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LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter reading this chapter, students should:

Know how consumers process and evaluate prices

Know how a company should set prices initially for products or services

Know how a company should adapt prices to meet varying circumstances and opportunities

Know when a company should initiate a price change

Know how a company should respond to a competitor’s price change

CHAPTER SUMMARY Despite the increased role of non-price factors in modern marketing, price remains a critical element of the marketing mix. Price is the only one of the 4Ps that produces revenue; the others produce costs.

In setting pricing policy, a company follows a six-step procedure. It selects its pricing objective. It estimates the demand curve—the probable quantities it will sell at each possible price. It estimates how its costs vary at different levels of output, at different levels of accumulated production experience, and for differentiated marketing offers. It examines competitors’ costs, prices, and offers. It selects a pricing method. It selects the final price.

Companies do not usually set a single price, but rather a pricing structure that reflects variations in geographical demand and costs, market-segment requirements, purchase timing, order levels, and other factors. Several price-adaptation strategies are available: (1) geographical pricing; (2) price discounts and allowances; (3) promotional pricing; and (4) discriminatory pricing.

After developing pricing strategies, firms often face situations in which they need to change prices. A price decrease might be brought about by excess plant capacity, declining market share, a desire to dominate the market through lower costs, or economic recession. A price increase might be brought about by cost inflation or over demand. Companies must carefully manage customer perceptions in raising prices.

Companies must anticipate competitor price changes and prepare a contingent response. A number of possible responses are possible in terms of maintaining or changing price or quality.

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C H A P T E R 1 DEVELOPING PRICING STRATEGIES AND PROGRAMS

Chapter-by-Chapter Instructional Material

The firm facing a competitor’s price change must try to understand the competitor’s intent and the likely duration of the change. Strategy often depends on whether a firm is producing homogeneous or non-homogeneous products. Market leaders attacked by lower-priced competitors can choose to maintain price, raise the perceived quality of their product, reduce price, increase price and improve quality, or launch a low-priced fighter line.

OPENING THOUGHT Students should have a good understanding of “price” in their role as consumers. The instructor is encouraged to expand the student’s definition of “a price” by using examples of different pricing structures (cell phone plans for example), promotional pricing, geographical pricing, and price discrimination.

An area for some misunderstanding for students new to marketing is how the firm reviews competitor’s reactions to price changes. Students will have some degree of difficulty in assuming the “role” of a competitor and formulating defensive and/or offensive plans to price changes.

Discriminatory pricing is also an area that students new to marketing can have some difficulty understanding for the first time. Although discriminatory pricing is not illegal, per se, the distinctions are sometimes porous between the two.

TEACHING STRATEGY AND CLASS ORGANIZATION PROJECTS1. At this point in the semester-long marketing plan project, students should be prepared

to hand in their pricing strategy decisions for their fictional product/service. In reviewing this section, the instructor should make sure that the students have addressed all or most of the material, concerning pricing, covered in this chapter.

2. Consumer perceptions of prices are also affected by alternative pricing strategies. Marriott Hotels, for example, has different brands for differing price points. Building upon the Marriott example, students are to scan the environment to find examples of a company whose pricing strategy is closely tied to its branding strategy. Caution: students may want to list just the different price points in the same company such as Ford automobiles. What this project is designed to accomplish, is that students should note that the Lincoln line of cars are priced at a premium to the Ford and Mercury divisions. Good students will also have researched the actual percentage difference between the three divisions.

3. Sonic PDA Marketing Plan Pricing is a critical element in any company’s marketing plan, because it directly affects revenue and profit goals. Effective pricing strategies must consider costs as well as customer perceptions and competitor reactions, especially in highly competitive markets.

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Chapter 14: Developing Pricing Strategies and Programs

You are in charge of pricing Sonic’s first PDA. Review your SWOT Analysis and Competition Analysis. Also, think about the markets you are targeting and the positioning you want to achieve. Then, answer the following questions about pricing:

What should Sonic’s primary pricing objective be? Why? Are PDA customers likely to be price-sensitive? Is demand elastic or inelastic?

What are the implications of the answers for pricing decisions? What price adaptations such as discounts, allowances, and promotional pricing

should Sonic include in its marketing plan?

Document your pricing strategies and programs in a written marketing plan or type them into the Marketing Mix section of Marketing Plan Pro.

