in the United States

When discussing accreditation in the United States, it is important that the concept of accreditation not be confused with the authority to operate. The authority to operate an educational entity in the U.S. is granted by each of the states individually. The U.S. is a federal republic, and the federal government possesses only specific limited powers, with all others reserved to the states (pursuant to the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution). Therefore, the authority of the U.S. Department of Education does not extend to authorizing schools to operate, to enroll students, or to award degrees. In addition, the U.S. Department of Education (USDE) is not responsible for accreditation of institutions, nor is the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), a bob-governmental organization, both recognize reputable accrediting agencies for institutions of higher education and provide guidelines as well as resources and relevant data.

In the United States, educational accreditation has long been established as a peer review process coordinated by accreditation commissions and the members. The federal government began to take a limited role in accreditation in 1952 with reauthorization of the GI Bill for Korean War veterans. The original GI Bill legislation had stimulated establishment of new colleges and universities, including some of dubious quality, creating a perceived need for a federal quality review process for higher education institutions. Instead, the 1952 legislation designated the existing peer review process as the basis for measuring institutional quality; GI Bill eligibility was limited to students enrolled at accredited institutions included on a list of federally recognized accredited institutions published by the U.S. Commissioner of Education.

Over time federal recognition criteria became more elaborate and the government assumed an increasing role in the process, but the process still relies on private accreditation organizations. As the U.S. Department of Education officially states, it does not accredit schools. Instead, accreditation commissions are formed, funded, and operated by their members to create an academic community that is self-regulating.

With the advent of the U.S. Department of Education and under the terms of the Higher Education Act of 1965, as amended, the U.S. Secretary of Education is required by law to publish a list of nationally recognized accrediting agencies that the Secretary determines to be reliable authorities as to the quality of education or training provided by the institutions of higher education and the higher education programs they accredit. The federal government makes no distinction between accreditation bodies, giving all equal standing. There is no similar federal government list of recognized accreditation agencies for primary and secondary schools. There is wide variation among the individual states in the requirements applied to non-public primary and secondary schools.

Regional accreditors

There are six regional accreditors. They accredit (and therefore include among their membership) nearly all elementary schools, junior high schools, middle schools, high schools, and public and private institutions of higher education that are academic in nature.

National accreditors

There are 52 recognized national accrediting bodies. National accreditors get their name from their common policy of accrediting schools nationwide or even worldwide. Requirements for accreditation vary from each national accreditor according to the specialty. In general terms, the

national accreditors accredit post-secondary programs that are vocational, technical and career in nature. Some of these programs offer degrees and some only certificates.

Five of these bodies are listed by the Department of Education as general in nature and national in scope. These are

Distance Education and Training Council (DETC) Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools (ACICS) Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology (ACCSCT) Accrediting Council for Continuing Education and Training (ACCET) Council on Occupational Education (COE)

Specialized and professional accreditors

Specialized and professional accreditors can attain legitimacy through U.S. Department of Education recognition, CHEA membership, or membership in the Association of Professional and Specialized Accreditors. Of the specialized and professional accreditors, the more visible include the American Dental Association Commission on Dental Accreditation, the American Bar Association (whose accreditation is a prerequisite to sitting for the bar exam in the vast majority of states, with the most notable exception being California), the Association of American Medical Colleges for medical schools, The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business for business schools, the American Veterinary Medical Association for schools of veterinary medicine, and the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology for engineering schools.

Religious accreditors

Religious schools may seek regional accreditation or a secular national accreditation, or they have the option of four different specialized agencies, which include

Association of Advanced Rabbinical and Talmudic Schools (AARTS), Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada (ATS), Association for Biblical Higher Education (ABHE), and Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools (TRACS).

These groups specialize in accrediting theological and religious schools including seminaries and graduate schools of theology, as well as broader-scope universities that teach from a religious viewpoint and may require students and/or faculty to subscribe to a Statement of Faith.

The remainder of the accrediting organizations are formed by groups of professional, vocational, or trade schools whose programs are industry/profession specific and at times can require technical oversight not provided by the broader accrediting organizations (i.e. the Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education).

