Psychology 3400 - Lifespan DevelopmentDr. SanbornExam 1 Review Guide

Chapter 1: Introduction to Lifespan Development

Lifespan Development: a field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior throughout the lifespan

Every period of life contains the potential for growth and decline in abilities Neither heredity nor environment alone can account for the full range of

human development People follow development in different ways - unpredictable

Areas of lifespan development: Physical - emphasizes how the brain, nervous system, muscles, sensory

capabilities, and needs for food, drink, and sleep affect behavioro Locomotion development helps with other areas of development -

social, cognitive, behavior, etc. Cognitive - emphasizes intellectual abilities, including learning, memory,

problem solving, and intelligenceo Hard to measure changes to intelligence, learning, memory, etc.o Critical Period Hypothesis: children learn languages more easily

because they can use both halves of their brain Lateralization

Personality and social development - emphasizes enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another and how interactions with others and social relationships grow and change over time

Age Range Differences: Prenatal Period Infancy/Toddlerhood (0-3 years) Preschool (3-6 years) Middle Childhood (6-12 years) Adolescence (12-20 years) Emerging adulthood (18-25 years) - new age bracket Young adulthood (20-40 years) Middle adulthood (40-65 years) Late adulthood (65+ years) Brackets change as society changes

Influences of Development: History Graded Influences - children in the depression use and save money

differently than other generationso Cohort effects - people raised in the same place or time

Age Graded Influences - people in the same age range, puberty, menopause, etc.

o People in the same age group and location does not matter Sociocultural-Graded Influences - social and cultural influences experienced

by an individual - not groups of individuals o Example - where you grew up, social class, ethnicity

Non-normative Life Events - catch all, events that don’t happen to most people

o Car accident, loss of both parents, etc.

Key Issues in Lifespan Development: Is change continuous or discontinuous? Continuous - change is gradual

o Achievements at one level build on a previous levelo Underlying developmental processes remain the same over the

lifespan Discontinuous - change occurs in distinct steps or stages

o Behavior and processes are qualitatively different at different stageso Underlying developmental processes remain the same over the

lifespan Are there critical periods or sensitive periods? Critical periods - certain environmental stimuli are necessary for normal

developmento Emphasized by early developmentalistso If you are not exposed to something in a certain period, you will have

lasting life effectso Permanent and irreversible wiring

Sensitive periods - people are susceptible to certain environmental stimuli, but consequences of absent stimuli are reversible

o Currently the popular theory in lifespan developmento Not as black and white, time period that is optimal for being exposed

to somethingo Resiliency/plasticity is possible

Nature vs. Nurture? Do they interact together? Nature (genetic factors) - emphasis on discovering inherited genetic traits

and abilitieso How does genetics influence development

Nurture (environmental factors) - emphasis on environmental influences that affect a person’s development

o Biological, social, or larger cultural/societal level factors

Research Methods: Strategies:

o Correlational - do not assume causality Examines the relationship between two or more variables

Problems with directionality and hidden third variables Less control than experimental

o Experimental - sometimes difficult to carry out Involves random assignment of independent variable an high

levels of control Does IV affect the DV in a consistent way?

Settings:o Field Study

Capture behavior in real life setting Used in correlational studies and experiments Sometimes hard to exert control over situations

o Laboratory Study Developmental experiments are typically conducted in the lab Hold events constant in order to determine causality Can be difficult/costly

Measuring Developmental Change:o Longitudinal Studies - measuring individual change over time

Test a person, time passes, test them again Strongest kind of study you can have Does take a lot of time and investment