ASSIGNMENTSSmall Group Assignments1. Marketers recognize that consumers often actively process price information,

interpreting prices in terms of their knowledge from prior purchasing experience, formal communications, informal communications, point-of-purchase, or online resources. Purchase decisions are based on how consumers perceive prices and what they consider to be the current actual price—not the marketer’s stated price. In small groups, ask the students to choose a service good, such as education, legal advice, tax advice, or other such services, and have them map out their perception of prices and what they consider to be the current actual price. Finally, students should compare and contrast their perceptions with the stated or published prices for these services. In completing this assignment, students should explain the differences between perception and stated prices in terms of consumer buying behavior models from Chapter 6 of this text.

2. Many consumers use price as an indicator or quality. As a group assignment, students should choose a product produced by a firm. Subsequently, the students should conduct a small research project (utilizing the material learned from Chapter 4) and either, confirm, or deny this relationship for the chosen product. For example, do more women or men rely on price as an indicator of quality for product X? If there is a difference, what is the quantifiable difference in terms of marketing research data? Does this difference suggest that marketer’s must or can revise, or revamp price clues to reach their target market?

Individual Assignments1. Table 14.1 lists some possible consumer reference prices. Students should read

Russell S. Winer’s, “Behavioral Perspectives on Pricing,” and “Buyer’s Subjective Perceptions of Price Revisited,” in Issues in Pricing: Theory and Research, ed. Timothy Devinney, Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1988, pp. 35–57. Students should comment on whether or not these consumer reference prices are applicable to today’s consumers; whether this list is inclusive, or are there new consumer reference price points that have developed due to the use of the Internet?

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2. Table 14.3 lists nine factors that the authors contend leads to less price sensitivity in consumers. Choosing a product that is available online and in stores (books or tires, for example) students are to research the various pricings available to consumers through the various Internet shopping gateways and retailers. After collecting this data, ask the students to comment on whether or not, the variety of price points found, can lower price sensitivity to the item or increase consumer’s price sensitivity because of the variety of differing prices found for the same item.

Think-Pair-Share1. For many firms pricing is the domain of the financial disciplines in the company.

Using accepted accounting and financial processes, some companies’ price strictly according to these models. Assign students the assumed role of “defenders” of this practice and others as “innovators,” challenging these models and supporting some of the newer pricing models such as “perceived” and “value” pricing for products. Have the students come prepared to defend their positions using the concepts developed in this chapter.

2. Paul W. Farris and David J. Reibstein, in their article, “How Prices, Expenditures, and Profits Are Linked,” Harvard Business Review (November-December 1979); pp. 173–184, found a relationship between relative price, relative quality, and relative advertising (their findings are summarized in the chapter). Students should read the full report, and then be prepared to discuss the validity of this study in light of the consumer information explosion that has occurred due to the emergence of the Internet. Are these relationships still valid today? If not, why or what has caused them to change?

MARKETING TODAY—CLASS DISCUSSION TOPICSPrice discrimination occurs when a company sells a product or service at two or more prices that do not reflect a proportional difference in costs. Sellers can however, charge different amounts to different classes of buyers in the case of customer-segment pricing, product-form pricing, image pricing, channel pricing, location pricing, and timing pricing. Airlines and other yield pricing industries use these practices on a daily basis. Other industries offer senior citizen and student discounts. Yet other companies are guilty of first or second-degree price discrimination.

Knowing now what you know about the concepts of pricing decisions facing firms, is price discrimination (first, second, or third degree) a philosophy that aids a company in brand building, defeats the purpose of price as a “clue” to quality, or is price discrimination one of the “realities” of the marketplace that companies must follow to remain competitive?

Additional comments can be solicited from the students regarding the ethics of legal price discrimination as it pertains to society as a whole. For example, is the practice of senior citizen discounts inherently unethical because it differentiates one segment of society from another?

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END-OF-CHAPTER SUPPORT MARKETING DEBATE—Is the Right Price a Fair Price?

Prices are often set to satisfy demand or to reflect the premium that consumers are willing to pay for a product or service. Some critics shudder, however, at the thought of $2 bottles of water, $150 running shoes, and $500 concert tickets.

Take a position: Prices should reflect the value that consumers are willing to pay versus prices should primarily just reflect the cost involved in making a product or service.