Regional versus national accreditation

Regionally accredited schools are predominantly academically oriented, non-profit institutions. Nationally accredited schools are predominantly for-profit and offer vocational, career or technical programs. Every college has the right to set standards and refuse to accept transfer credits. However, if a student has gone to a nationally accredited school it may be particularly difficult to transfer credits (or even credit for a degree earned) if he or she then applies to a regionally accredited college. Some regionally accredited colleges have general policies against accepting any credits from nationally accredited schools, others are reluctant to because regional schools feel that national schools academic standards are lower than their own or they are unfamiliar with the particular school. The student who is planning to transfer to a regionally accredited school after

studying at a nationally accredited one should ensure that they will be able to transfer the credits before attending the nationally accredited school. There have been lawsuits regarding nationally accredited schools who led prospective students to believe that they would have no problem transferring their credits to regionally accredited schools, most notably Florida Metropolitan University and Crown College, Tacoma, Washington. The U.S. Department of Education has stated, however, that its criteria for recognition of accreditors "do not differentiate between types of accrediting agencies, so the recognition granted to all types of accrediting agencies — regional, institutional, specialized, and programmatic — is identical." However the same letter states that "the specific scope of recognition varies according to the type of agency recognized."

Unaccredited institutions

Despite the widely recognized benefits and accountability of accreditation, some institutions choose, for various reasons, not to participate in an accreditation process. According to the United States Department of Education, it is possible for postsecondary educational institutions and programs to elect not to seek accreditation but nevertheless provide a quality postsecondary education. Yet, other unaccredited schools simply award degrees and diploma without merit for a price.

Some religious schools claim that accreditation could interfere with their mission or philosophy even though organizations do exist specifically to accredit religious institutions without compromising their doctrinal statements. Some states, such as California, allow exemption from accreditation for religious schools. Thus, occasionally diploma mills operate as religious universities to avoid laws against diploma mills.

An ongoing problem within higher education accreditation is the existence of diploma mills and accreditation mills. These organizations exist to grant apparent degrees without academic course work to give a willing buyer a degree for money. The use of unaccredited degree titles is legally restricted or illegal in some jurisdictions.

Legal considerations

In the United States, unaccredited degrees may not be acceptable for financial aid, civil service or other employment. Criminal penalties sometimes apply should such a degree be presented in lieu of one from an accredited school. The use of such degrees are restricted in Oregon, New Jersey, Indiana, Illinois, North Dakota, Nevada and Washington where improper usage can result in misdemeanor charges punishable by fines. For instance, the state of Washington passed a bill in March 2006 "prohibiting false or misleading college degrees."

Some state laws allow authorities to shut down large illegal operations of unaccredited schools or diploma mills. In November 2005, a group of operators in Seattle was caught running several diploma mills.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_accreditation

Educational Testing Services (ETS)

Educational Testing Service’s team of educational professionals offers consulting services, technical assistance, custom assessments, in-depth research, and other solutions for school districts, institutions, businesses and government agencies throughout the world. Find out more about how ETS can meet your educational needs.

K–12 Education : ETS offers an array of tests, products and services including solutions for school improvement, custom and out-of-the-box assessments, professional development, data-driven marketing and instructional tools.

Higher Education : For nearly 60 years, colleges and universities across the nation — and around the world — have relied on ETS to help inform vital decisions and advance the quality of education with valid, reliable, research-based outcomes assessments, learning tools and student engagement resources.

English Language Learning : ETS offers a broad range of assessment and learning tools to help evaluate and build the English language skills of students, employees or individuals and prepare them for the real-life academic or business environments that await them.

International Services : ETS provides consulting services and custom assessments for educational institutions, government agencies and businesses throughout the world. Special instruction, consultation and technical assistance are offered to education officials through the ETS Global Institute.

Research Services : The ETS team of expert researchers is available to provide the content, methods and processes essential for the manufacture of ETS’s diverse portfolio of products and services.

Scholarship & Recognition Programs : ETS’s Scholarship & Recognition Programs (SRP) help corporations, foundations, labor unions, fraternal and philanthropic organizations achieve scholarship program objectives without the added burden and expense of administering the programs using internal resources.

Source: http://www.ets.org/portal/site/ets/menuitem.22f30af61d34e9c39a77b13bc3921509/?vgnextoid=a9757f95494f4010VgnVCM10000022f95190RCRD

10. Funding and Student Counseling

Funding of Education in the United States

Colleges and universities are financed in ways consistent with both the Jeffersonian ideal of limited government and the belief that market competition tends to improve quality and efficiency. While government plays a very important role in financing, American colleges and universities are supported further by diverse revenue sources that reflect the market choices of students and parents as well as other consumers of the goods and services that institutions provide. The major sources of revenue include tuition and fee payments from students and families (including the government-backed financial aid that students use to pay tuition); appropriations, grants, and contracts from federal, state, and local governments; private gifts; endowment and other investment earnings; and sales from auxiliary enterprises and services.