Participants can drop outo Cross Sectional Studies - measuring people of different ages at the

same point in time Get lots of data all at once Need a lot of participants Differences could be due to differences in individuals

o Sequential Studies - mixture of longitudinal and cross sectional Best of both worlds Start as cross sectional and then collect data from that group

over time Can cross out the individual difference effect

Chapter 2: The Start of Life: Prenatal Development

Part 1: Earliest Development

Changing Ideas Over Time: Preformationism - individuals were pre-formed with a full set of tiny parts

that grew over time Epigenesis - new structures develop in the womb/over the course of

developmento Aristotle - supported this by cutting open fertilized chicken eggs

Genes and Chromosomes: Humans begin life as a single cell

Gametes from the male (sperm = 23 chromosomes) and female (egg = 23 chromosomes) fuse together for create a zygote with 46 chromosome

o 25,000 genes are stored in the chromosomes at specific locationso There are 8 million combinations possible when the egg and sperm

uniteo Every cell has 46 chromosomes except for gametes which have 23

Germinal Stage - first two weeks after conceptiono Mitosis occurs rapidly

The 23rd pair of chromosomes determines an individual’s sexo Females XXo Males XY

Multiple Births: 3 types:

o Monozygotic - identical twins Same egg, same placenta, same sac Genetically identical

o Dizygotic - fraternal twins Two eggs fertilized at the same time

o Trizygotic - triplets Most rare (15 in 1000 births)

o Vanishing twin syndrome - one twin is miscarried during the first trimester

Multiple birth chances increase when fertility drugs are involved Older age increases chances of multiple births

Basics of Genetics: Mixing and Matching of Traits Genotype - underlying combination of genetic material present

o Heterozygous - inheriting different forms of a gene for a given traito Homozygous - inheriting the same form of a gene for a given trait

Phenotype - observable trait, depends on whether alleles consist of dominant or recessive traits

o Polygenic inheritance is a possibility

Inherited Genetic Disorders: Causes: genetics, spontaneous mutation, and environmental insult (inhaling

pollutants) Examples:

o Down syndrome 1 in 700 births More common in older pregnancies Teen moms also have a high risk

o Fragile X syndrome Something is wrong with the X chromosome

Mental disabilities - physical features also altered (large ears, narrow face, large testicles)

Males usually more affected than femaleso Sickle Cell Anemia

Blood disorder with anemic like conditionso Tay Sachs disease

Destroys nerve cells in the brain and spinal cordo Klienfelters syndrome

Extra X chromosome in males Results in underdeveloped genitals

Part 2: Interaction of Heredity of Environment

Does Environment Determine Gene Expression? Most traits are a product of the interaction between genetic and

environmental factors - multifactorial transmission A person’s environment can determine how some genotypes are expressed

as a phenotypeo Your environment can determine how genes are expressed

How much of behavior comes from genetics and how much comes from the environment

Twin Studies:o Twins that were raised apart still ended up doing the same job, loving

the same activities and ended up meeting 31 years later The closer the genetic link between two individuals, the greater the

correspondence between their IQ score Psychological Disorders linked to genetics:

o Autism spectrum disordero Major depressive disordero Alcoholismo ADHD disorderso The closer the genetic links between family members, the more likely

one is to develop schizophrenia if the other person in question has it

Genetics and Environmental Influences on Personality: Two of the “Big Five” personality traits are linked to genetic factors

o Neuroticismo Extroversion

Part 3: Prenatal Growth and Change

Fertilization: Moment of conception Sperm and ovum join to form the zygote Zygote - fertilized egg

The ovum is one of the biggest cells in the human bodyo 16x bigger than the sperm cello 4x bigger than a skin cell

Sometimes the body releases more than one egg per cycle - if fertilized, twins!

The amount of eggs in the body is set at birth Sperm regenerates daily

Stages of Prenatal Development: Germinal (fertilization to 2 weeks)

o Fertilized egg becomes a blastocyst which travels and implants in the uterus

o Characterized by methodical cell divisiono With division comes cell specialization

Creation of the placenta - where the embryo gets nutrients Yolk sack - preliminary placenta

o Placenta - transfers nutrients and oxygen from the mother to the fetus Also removes waste that the fetus creates Umbilical cord connects the mom to the fetus Barrier to some teratogens - substances that could harm the

fetus Embryonic (2 weeks to 8 weeks)

o Organism firmly secures to uterus and called an embryoo Development of major organs and basic anatomyo Three layers of embryo

Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

o Neurons develop rapidly - start functioning around 5 weeks Fetal (8 weeks until birth)

o Formally starts when differentiation of major organs has occurredo Organism is now called a fetuso Characterized by rapid developmento Organs become more differentiated and begin workingo Grows in length and weighto Brain becomes more sophisticated

What do Fetuses Do? Different stages of sleep and wakefulness Moving - kicking, somersaults, clenching fist, yawning, playing with cord

o Move more at night because during the day the constant movement of the mother is calming

Hear and feel vibrationso Can recognize sounds/melodies in the prenatal environment

Pregnancy Problems: Infertility - 12 to 18 months of trying to conceive

o Could be caused by substance abuse, STD’s, stress, medical conditionso Treatments: drugs or surgery

AI IVF

IVF pregnancy rate is as high as 48% for women under 35

o Affects about 15% of the population Miscarriage - spontaneous abortion before the developing child reaches 20

weeks post conception (15 - 20% of all pregnancies)o Caused by genetic abnormalities, hormonal problems, infection,

umbilical cord problems, or maternal health problems Stillbirth - when the developing child dies after 20 weeks post conception

Prenatal Threats to Development: Teratogen: environmental agent that produces a birth defect

o Example - thalidomide, alcohol Thalidomide - results in not fully developed arms and legs

Only if taken within the first three months of pregnancy Alcohol - worst time is during the embryonic period, weeks 2-8

of pregnancyo Living in poverty increases exposure to teratogens

Mother’s Prenatal Influence: Diet and vitamin intake Age

o Mothers over 30 and especially over 40 are at a greater risk for childhood abnormalities

Drug useo Legal and illegal

Alcohol use Tobacco use Stress

o More cortisol early in gestation was associated with lower cognitive scores and slower development

Not the same later in pregnancy

Father’s Prenatal Influence: Age

o Older fathers linked to autism and schizophrenia Tobacco Alcohol and Drug use Father’s exposure to environmental toxins

o Lead or mercury Treatment of mother

o Stress level of the mother

Chapter 3: Birth and the Newborn Infant

Part 1: Birth

Labor: The process begins CRH triggers the release of oxytocin from the mother’s pituitary gland which

stimulates contraction of the uterus Contractions force the head of the fetus against the cervix, which causes

dilation and effacement Braxton Hicks - not real contractions Typical labor length - 16-24 hours for firstborn child

Labor Stage 1: Contractions Longest part of labor from the start of contractions to 10cm in dilation

o This transition period is the most painful part for most women Water breaking - rupture of the amniotic sac which happens after

contractions start

Labor Stage 2: Pushing Begins at 10cm of dilation and ends when the baby comes out Typically lasts around 90 minutes Episiotomy - incision made to increase the size of the opening of the vagina

to allow the baby to passo The use of this has fallen out of style

Labor Stage 3: Clear out the uterus Umbilical cord and placenta are expelled from the mother

o Little to no pain Typically lasts 5-20 minutes after the baby comes out

o Sometimes assisted with a dose of Pitocin to the mother Delayed Cord Clamping - recommended by the WHO

o Increases blood volume by up to a third and increases iron and stem cell levels

Part 2: Birth: From Fetus to Neonate

Newborn: Skin-to-skin at birth and during the newborn period is very important

o Encourages milk productiono Helps with latchingo Regulates newborn body temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure

o Enhances bonding between parent and infant APGAR Scale

o Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, Respirationo Maximum 2 points in each category

Maximum score of 10o Low score is <4

Due to long labor, birth defects, lack of oxygen from wrapped umbilical cord

o Measurement taken 1 minute after birth and 5 minutes after birth Initial Physical Appearance

o Vermix - greasy cottage cheeseo Lanugo - fine dark fuzzo Puffy eyelids - accumulation of fluids during deliveryo Conehead