Pro: Price, perhaps more than any other element of the marketing mix, communicates value to the consumer. In the consumer-decision making process, we have learned that customers are value-maximizers. They form an expectation of value and act on it. A buyer’s satisfaction is a function of the product’s perceived performance and the buyer’s expectations. So, if the product meets these consumers’ value definitions and the given price point reflects these values, price is seen as acceptable. If the price and the product’s value definition in the minds of the consumer are not consistent, sales will decline and prices will drop until prices reach equilibrium with the consumers’ definition of value.

Con: Marketers have an obligation to the consumers to produce products (or services) that meet consumer needs at the lowest price possible. Fair pricing does not assign any consumer “value” definition into its equation and it should not because each consumer will have differing definitions of “value” according to their prejudices. When marketers try to “assign” a “value definition” to its product, it runs the risks of alienating current customers and missing other potential customers. Therefore, assigning a “fair” price, composed of actual costs plus fair margins, allows the marketer to maximize their customer bases.

MARKETING DISCUSSION

Think of the various pricing methods—markup pricing, target-return pricing, perceived value pricing, value pricing, going rate pricing, and auction-type pricing. As a consumer which method do you personally prefer to deal with. Why? If the average price were to stay the same, which would you prefer: (1) for firms to set one price and not deviate, or (2) to employ slightly higher prices most of the year, but slightly lower discounted prices or specials for certain occasions.

Student answers will differ. However, the following notation from research is worth re-enforcing during the class discussions.

The two different pricing strategies have been shown to affect consumer price judgments:

Deep discounts (EDLP) can lead to lower perceived prices by consumers over time than frequent shallow discounts (high-low) even if the actual averages are the same.

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MARKETING SPOTLIGHT—eBay

Discussion Questions:

1) What are the key success factors for eBay?

a. They have allowed customers to state their perceived value of the product and the buyer’s image of product performance.

b. Channel deliverables.

c. Warranty quality.

d. Customer support.

e. Supplier reputation.

f. Trustworthiness.

g. Esteem.

h. Allows customers to view the going-rate pricing of products immediately.

i. Accounted for geographical pricing.

(i) Market-segment pricing.

(ii) Purchase timing.

(iii)Order levels.

(iv)Delivery frequencies.

(v) Guarantees.

j. Allowed companies to adjust prices to accommodate differences in customers, products, locations and so on.

k. Allowed companies to test new pricing levels, product specifications, and new products.

l. Who has eBay appealed to?

(i) Price buyers.

(ii) Value buyers.

(iii) Loyal buyers.

2) Where is eBay vulnerable?

a. Changes to technology.

b. Problems in/with technology.

c. Credibility of the sellers.

d. Governmental regulation.

e. Competitive reactions:

(i) Other auction-type Web sites.

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(ii) Companies starting their own auction-type operations.

3) What should eBay watch out for?

a. Consumer changes in buying patterns and priorities.

b. Consumer’s loss of enthusiasm for the process (newness wears off).

c. Competition.

d. Governmental controls or changes in laws (taxation).

4) What recommendations would you make to senior marketing executives moving forward?

a. Continue to build upon the key aspects of the consumer’s image of the firm.

b. Continue to build upon the trustworthiness and reputation of the firm.

c. Monitor competition.

DETAILED CHAPTER OUTLINE Price is the one element of the marketing mix that produces revenue; the other elements

produce costs. Prices are perhaps the easiest element of the marketing program to adjust. Price also communicates to the market the company’s intended value positioning of its product or brand. A well-designed and marketed product can command a price premium.

Pricing decisions are clearly complex and difficult. Holistic marketers must take into account many factors in making pricing decision—the company, customers, competition, and marketing environment. Pricing decisions must be consistent with the firm’s marketing strategy and its target markets and brand positionings.

UNDERSTANDING PRICING Price is not just a number on a tag or an item.

A) Throughout most of history prices were set by negotiation between buyers and sellers.

B) Setting one price for all buyers is a relatively modern idea.

C) Today the Internet is partially reversing the fixed pricing trend.

D) Traditionally, price has operated as the major determinant of buyer choice.

E) Price remains one of the most important elements determining market share and profitability.

How Companies Price Companies do their pricing in a variety of ways.

A) In small companies, prices are often set by the boss.

B) In large companies, pricing is handled by division and product-line managers.

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C) In large companies, top management sets general pricing objectives, policies, and often approves the prices proposed by lower levels of management.

D) In industries where pricing is a key factor, companies will often establish a pricing department to set or assist others in determining appropriate prices.