Some of these sources are more important to some types of institutions than to others. For example, local governments account for 18 percent of revenue at community colleges but 1 percent of revenue at private not-for-profit institutions. Similarly, private gifts contribute 14 percent of revenue to private not-for-profit institutions, but only 1 percent of revenue to community colleges (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).

While the revenue sources of American institutions are diverse, two sources are of particular importance to most institutions: state appropriations, particularly for public institutions; and tuition and fees. These two sources (along with local appropriations at community colleges and federal research grants and contracts at research universities) provide the bulk of funds for general operating expenses. One of the perennial questions in American higher education finance is how much of the cost of education should be borne by government, and how much by students and families.

Traditionally, state appropriations have made up the bulk of institutional revenue at public institutions, but they are diminishing both as a share of state expenditures and as a percentage of institutional revenue. In response, state governments and public institutions have raised tuition, shifting the responsibility from taxpayers to students. In most states, higher education is the third largest item in the budget, after health care and elementary/secondary education. Because health care costs are escalating rapidly and voters demand that spending on elementary/secondary schools be protected, higher education falls logically into legislators’ sights when they are forced to make budget cuts. Not only does higher education represent a significant portion of state budgets, but (unlike other programs such as prisons) it has a natural alternative source of revenue—tuition payments from parents and students.

Typically, in good economic times, states will raise appropriations to colleges and universities and demand that, in return, institutions keep tuition increases low. When the economy is in trouble and state tax revenue falls, states cut spending on higher education and expect institutions to make up the difference through tuition increases. Private donations from individuals and corporations provide another source of revenue for American colleges and universities the United States. Total voluntary support for higher education, encouraged by the U.S. tax structure, surpassed $23 billion in fiscal year 2003, of which $11 billion was donated by individuals (Council for Aid to Education, 2004). To this end, many colleges and universities construct sophisticated approaches to fund raising, and college and university presidents dedicate much of their time to raising private gifts.

A significant and growing set of expenditures at many private not-for-profit institutions is institutional financial aid, sometimes called “tuition discounting.” Private colleges have a long tradition of providing financial assistance to low-income students. In addition, most of these institutions (and, increasingly, many public institutions as well) have turned to institutional financial aid to attract students who may be able to pay the full price but who are unwilling to attend without a discount. For some institutions, tuition discounting is a way to compete with other institutions for the “best and brightest.” For others, it is a necessary practice that fills enrollment places that otherwise would remain vacant. In either case, these discounts contribute to increases in the posted or “sticker price.”

All institutions face real increases in the cost of providing education. Technology and equipment costs are rising, as are the prices of journals and books, health care for employees, and building maintenance. Institutions are working to update and expand facilities and services to meet student demand for state-of-the-art technology, small class sizes, and world-class academic and recreational facilities. In the face of these increased costs and reduced revenue from states and other sources, universities and colleges have three options. They can cut back, improve efficiencies, and/or generate new revenue. For the most part, institutions are engaged in some combination of all three. They cut back by reducing travel and equipment purchases, postponing salary increases, leaving vacant faculty and administrative positions, reducing administrative and support staff, and postponing building and renovation. Rarely do institutions cut academic programs. Institutions also strive to become more efficient. Much of this effort focuses on administrative and student service functions, such as lowering electrical usage, streamlining purchasing and procurement processes, and altering financial systems. Some institutions are pursuing efficiencies in academic areas, such as using technology to reach more students, increasing class size, and hiring adjunct instructors. However, most efficiencies are being sought outside the classroom.

Finally, American colleges and universities are pursuing many efforts to diversify and expand their revenue streams, such as developing online education and niche-oriented degree and non-degree academic programs, expanding research capacities, engaging in licensing and sponsorship agreements, and pursuing auxiliary enterprises, such as managing real estate and running conference centers. Because a primary source of additional revenue is student tuition and fees, they have risen at twice the rate of inflation over the past 20 years, outstripping increases in both family income and financial aid resources.

The implications of increasing prices for students and families are a matter of constant policy debate. Despite tuition increases, demand for higher education continues to increase. Further, a wide array of government and private financial aid programs provides assistance to students, based on both financial need and academic merit. Financial aid to students totaled more than $105 billion in 2002–03, including $71 billion in federal grants, loans, and tax credits; $6 billion in state grants; and $20 billion in grants provided by colleges and universities, as well as private organizations (College Board, 2003).