Pain and Childbirth: Epidural anesthesia Walking epidural or spinal-epidural

o Limits your movemento Sometimes movement can help with dilation

Baby might need more assistance during pushingo Reduces/eliminates paino May temporarily depress the flow of oxygen to fetus

The fetus might be less physiologically responsive during the first few days of life after birth

Part 3: Birth Complications

Small and Preterm Infants: Low birth weight infants - < 5.5lbs

o Can be full term or pre term Pre term infants - < 38 weeks post conception

o Small for gestational age infants - below the 10th percentile for infants in the same age category

o Low birth weight is the largest concern for newborn death Outcomes

o Majority develop normally in the long runo More susceptible to respiratory distress syndrome (RDS)

One of the leading causes of death in pre term infantso Sometimes the tempo of development is slowed down

Very low birth weight infantso Weighing less than 2.25lbso In the womb less than 30 weeks

Cesarean Delivery: Baby is surgically removed from the uterus Occurs more frequently when fetal stress appears

o Sudden rise in fetal heart rateo Use fetal monitor - sometimes wrong

More prevalent in older mothers Sometimes related to position of the baby in the birth canal - breech position

o US believes that C sections are safer than breeched vaginal deliveries Risks

o Major surgery - longer recovery for mother Risk of infection

o Could increase stress hormoneso Could compromise initial breastfeeding latch

VBACs - Vaginal birth after cesareano Sometimes you cannot have vaginal delivery after having a pervious C

section

Stillbirth and Infant Mortality: 1 of every 100 deliveries in the US Enormous impact on family

o Depressiono PTSD

Infant mortality has declined since the 1960s Infant mortality - death within the first year of life Before 20 weeks - miscarriage After 20 weeks - stillborn

Postpartum Depression/Anxiety 10% of new mothers face

o 1 in 500 face port partum psychosis Worse

Consequences:o Depressed mothers - detached, withdrawn, lack of facial expressions,

little emotiono Infants: show fewer positive emotions, withdrawn contact from all

adultso Fathers can also suffer

Bad stigma in the US surrounding post partum

Maternal Mortality: More American women die of pregnancy related complications than any

other developed countryo The death rate has been rising

Complications:

o Hemorrhage, blood clots, infection, heart failure, preeclampsia/eclampsia, HEELP syndrome

Eclampsia - onset of seizures or convulsions before, during, or after birth

HEELP - rapid breakdown of red blood cells We need to educate nurses and medical professionals on the signs and

symptoms before mothers and fathers leave the hospital

Part 4: The Competent Newborn

Sensory Capabilities: Seeing

o Visual acuity not fully developed but can see to some extento Fewer cones in eyes - can't see clearlyo Distinguish and show preference for some colors - blue and greeno At one year of age vision is pretty clearo Size constancy - things don’t get larger and larger, they just moved

closer to the object Hearing

o Clearly capable of hearing but not completely matureo Prefer mom’s voice over others

Taste is pretty developed at birth - pucker at sour things

Learning Capabilities: Classical Conditioning - infants learn to respond in a particular way to

neutral stimuli that normally does not trigger that type of responseo Example - pairing the gong with a bunny

Child associates the bunny with a loud and scary sound The bunny then elicits a negative response from the child

Operant Conditioning - voluntary response is strengthened or weakened depending on its positive or negative consequences

o Child vocalizes in order to get a smile from a parento Gorillas at Riverbanks

Perform a behavior and get a food reward Habituation - doing the same thing over and over again

o Things lose their noveltyo Decrease in response to a stimuli that occurs repeatedlyo Habituation speed depends on how quickly the infant processes

information

Social Competence: Responding to Others Newborns might have the capability to imitate other’s behavior Not sure when true imitation begins

Chapter 4: Physical Development in Infancy

Part 1: Growth and Stability

The Rapid Advancements in Infancy Infants face rapid growth over the first 2 years

o At 5 months of age, 15lbs (2x the birth weight)o 1 year of age, 22lbs (3x the birth weight)o End of year 2, 33lbs (4x the birth weight)