E) Many companies do not handle pricing well.

F) Others use price as a key strategic tool.

1) There are customized prices and offerings based on segment value and costs.

G) Effectively designing and implementing pricing strategies requires a thorough understanding of consumer pricing psychology and a systematic approach to setting, adapting, and changing prices.

Consumer Psychology and Pricing Marketers recognize that consumers often actively process price information,

interpreting prices in terms of their knowledge from prior purchasing experiences, formal communications, and point-of-purchase or online resources.

A) Purchase decisions are based on how consumers perceive prices.

B) What they consider the current actual price—not the marketer’s stated price.

C) Consumers may have a lower price threshold below which prices may signal inferior or unacceptable quality.

D) Upper price threshold above which prices are prohibitive and seen as not worth the money

Reference Prices When examining products, consumers often employ reference prices.

A) In considering an observed price, consumers often compare it to an internal reference price (pricing from memory).

B) An external frame of reference (posted “regular retail price”).

C) All types of reference prices are possible.

Table 14.1 illustrates possible consumer reference pricing.D) Sellers often attempt to manipulate reference prices.

E) Reference-price thinking is also encouraged by stating a high manufacturer’s suggested price or:

1) By indicating that the product was priced much higher originally.

2) By pointing to a competitor’s high price.

F) Clever marketers try to frame the price to signal the best value possible.

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G) When consumers evoke one or more of these frames of reference, their perceived price can vary from the stated price.

Price CuesA) Consumer perceptions of prices are also affected by alternative pricing strategies.

B) Many sellers believe that prices should end in an odd number.

C) Research has shown that consumers tend to process prices in a “left-to-right” manner rather than by rounding.

D) “Sale” signs next to prices have been shown to spur demand, but only if not overused.

SETTING THE PRICE A firm must set a price for the first time when it develops a new product, when it

introduces its regular product into a new distribution channel or geographic area, and when it enters bids on new contract work.

A) The firm must decide where to position its product on quality and price.

B) Most marketers have 3–5 price points or tiers.

C) Consumers often rank brands according to price tiers in a category.

Figure 14.1 Price Tiers in the Ice Cream MarketD) Within any tier, there is a range of acceptable prices, called price brands.

E) The price brand provides managers with some indication of the flexibility and breadth they can adopt in pricing their brands within a particular price tier.

F) The firm has to consider many factors in setting its pricing policy.

G) There is a six-step procedure:

1) Selecting the pricing objective.

2) Determining demand.

3) Estimating costs.

4) Analyzing competitors’ costs, prices, and offers.

5) Selecting a pricing method.

6) Selecting the final price.

Step 1: Selecting the Pricing Objective The company first decides where it wants to position its market offering. The

clearer a firm’s objectives, the easier it is to set price.

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A) A company can pursue any of five major objectives through pricing:

1) Survival.

2) Maximum current profit.

3) Maximum market share.

4) Maximum market skimming.

5) Product-quality leadership.

Survival Companies pursue survival as their major objective when they are plagued with overcapacity, intense competition, or changing consumer wants.

A) Survival is a short-run objective.

Maximum Current Profit Many companies try to set a price that will maximize current profits. They estimate the demand and costs associated with alternative prices and choose the price that produces maximum current profit, cash flow, or rate of return on investment. A) This strategy assumes that the firm has knowledge of its demand and cost functions.

B) In emphasizing current performance the company may sacrifice long-run performance by ignoring the effects of:

1) Other marketing-mix variables.

2) Competitors’ reactions.

3) Legal restraints on price.

Maximum Market Share Some companies want to maximize their market share. They believe that a higher

sales volume will lead to lower unit costs and higher long-run profit.

A) This practice is called market-penetration pricing.

B) The following conditions favor setting a low price:

1) The market is highly price-sensitive, and a low price stimulates market growth.

2) Production and distribution costs fall with accumulated production experience.

3) A low price discourages actual and potential competition..

Maximum Market Skimming Companies unveiling a new technology favor setting high prices to maximize market

skimming.

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A) This is also called market-skimming pricing, where prices start high and are slowly lowered over time.

B) Market skimming makes sense under the following conditions:

1) A sufficient number of buyers have a high current demand.

2) The unit costs of producing a small volume are not so high that they cancel the advantage of charging what the traffic will bear.

3) The high initial price does not attract more competitors to the market.

4) The high price communicates the image of a superior product.