Despite these resources, access and success in higher education continue to be stratified according to income, with students at the upper end of the income spectrum far more likely to attend college and earn a degree than those from disadvantaged backgrounds. Of course, many factors play into college access and success, not the least of which is students’ level of prior academic preparation. Because the quality of U.S. elementary and secondary schools varies widely depending on the wealth of communities, tuition prices alone cannot be blamed for disparities in education opportunity. However, even if low-income students are able to overcome the academic and financial barriers to enrolling in college, their ability to succeed once enrolled can be impeded because they must work and attend part time in order to pay their tuition, suggesting that financial matters play a crucial role.

FUND FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

The Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE) is headed by the Director, who reports directly to the Deputy Assistant Secretary for Higher Education Programs.  An advisory body, the National Board, provides policy advice to the Secretary and the Director on the priorities and operation of FIPSE.

FIPSE was established by the Education Amendments of 1972 to improve postsecondary educational opportunities by providing assistance to education institutions and agencies for a broad range of reforms and innovations.  Congress identified eight broad purposes for which contracts and grants may be awarded under Part A. Subpart I of Title X of the Higher Education Act. 

These purposes are for:

Encouraging the reform, innovation, and improvement of postsecondary education and providing equal educational opportunities for all.  

Creating institutions and programs involving new paths to career and professional training and new combinations of academic and experiential learning.

Establishing institutions and programs based on the technology of communications.

Carrying out in postsecondary educational institutions of changes in internal structure and operations designed to clarify institutional   priorities and purposes.

Designing and introducing cost-effective methods of instruction and operation.

Introducing institutional reforms designed to expand individual opportunities for entering and reentering institutions and pursuing programs of study tailored to individual needs.

Introducing reforms in graduate education, in the structure of academic professions and in the recruitment and retention of faculties

Creating new institutions and programs for examining and awarding credentials to individuals and introducing reforms in current institutional practices related thereto.

Under Part A. Subpart 2 of Title X of the Higher Education Act, Congress authorized grants for innovative projects concerning one or more areas of particular national need identified by the director.  Congress specified that areas of national need should initially include, but not limited to, the following: (1) international exchanges, (2) campus climate and culture, and (3) evaluation and dissemination.

Under Part B-1 of Title XI, HEA, FIPSE, also administers the Innovative Projects for Community Service Program, which awards grants to support innovative projects that encourage college student participation in community service activities.

Domestic Students Financing Schemes

In addition to diversity, autonomy, competition, and accessibility, size is a distinguishing feature of U.S. higher education. The U.S. Department of Education counts 6,500 postsecondary institutions that participate in its student financial aid programs, including 4,200 colleges and universities that award degrees and 2,300 institutions that award vocational certificates. These 6,500 institutions

enrolled approximately 16 million full- and part-time students, including 14 million undergraduates and 2 million graduate and professional students, in fall 2001. The 4,200 colleges and universities awarded more than 2.4 million degrees in academic year 2000–01. In addition, an untold number of other institutions offer post-secondary instruction of some type but do not choose to participate in the federal student aid programs and therefore are not counted by the federal government (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).

International student scholarships and loans

The reality is that there is very little financial aid available from US sources for international students. International student scholarships are very hard to secure. The great majority of international students in America must rely exclusively on themselves and their relatives for funding. If you need to obtain financial aid or an international student scholarship to afford an American education, the best place for you to look is your home country. There may be international student scholarships and international student loans available for study abroad from your government, or from local businesses, organizations, and foundations in your home country.

Other places to look for international student scholarships, international student loans and other forms of international student aid are international humanitarian organizations that want to promote international education and cultural exchange with the USA. Included in these organizations are the United Nations, the World Health Organization, the League of Red Cross Societies, and the World Council of Churches. Some of these organizations have restricted financial aid, international student scholarships and international student loans. For example, the international student scholarships or aid may only be available to graduate students, students from a specific ethnic group, or students who have chosen a specific course of study. Financial aid and scholarships from these organizations are very competitive, so you need to start your search early.

Finally, there are also many universities in the US that provide financial aid and international student scholarships to international students. However, this aid is usually limited and is often more readily available to graduate than undergraduate students. Furthermore, competition for international student scholarships and aid is fierce, and schools are careful to help out the most deserving international students. Good grades and exam scores are extremely important in securing an international student scholarship. Find out whether any of the schools that you would like to apply to have grants, loans or scholarships for international students. If they don’t, and you have not been able to obtain enough funding on your own, you may have to consider other schools that will help.

Below are some links for websites that provide information on international student scholarships and financial aid for international students:

ScholarshipExperts.com - This site helps international students who want to study in the USA with time-saving international student scholarship search tools. It also contains advice sections for international students.