First year after birth has the sharpest increase in length and weight Not all body parts grow at the same rate

o Head accounts for ¼ of the newborns entire body sizeo During the first and second year, the rest of the body catches up

Nervous System and Brain: Foundations of Development Neurons - communicate with other cells

o Dendrites - receive messageso Axons - sends messageso Neurotransmitters - chemical messengerso Synapses - gaps between neurons

In the first two years of life, neurons are connecting with other neurons After the first two years, synaptic pruning and apoptosis can occur to make

sure there aren’t too many neuronso Babies are born with many more neurons than they needo Synaptic pruning: unused synapses are eliminated

Allows established neurons to build more elaborate communication networks with other neurons

o Myelinization - axons receive insulation to speed neural conduction

Shaken Baby Syndrome: The infant brain is sensitive to forms of injury Shaking can lead to brain rotation within the skull 25% of shaken babies will die from the shake

o The brain hits the back of the skull Symptoms:

o Brain swellingo Bleeding behind the eyeso Brain bleedingo Some doctors see these symptoms and do not consider any alternative

- sometimes controversial Risk Factors:

o Colic - excessive cryingo Infants with special needo Households that are impoverishedo Newborns that cry constantly

Newborn Sleep: Newborns sleep an average of 16-17 hours a day Usually in 2 hour spurts where 50% of the time is REM sleep

o Only 20% of adult sleep is REMo Does REM sleep help with brain development?

Autostimulation Some cultures wear babies and co sleep for longer By 16 weeks, sleep about 6 continuous hours; at one year of age, infants can

sleep through the night

SIDS: The Unanticipated Killer SIDS strikes about 1 in 2,500 infants in the US each year Cause is unknown - death is unexplained in extensive autopsys

o Usually no sign or sound of struggle Diagnosis of exclusion Risk factors:

o Boys, African Americans, low birth weight scores, smoking during pregnancy, loose bedding, formula

Babies should sleep on their back

Part 2: Motor Development

Basic Reflexes: Rooting reflex - infants tendency to turn its head towards things that touch

its cheeko Related to food intake

Stepping reflex - movement of legs when held upright with feet touching the floor

o Prepares infants for independent locomotion Swimming reflex - infants tendency to paddle and kick in a sort of swimming

motion when lying face down in a body of watero Avoidance of danger

Moro reflex - arm grasping when head and neck support is removedo Protection from falling

Babinski reflex - infant fans our toes in response to a stroke on the outside of its foot

o Unknown cause Startle reflex - infant flings out its arms and arches its back in response to a

sudden noiseo Protection

Eye-blink reflex - rapid shutting and opening of eye on exposure to direct light

o Protection of eyes from direct light Sucking reflex - infants tendency to suck at things that touch its lips

o Food intake Gag reflex - a infants reflex to clear its throat

o Prevents chokingReflexes:

Genetically determined and universal Why do they exist?

o Survival functionso Stimulate the brain for more complex behaviors

There are cultural variationso Moro reflex - Navajo babies do not scream as much as Caucasian

babies Used as a diagnostic tool

o Can predict problems with development

Landmarks of Physical Achievement: Rolling over - 3 months Sitting up right without support - 6 months Crawling - 8 to 10 months Walking well - 12 months Gross motor skills - large in perspective Fine motor skills - small things, typically with your hands

Breast Feeding: In the 1940’s and 50’s formula was recommended Breast milk offers all the nutrients infants need for the first 12 months of life Breast milk is individualized to each child

o Less likely to have allergieso Give immunityo Chance of infections are lowero Provides endorphins for the mom - helps with mother child bonding

Solid foods can be started at 6 months but not needed until 9-12 monthso Starting solid foods too early can lower immunity and babies may not

be developmentally readyo Introduce gradually, one at a timeo Fruits and veggies first - the most nutritious