Product-Quality Leadership A company might aim to be the product quality leader in the market.

A) Many brands strive to be “affordable luxuries”—products or services characterized by high levels of perceived quality, taste, and status with a price just high enough not to be out of consumer’s reach.

Other Objectives Nonprofit and public organizations may have other pricing objectives. Whatever

the specific objective, businesses that use price as a strategic tool will profit more than those who simply let costs or the market determine their pricing.

Step 2: Determining Demand Each price will lead to a different level of demand and therefore have a different impact on a company’s marketing objectives.

A) The relation between alternative prices and the resulting current demand is captured in a demand curve.

Figure 14.2 Inelastic and elastic demand

B) In the normal case, demand and price are inversely related; the higher the price, the lower the demand.

C) In the case of prestige goods, the demand curve sometimes slopes upward. Review Key Definitions here: market penetration pricing and market skimming pricing

Price Sensitivity The demand curve shows the market’s probable purchase quantity at alternative prices. The first step in estimating demand is to understand what affects price sensitivity.

A) Generally speaking, customers are most price-sensitive to products that cost a lot or are bought frequently.

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B) Customers are less price-sensitive to low-cost items or items they buy infrequently.

C) They are also less price-sensitive when price is only a small part of the total cost of obtaining, operating, and servicing the product over its lifetime (total cost of ownership—TCO).

D) Companies prefer customers who are less price-sensitive.

Table 14.3 lists some characteristics that are associated with decreased price sensitivity.

Estimating Demand Curves Most companies attempt to measure their demand curves using several different methods.

A) Statistical analysis of past prices, quantities sold, and other factors can reveal their relationships.

B) Price experiments.

C) Surveys.

D) In measuring the price-demand relationship, the market researcher must control various factors that will influence demand.

1) The competitor’s response will make a difference.

2) Changes to other marketing-mix factors.

Price Elasticity of Demand Marketers need to know how responsive or elastic, demand would be to a change in price.

A) If demand hardly changes with a small change in price, we say the demand is inelastic.

B) If demand changes considerably, demand is elastic.

C) Demand is likely to be less elastic under the following conditions:

1) There are few or no substitutes or competitors.

2) Buyers do not readily notice a higher price.

3) Buyers are slow to change their buying habits.

4) Buyers think the higher prices are justified.

D) If demand is elastic, sellers will consider lowering the price.

1) A lower price will produce more total revenue as long as the costs of producing and selling more units do not increase disproportionately

E) It is a mistake not to consider the price elasticity of customers and their needs in developing marketing programs.

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F) Price elasticity depends on the magnitude and direction of the contemplated price change.

1) It may be negligible with a small price change.

2) Substantial with a large price change.

3) It may differ for a price cut versus a price increase.

4) There may be a price indifference band within which price changes have little or no effect.

G) Long-run price elasticity may differ from short-run elasticity.

Review Key Definitions here: inelastic demand, elastic demand, price indifference band

Step 3: Estimating Costs Demand sets a ceiling on the price the company can charge for its product. Costs set

the floor.

Types of Costs and Levels of Production A company’s costs take two forms, fixed and variable.

A) Fixed costs (also known as overhead) are costs that do not vary with production or sales revenue.

B) Variable costs vary directly with the level of production.

C) Total costs consist of the sum of the fixed and variable costs for any given level of production.

D) Average cost is the cost per unit at that level of production

E) Management wants to charge a price that will at least cover the total production costs at a given level of production.

F) To price intelligently, management needs to know how its costs vary with different levels of production.

Accumulated Production The decline in the average cost with accumulated production experience is called

the experience curve or learning curve. Figure 14.4 Cost/unit: The Experience Curve

A) Experience-curve pricing carries major risks.

1) Aggressive pricing might give the product a cheap image.

2) The strategy assumes that competitors are weak followers.

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B) Most experience-curve pricing has focused on manufacturing costs, but all costs, including marketing costs, can be improved on.

Activity-Based Cost Accounting Today companies try to adapt their offers and terms to different buyers.

A) To estimate the real profitability of dealing with different retailers, the manufacturer needs to use activity-based accounting (ABC).

B) ABC accounting tries to identify the real costs associated with serving each customer.

C) The key to effectively employing ABC is to define and judge “activities” properly.

Target Costing Costs change with production scale and experience. They can also change as a

result of a concentrated effort to reduce them through target costing.