International Education Financial Aid (IEFA) – This site provides a searchable database that contains various sources of aid available to international students. It is a free service.

International Student Loans – This site offers loans to international students, so long as the international student loan is co-signed by an American citizen.

Fulbright – Fulbright grants are available for international students in graduate school.

Rotary International – This organization provides some limited international student scholarships.

The Soros Foundations Network – This foundation offers international student scholarships for undergraduate and graduate students. Many are restricted to students from specific countries.

AAUW – This organization provides fellowships for international graduate students who are women.

American Councils for International Education – The councils provide international student grants and fellowships to international students from the former Soviet republics.

AMIDEAST – This organization provides grants for international students from the Middle East and North Africa.

Institute for International Education – The institute publishes a book titled Funding for U.S. Study: A Guide for Citizens of Other Nations that provides information on hundreds of grants and international student scholarships offered by governments, foundations and international organizations.

Cornell University Graduate School Fellowship Notebook – This database contains a list of funding and international student scholarships available to graduate international students.

King Faisal Foundation – This organization provides an international student scholarship program for Muslim students to undertake post-graduate studies at any USA university.

Various Grant Schemes

Institutional GrantsThere are other grants in addition to ours.  Colleges provide institutional grants to help make up the difference between college costs and what a family can be expected to contribute through income, savings, loans, and student earnings.

Other institutional grants, known as merit awards or merit scholarships, are awarded on the basis of academic achievement. Some merit awards are offered only to students whose families demonstrate financial need; others are awarded without regard to a family's finances.

Some grants come with special privileges or obligations. You'll want to find out about the types of grants awarded by each college you are considering.

Sources: http://studentaid.ed.gov/PORTALSWebApp/students/english/InstitutionalGrant.jsp?tab=funding

Campus-Based AidThe Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grant (FSEOG), Federal Work-Study (FWS), and Federal Perkins Loan programs are called campus-based programs because they're administered directly by the financial aid office at each participating school. Not all schools participate in all three programs. Check with your school's financial aid office to find out which programs they participate in.

How much aid you receive from each of these programs depends on your financial need, on the amount of other aid you receive, and on the availability of funds at your college or career school. Unlike the Federal Pell Grant Program, which provides funds to every eligible student, the campus-based programs provide a certain amount of funds for each participating school to administer each

year. When the money for a program is gone, no more awards can be made from that program for that year. So, make sure you apply for federal student aid as early as you can. Each school sets its own deadlines for campus-based funds, and those deadlines are usually earlier than the Department of Education's deadline for filing a FAFSA.

Source: http://studentaid.ed.gov/PORTALSWebApp/students/english/campusaid.jsp

Stafford Loans (FFELs and Direct Loans)In addition to Perkins Loans, the U.S. Department of Education administers the Federal Family Education Loan (FFEL) Program and the William D. Ford Federal Direct Loan (Direct Loan) Program. Both the FFEL and Direct Loan programs consist of what are generally known as Stafford Loans (for students) and PLUS Loans (for parents).

Schools generally participate in either the FFEL or Direct Loan program but sometimes participate in both. Under the Direct Loan Program, the funds for your loan come directly from the federal government. Funds for your FFEL will come from a bank, credit union, or other lender that participates in the program. Eligibility rules and loan amounts are identical under both programs, but repayment plans differ somewhat.

Source: http://studentaid.ed.gov/PORTALSWebApp/students/english/studentloans.jsp

The Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grant (FSEOG), Federal Work-Study (FWS), and Federal Perkins Loan programs are called campus-based programs because they're administered directly by the financial aid office at each participating school. Not all schools participate in all three programs. Check with your school's financial aid office to find out which programs they participate in.

How much aid you receive from each of these programs depends on your financial need, on the amount of other aid you receive, and on the availability of funds at your college or career school. Unlike the Federal Pell Grant Program, which provides funds to every eligible student, the campus-based programs provide a certain amount of funds for each participating school to administer each year. When the money for a program is gone, no more awards can be made from that program for that year. So, make sure you apply for federal student aid as early as you can. Each school sets its own deadlines for campus-based funds, and those deadlines are usually earlier than the Department of Education's deadline for filing a FAFSA.