A) The objective is to bring the final cost projections into the target cost range.

Step 4: Analyzing Competitors’ Costs, Prices, and Offers Within the range of possible prices determined by market demand and company

costs, the firm must take competitors’ costs, prices, and possible price reactions into account.

A) The firm should first consider the nearest competitor’s price.

Step 5: Selecting a Pricing Method Given the 3Cs—the customers’ demand schedule, the cost function, and

competitors’ prices, the company is now ready to select a price. Figure 14.5 The Three “C’s” model for price setting

A) Costs set the floor to the price.

B) Competitors’ prices and the price of substitutes provide an orienting point.

C) Customers’ assessment of unique features establish the price ceiling.

D) There are six price-setting methods:

1)Markup pricing.

2)Target-return pricing.

3)Perceived-value pricing.

4)Value pricing.

5)Going-rate pricing.

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6)Auction-type pricing.

Markup PricingA) The most elementary pricing method is to add a standard markup to the product’s cost

B) Does the use of standard markups make logical sense?

1) Generally, no. Any pricing method that ignores current demand, perceived value, and competition is not likely to lead to the optimal price.

C) Markup pricing remains popular.

1) Sellers can determine costs much more easily than they can estimate demand.

2) By tying the price to cost, sellers simplify the pricing task.

3) Where all firms in the industry use this pricing method, prices tend to be similar.

4) Many people feel that cost-plus pricing is fairer to both buyers and sellers.

Target-Return PricingA) In target-return pricing, the firm determines the price that would yield its target

rate of return on investments (ROI). Figure 14.6 Break Even chart – Break even volume

B) Target-return pricing tends to ignore price elasticity and competitors’ prices.

Perceived Value PricingA) An increasing number of companies base their price on the customer’s perceived

value. They must deliver the value promised by their value proposition, and the customer must perceive this value.

B) Perceived value is made up of several characteristics:

1) Buyer’s image of the product performance.

2) Channel deliverables.

3) The warranty quality.

4) Customer support.

5) Softer attributes such as:

a. Supplier’s reputation.

b. Trustworthiness.

c. Esteem.

6) Furthermore, each potential customer places different weights on these different elements, with the result that some will be:

a. Price buyers.

b. Value buyers.

c. Loyal buyers.

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C) Companies need different strategies for each of these three groups.

D) The key to perceived-value pricing is to deliver more value than the competitor and to demonstrate this to prospective buyers.

E) The company can try to determine the value of its offering in several ways:

1) Managerial judgments within the company.

2) Value of similar products.

3) Focus groups.

4) Surveys.

5) Experimentation.

6) Analysis of historical data.

7) Conjoint analysis.

Value PricingA) In recent years, several companies have adopted value pricing: they win loyal

customers by charging a fairly low price for a high-quality offering.

B) Value pricing is not a matter of simply setting lower prices.

C) It is a matter of reengineering the company’s operations to become a low-cost producer without sacrificing quality.

D) Lowering pricings significantly helps to attract a large number of value-conscious customers.

E) An important type of value pricing is everyday low pricing (EDLP) that takes place at the retail level.

F) A retailer who holds to an EDLP pricing policy charges a constant low price with little or no price promotions and special sales.

G) In high-low pricing, the retailer charges higher prices on an everyday basis but then runs frequent promotions in which prices are temporarily lowered below the EDLP level.

H) The two different pricing strategies have been shown to affect consumer price judgments

1) Deep discounts (EDLP) can lead to lower perceived prices by consumers over time than frequent shallow discounts (high-low) even if the actual averages are the same.

I) Some retailers have even based their entire marketing strategy around what could be called extreme everyday low pricing.

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Going-Rate PricingA) In going-rate pricing, the firm bases its price largely on competitor’s prices.

1) The firm might charge the same, more, or less than major competitor (s).

B) Going-rate pricing is quite popular where costs are difficult to measure or competitive response is uncertain.

Auction-type pricingA) Auction-type pricing is growing more popular, especially with the growth of the

Internet.

B) There are three types of auction-type pricing:

1) English auctions (ascending bids).

2) Dutch auctions (descending bids).

3) Sealed-bid auctions.

Review Key Definitions here: markup pricing, target-return pricing, perceived value pricing, value pricing, going-rate pricing, and auction-type pricing

Step 6: Selecting the Final Price Pricing methods narrow the range from which the company must select its final

price. In selecting the price, the company must consider additional factors, including the impact of other marketing activities, company pricing policies, gain-and-risk sharing pricing, and the impact of price on other parties.