PLUS Loans for Graduate and Professional Degree StudentsPLUS Loans for Graduate and Professional Degree Students

Graduate and professional degree students are now eligible to borrow under the PLUS Loan Program up to their cost of attendance minus other estimated financial assistance in both the FFEL and Direct Loan Program. The terms and conditions applicable to Parent PLUS Loans also apply to Graduate/Professional PLUS loans. These requirements include a determination that the applicant does not have an adverse credit history, repayment beginning on the date of the last disbursement of the loan, and a fixed interest rate of 8.5 percent in the FFEL program and 7.9 percent in the Direct Loan program. Applicants for these loans are required to complete the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA). They also must have applied for their annual loan maximum eligibility under the Federal Subsidized and Unsubsidized Stafford Loan Program before applying for a Graduate/Professional PLUS loan. Click here for more information about Direct PLUS Loans for graduate and professional degree students.

PLUS Loans (Parent Loans)Parents can borrow a PLUS Loan to help pay your education expenses if you are a dependent undergraduate student enrolled at least half time in an eligible program at an eligible school. PLUS

Loans are available through the Federal Family Education Loan (FFEL) Program and the William D. Ford Federal Direct Loan (Direct Loan) Program. Your parents can get either loan, but not both, for you during the same enrollment period. They also must have an acceptable credit history.

Source: http://studentaid.ed.gov/PORTALSWebApp/students/english/parentloans.jsp?tab=funding

Counseling

Main student services at national level

There are no student services sponsored or operated by the federal government. A wide variety of student associations, service organizations and assistance corporations exists. They provide services of different kinds to students and their families. These range from disciplinary and professional associations to unions, financial institutions, health care associations, religious associations and others. Student associations and services offices exist at nearly every postsecondary institution and branch campus. Institutions also have specialized foreign student advising offices and foreign student associations to assist the special needs of overseas students and families. Local associations and offices provide information.

Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs

US Department of State301 Fourth Street, SW, Room 234Washington, DC 20547United States of AmericaTel: +1(202) 6194360Fax: +1(202) 4015914EMail: academic@pd.state.govWWW: http://exchanges.state.gov/

Category of services provided: Special services/Centre for foreign studentsServices available to foreign Students: Yes

The College Board, Office of International Education

Higher Education3700 Crestwood ParkwaySuite 700Duluth GA 30096United States of AmericaTel: +1(800) 9274302 Fax: +1(678) 3803315EMail: info@atl.collegeboard.comWWW: http://www.collegeboard.com/highered/index.html

 Category of services provided: Academic and career counselling services; Special services/Centre for foreign studentsServices available to foreign Students: Yes

United States Network for Education Information (USNEI)

International Affairs Staff/OUS, US Department of Education400 Maryland Avenue SWWashington, DC 20202-8401

United States of AmericaTel: +1(202) 4013710Fax: +1(202) 4012508EMail: usnei@ed.govWWW: http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/edlite-index.html

 Category of services provided: Special services/Centre for foreign studentsServices available to foreign Students: Yes

National student associations and unions

United States Students Association (USSA)

815 16th Street NW, 4th FloorWashington, DC 20005United States of AmericaTel: +1(202) 3478772Fax: +1(202) 3935886EMail: ussa@usstudents.org

Health/social provisionsSocial security for home students: NoForeign student social security provisions: Prospective students should contact the U.S. institution they seek to enter to obtain information on social and health benefits requirements and services.

Student expenses and financial aid

Bodies providing information on student financial aid:

AMIDEAST

1730 M. Street, NWSuite 1100Washington, DC 20036United States of AmericaTel: +1(202) 7769600Fax: +1(202) 7767000EMail: inquiries@amideast.orgWWW: http://www.amideast.org/

 Deals with: Grants and LoansCategory of students: AMIDEAST provides information and assistance to students from the Middle East.

Association of International Educators (NAFSA)

1307 New York Avenue NW8th FloorWashington, DC 20005-4701United States of AmericaTel: +1(202) 7373699Fax: +1(202) 7373657EMail: inbox@nafsa.orgWWW: http://www.nafsa.org

Deals with: GrantsCategory of students: Resources and programmes for international and US study abroad students.

Institute of International Education (IIE)

809 United Nations PlazaNew York, NY 10017United States of AmericaTel: +1(212) 8838200Fax: +1(212) 9845452WWW: http://www.iie.org/

 Deals with: Grants and LoansCategory of students: IIE provides information and advice on international study exchanges and funding.

Publications on student services and financial aid:

Title: Funding for U.S. study: A guide for foreign nationals (Annual edition)Publisher: Institute of International Education (IIE)

Title: Study Abroad 2005-2006Publisher: UNESCOYear of publication: 2005

Title: To your health: An international student's guide to medical insurance in the U.S.(regularly updated)Publisher: NAFSA - Association of International Educators

Title: US federal income tax guide for international students and scholars (regularly updated)Publisher: NAFSA - Association of International Educators

 

11. International Mobility & Recognition

International Mobility in Higher Education

Since World War II, U.S. higher education has been engaged in a process of “massification,” that is, expanding to serve students from all walks of life. Motivating this effort is a widespread belief in the power of education to create social and economic mobility and in the morality and social value of making higher education accessible to everyone. Longitudinal data bear out public perceptions: Young people from low-income backgrounds who complete a bachelor’s degree have income and employment characteristics after graduation equivalent to their peers from more affluent backgrounds (Choy, 2002). Education truly can be “the great equalizer.”

Despite widespread public faith in the value of higher education, the process of massification has not been without its detractors, and progress has been slow and uneven. Higher education did not admit significant numbers of racial and ethnic minorities until after the civil rights movement of the 1960s forced change. Further, despite significant expenditures on financial aid, minority and low-income individuals are still less likely to attend college than whites or students from middle- and upper-income families—although these gaps have narrowed somewhat. Despite progress in narrowing the access discrepancies, large gaps remain between completion rates. Low-income students come to college less prepared, and must balance academic demands with work and family responsibilities.

Finding ways to Increase the enrollment rates of low-income students and encourage their success once enrolled are two of the most important problems facing American higher education. One of the challenges to meeting these goals is that they can conflict with the other central tenets of American higher education market competition and resistance to government control. For example, institutional competition for the most academically talented students is likely to foster increased use of tuition discounting for students without financial need, which could divert resources away from need-based financial aid for low-income students.

Similarly, institutions may seek to distinguish themselves in the academic marketplace by becoming more selective in admissions decisions, thereby reducing the number of low-income students admitted. A primary role of government in the United States is to mediate the potentially negative effects of competition by insisting that institutions adhere to their missions, providing need-based financial assistance to students, and holding institutions accountable for their performance. Institutional resistance to government control provides a useful check on the ambitions of government, pushing policy makers to focus on ends rather than means and to leave core academic decisions largely in the hands of institutions. Nonetheless, a constant preoccupation of American higher education is this tension between the competitive, ambitious nature of institutions and the interests of government in promoting important public goals, primary among them broad access and widespread success for all students.

International Cooperation & Exchanges

Principal national bodies responsible for dealing with international cooperation and exchanges in higher education:

Alliance for International Educational and Cultural Exchange

1776 Massachusetts Avenue, NWSuite 620Washington, DC 20036-1912

United States of AmericaTel: +1(202) 2936141Fax: +1(202) 2936144EMail: info@alliance-exchange.orgWWW: http://www.alliance-exchange.org

American Association of Community Colleges (AACC)

One Dupont Circle, NWWashington, DC 20036United States of AmericaTel: +1(202) 7280200Fax: +1(202) 8332467WWW: http://www.aacc.nche.edu

American Council on Education (ACE)

One Dupont Circle, NWWashington, DC 20036-1193United States of AmericaTel: +1(202) 9399300Fax: +1(202) 6592212EMail: comments@ace.nche.eduWWW: http://www.acenet.edu

Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs

US Department of State2201 C Street NWWashington, DC 20520United States of America

Tel: +1(202) 6474000WWW: http://exchanges.state.gov/

Council of Graduate Schools (CGS)

One Dupont Circle, NWSuite 430Washington, DC 20036-1173United States of AmericaTel: +1(202) 2233791Fax: +1(202) 3317157EMail: pmcallister@cgs.nche.eduWWW: http://www.cgsnet.org

Council on Standards for International Education and Travel (CSIET)

212 South Henry StreetAlexandria, VA 22314United States of AmericaTel: +1(703) 7399050Fax: +1(703) 7399035EMail: mailbox@csiet.org

WWW: http://www.csiet.org

Institute of International Education (IIE)

809 United Nations PlazaNew York, NY 10017-3580United States of AmericaTel: +1(212) 8838200Fax: +1(212) 9845452WWW: http://www.iie.edu/

NAFSA: Association of International Educators

1307 New York Avenue NW, 8th floorWashington, DC 20005-4701United States of AmericaTel: +1(202) 7373699Fax: +1(202) 7373657EMail: inbox@nafsa.orgWWW: http://www.nafsa.org

The College Board, Office of International Education

3700 Crestwood ParkwaySuite 700Duluth GA 30096United States of AmericaTel: +1(800) 9274302Fax: +1(678) 3803315EMail: info@atl.collegeboard.comWWW: http://www.collegeboard.com/highered/index.html