Impact of Other Marketing ActivitiesA) The final price must take into account the brand’s quality and advertising relative to

the competition.

B) Farris and Reibstein‘s findings suggest that price is not as important as quality and other benefits in the market offering.

Company Pricing PoliciesA) The price must be consistent with company pricing policies.

B) Many companies set up a pricing department to develop policies and establish or approve pricing decisions.

1) The aim is to ensure that salespeople quote prices that are reasonable to customers.

2) Profitable to the company.

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Gain-and-Risk Sharing PricingA) Buyers may resist accepting a seller’s proposal because of a high-perceived level of

risk.

B) The seller has the option of offering to absorb part or all of the risk if he does not deliver the full promised value.

Impact of Price on Other PartiesA) Management must also consider the reactions of other parties to the contemplated

price:

1) How will distributors and dealers feel about it?

2) Will the sales force be willing to sell at that price?

3) How will competitors react?

4) Will suppliers raise their prices when they see the company’s price?

5) Will the government intervene and prevent this price from being charged?

B) Marketers need to know the laws regulating pricing in the United States.

ADAPTING THE PRICEA) Companies usually do not set a single price, but rather a pricing structure that reflects

variations in:

1) Geographical demand and costs.

2) Market-segment requirements.

3) Purchase timing.

4) Order levels.

5) Delivery frequency.

6) Guarantees.

7) Service contracts.

8) Other factors.

B) As a result of discounts, allowances, and promotional support, a company rarely realizes the same profit from each unit of a product it sells.

Geographical Pricing (Cash, Countertrade, Barter)A) Geographical pricing involves the company in deciding how to price its products to

different customers in different locations and countries.

1) Should the company charge higher prices to distant customers to cover the higher shipping costs or a lower price to win additional business?

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2) How should exchange rates and the strength of different currencies be accounted for?

3) Another issue is how to get paid.

a. Many buyers want to offer other items in payment, a practice known as countertrade.

B) Countertrade may account for 15 to 25 percent of world trade and takes several forms:

1) Barter.

2) Compensation deal.

3) Buyback arrangement.

4) Offset.

Price Discounts and AllowancesA) Most companies will adjust list prices and give discounts and allowances for early

payment, volume purchases, and off-season buying.

Table 14.4 shows price discounts and allowances.B) Discount pricing has become the modus operandi of a surprising number of

companies offering both products and services.

C) Some product categories tend to self-destruct by always being on sale.

D) Discounting can be a useful tool if the company can gain concessions in return.

E) Sales management needs to monitor the proportion of customers who are receiving discounts.

F) Higher levels of management should conduct a net price analysis to arrive at the “real price” of their offering.

Promotional PricingA) Companies can use several pricing techniques to stimulate early purchase:

1) Loss-leader pricing.

2) Special-event pricing.

3) Cash rebates.

4) Low-interest financing.

5) Longer payment terms.

6) Warranties and service contracts.

7) Psychological discounting.

B) Promotional-pricing strategies are often a zero-sum game.

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Differentiated PricingA) Companies often adjust their basic price to accommodate differences in customers,

products, locations, and so on.

B) Price discrimination occurs when a company sells a product or service at two or more prices that do not reflect a proportional difference in costs.

1) In first-degree price discrimination, the seller charges a separate price to each customer depending on the intensity of his or her demand.

2) In second-degree price discrimination, the seller charges less to buyers who buy a larger volume.

3) In third-degree price discrimination, the seller charges different amounts to different classes of buyers:

a. Customer-segment pricing.

b. Product-form pricing.

c. Image pricing.

d. Channel pricing.

e. Location pricing.

f. Time pricing.

C) Yield pricing, and yield management systems are used to offer discounts based upon some criteria.

D) Some forms of price discrimination are illegal.

E) Price discrimination is legal if the seller can prove that its costs are different when selling different volumes or different quantities of the same product to retailers.

F) Predatory pricing—selling below cost with the intent of destroying competition - is unlawful.

G) For price discrimination to work, certain conditions must exist:

1) The market must be segmentable and the segments must show different intensities of demands.

2) Members in the lower-price segment must not be able to resell the product to the higher-price segment.

3) Competitors must not be able to undersell the firm in the higher-price segment.