United States Network for Education Information (USNEI), National Library of Education

International Affairs Staff/OUS, US Department of Education, 400 Maryland Avenue SWWashington, DC 20202-5523United States of AmericaTel: +1(202) 4013710Fax: +1(202) 4012508EMail: usnei@ed.govWWW: http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/edlite-index.html

Participation of country in multilateral or bilateral higher education programmes

Name of exchange programme: Fulbright Exchange Programme Name of exchange programme: Hubert H. Humphrey Fellowship Programme

11. Special Issues and Links

Some statistical data on HE in the

Postsecondary Enrollment Over 60 percent of graduating secondary students enroll in some form of postsecondary education each year, or approximately 1.8 million students. Twenty per cent enroll on a part-time basis, and 43 percent enroll in associate degree and short programs as compared with bachelor's degree programs.

First Degree Attainment Recent data show that over 500,000 students earn associate degrees each year, nearly 150,000 earn short non-degree certificates and diplomas, and nearly 1.2 million students earn bachelor's degrees. Of the students who initially enroll in short programs and associate degree programs, over 38 percent finish and receive some award, including 6 percent who gain admission to bachelor's degree programs and graduate, but 48 percent drop out. Of the students who initially enroll in bachelor's degree programs around half, or 53 percent, earn a bachelor's degree while 24 percent drop out and the remainder remain on the rolls without completing a degree or switch to another type of program. Since increasing numbers of students temporarily stop their studies and later re-enroll, it is impossible to report precise continuous flow data.

Advanced Degree Attainment Students do not necessarily continue their studies immediately upon earning a bachelor's degree. Many start careers and later undertake a part-time graduate program or quit working to re-enter university. Some 1.2 million students of all ages enroll in first-professional and advanced degree programs each year, and over 78,500 first-professional, 430,000 master's, and 45,900 doctoral degrees are awarded. The mean registered time (time spent enrolled as a student) from receipt of a bachelor's degree to earning a research doctorate is 7.3 years, which varies by subject. Of U.S. citizens and residents aged 25-40, approximately 1.4 percent have earned first-professional degrees, 5.4 percent have earned master's degrees, and one percent have earned research doctorates.

More information on Educational Statistics:

 Digest of Education StatisticsCompilation of statistical information covering the field of education from pre-kindergarten through graduate school, produced by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), U.S. Department of Education.

National Center for Education Statistics NCES, U.S. Department of Education, is the primary federal entity for collecting and analyzing data related to education in the United States and other nations.

Source: http://usinfo.state.gov/infousa/education/overview/edlite-structure-us1.html

Research Ethics

Issues related to Research Ethics in the United States can be found at Internet under title “International and U.S. Ethics – Codes and Regulations with the following sub-topics links:

Distinguishing Statements of Ethical Principles and Regulatory Guidelines Comparative Analysis of International Documents Addressing Protection of Research

Participants Statements of Ethical Principles International and U.S. Regulatory Guidelines

Other Ethics of Research with Human Subjects Documents Reports on the Ethics of Research in Developing Countries Ethics Guidance for HIV/AIDS Research

Distinguishing Statements of Ethical Principles and Regulatory Guidelines

The U.S. Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) distinguishes ethical principles and regulatory guidelines. The former are a statement and sometimes a discussion of fundamental ethical values and principles important to protecting human subjects in scientific and medical research. A statement of fundamental values and principles is important since, as explained in the Belmont Report, codes of rules "are often inadequate to cover complex situations; at times they come into conflict, and they are frequently difficult to interpret or apply. Broader ethical principles will provide a basis on which specific rules may be formulated, criticized and interpreted." Regulatory guidelines are not a discussion of ethical values, but usually are a list of do's and don'ts or procedural standards. In the U.S., U.S. regulatory guidelines have the force of law.

International institutions who apply for a U.S. Federal-wide Assurance (FWA) are asked in their application to select:

(i) a statement of ethical principles (one from the list below) which they promise will guide all research at their institution, and

(ii) a set of regulatory guidelines or procedural standards (one from the list below) which they promise will guide all federally-conducted or -supported research at their institution.

Institutions wishing to designate a statement of ethical principles or regulatory guidelines other than those listed below, should state this intention on their FWA application.

By clicking on the links below you can access U.S. and international documents regarding the ethics of research with human subjects. Note: document descriptions are excerpted from the corresponding websites.

Source: http://bms.brown.edu/fogarty/codes.htm#inter