4) The cost of segmenting and policing the market must not exceed the extra revenue derived from price discrimination.

5) The practice must not breed customer resentment and ill will.

6) The particular form of price discrimination must not be illegal.

Review Key Definition here: price discrimination

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INITIATING AND RESPONDING TO PRICE CHANGES Companies often face situations when they may need to cut or raise prices.

Initiating Price CutsA) Several circumstances might lead a firm to cut prices:

1) Excess plant capacity.

2) Companies may initiate a price cut in a drive to dominate the market through lower costs.

a. Either the company starts with lower costs or initiates price cuts in hope of gaining market share and lower costs.

b. A price-cutting strategy involves possible traps:

(i) Low-quality trap.

(ii) Fragile-market-share trap.

(iii)Shallow-pockets trap.

Initiating Price IncreasesA) A successful price increase can raise profits considerably.

Table 14.5 Profits before and after price increasesB) A major circumstance provoking price increases is cost inflation.

1) Rising costs unmatched by productivity gains squeeze profit margins and lead companies to regular rounds of price increases.

C) Companies often raise their prices by more than the cost increase in anticipation of further inflation or governmental price controls, in a practice called anticipatory pricing.

D) Another factor leading to price increase is over-demand.

1) The price can be increased in the following ways:

a. Delayed quotation pricing.

b. Escalator clauses.

c. Unbundling.

d. Reduction of discounts.

E) A company needs to decide whether to raise its price sharply on a one-time basis or to raise it by small amounts several times.

1) Consumers, generally, prefer small price increases on a regular basis to sudden, sharp increases.

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F) In passing on price increases to consumers, the company must avoid looking like a price gouger. Customer memories are long, and they can turn against companies they perceive as price gougers.

G) Several techniques help consumers avoid sticker shock and a hostile reaction when prices rise:

1) Sense of fairness must surround any price increase.

2) Customers must be given advance notice so that they can do forward buying or shop around.

3) Sharp price increases need to be explained in understandable terms.

4) Making low-visibility price moves first is also a good technique:

a. Eliminating discounts.

b. Increasing minimum order sizes.

c. Curtailing production of low-margin products.

Reactions to Price Changes Any price change can provoke a response from customers, competitors,

distributors, suppliers, and even government.

Customer Reactions A) Customers often question the motivation behind price changes.

B) A price cut can be interpreted in different ways:

1) The item is about to be replaced by a new model.

2) The item is faulty and is not selling well.

3) The firm is in financial trouble.

4) The price will come down even further.

5) The quality has been reduced.

C) A price increase may carry some positive meanings to customers:

1) The item is “hot.”

2) The item represents an unusually good value.

Competitor ReactionsA) Competitors are most likely to react when:

1) The number of firms are few.

2) The product is homogeneous.

3) Buyers are highly informed.

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B) How can a firm anticipate a competitor’s reactions?

1) One way is to assume that the competitor reacts in a set way to price changes.

2) The other is to assume that the competitor treats each price change as a fresh challenge and reacts according to self-interests at that time.

Responding to Competitors’ Price Changes How should a firm respond to a price cut initiated by a competitor?

A) In markets characterized by high product homogeneity, the firm should search for ways to enhance its augmented product.

B) If not it will have to meet the price reduction.

C) In non-homogeneous product markets, the firm has more latitude. It needs to consider the following:

1) Why did the competitor change the price?

2) Does the competitor plan to make the price change temporary or permanent?

3) What will happen to the company’s market share and profits if it does not respond?

4) Are other companies going to respond?

5) What are the competitor’s and other firm’s responses likely to be to each possible reaction?

D) Market leaders frequently face aggressive price cutting by smaller firms trying to build market share.

E) The brand leader can respond in several ways:

1) Maintain price.

2) Maintain price and add value.

3) Reduce price.

4) Increase price and improve quality.

5) Launch a low-price fighter line.

F) The best response varies with the situation.

G) The company has to consider the products:

1) Stage in the life cycle.

2) Its importance in the company’s portfolio.

3) The competitor’s intentions and resources.

4) The market’s price and quality sensitivity.

5) The behavior costs of with volume.

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6) The company’s alternative opportunities.

H) An extended analysis of alternatives may not be feasible when the attack occurs.

I) It would make better sense to anticipate possible competitors’ price changes and to prepare contingent responses.

Figure 14.7 shows a price-reaction program to be used if a competitor cuts prices.

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