Part 3: Development of the Senses

Visual Perception: Distance vision is 1/10 - 1/3 that of an average adult By 6 months of age, the infants vision is nearly 20/20 Binocular vision develops at 14 weeks Depth perception develops by 2-3 months

o Visual cliff studies 2-3 month olds prefer complex stimuli over simple ones

Distinguishing Faces: Genetics is not the sole determinant of infant visual preference Soon after birth, infants have already learning to prefer their own mother’s

face over others Between 6-9 months, infants become more adept at distinguishing human

faces but less adept at distinguishing faces of other species They can distinguish between male and female faces as early as 3-4 months

o More difficulty distinguishing male faces than female faces

Infant Auditory Perception: Infants have excellent auditory perception at birth Reach adult accuracy in sound localization by age 1

o Become specialists in their own languageso At birth, infants can hear non-native sounds but lose that ability by 10

months

Smell and Taste: Smell

o Well developed at birtho Helps in recognition of mother early in lifeo Used to distinguish mother’s scent

Does not work for fathers Taste

o Have an innate sweet tootho Show facial disgust at bitter tasteo Develop preferences based on what mother ate during pregnancy

Sensitivity to Pain: Infants can experience pain They experience differences in heart beat, sweating, facial expressions, etc. Reactions to pain are different during different stages of development Exposure to pain in infancy may lead to permanent rewiring of nervous

system, resulting in greater sensitivity to pair during adulthood

Chapter 5: Cognitive Development in Infancy

Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development: Schemes: how we define/understand the world Assimilation: process by which people understand an experience in terms of

their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinkingo Using what you already know to figure out new things

Accommodation: changes in existing ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new stimuli or events

o Changing what you already know in response to learning new things

Sensorimotor Period of Cognitive Growth (0-2 years): 6 substages in which an infant will master a certain set of skills Ages that the stages are reached can vary

o Timing is variant, order is not Development is gradual within stages and transitions between the stages

occuro Some behaviors from previous stage and some from the next stage

Substages: Substage 1 - simple reflexes (0-1 months)

o Earliest stageso Sucking and rooting anything that comes into their mouthso Transition from bottle to breasto Reflexes help them learn more about the world around them

Substage 2 - first habits and primary circular reactions (1-4 months)o Reflexes become more combinedo Grasping and suckingo Begin to repeat activities because they enjoy them - circular reaction

Primary circular reaction - focuses on the infants own body Example - thumb sucking

Substage 3 - secondary circular reactions (4-8 months)o Secondary circular reaction involve the infant and their own

environments Example - babbling, elicits vocalizations from others in the

world Substage 4 - coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 months)

o Goal directed behaviors and planning Anticipation for upcoming events

o Object permanence - around 8 months of age Sometimes kids get thrown off Shouldn’t make mistakes around 12 months of age A not B error made during this time

Substage 5 - tertiary circular reaction (12-18 months)o Different variations of the same movement that interact with the

worldo Development of schemes regarding deliberate variation of actions

that bring desirable consequences Substage 6 - beginnings of thought (18 months - 2 years)

o The beginnings of thought

Information Processing Approach: Memory Capabilities in Infancy Mobile Experiment

o 2 month olds forgot about moving the mobile by the next week and had to be reminded how to move it

o 6 month olds remembered how to move the mobile On terms of infant scale, the next day is considered long term memory Older infants can retrieve information much faster Infants have memories before the age of 3

Information Processing Approach: Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory There are two separate systems involved with long term memory: explicit

memory and implicit memory Explicit - conscious

o Previous experienceso Later memories

Second half of year 1 Implicit - memories that you are not conscious of

o Help you do tasks without thinking of them Tying your shoes

o Earliest memories

Early Sounds and Communication: Prelinguistic Communication

o Canonical Babbling - repeated consonant vowel syllables Universal Resembles infant’s native language

Pre-babble sounds are not specific to languages Deaf babbling - gestural and verbal babbling activate the same neural centers

First Words and Sentences: Human infants have a comprehension of speech before they can speak

o Comprehension comes before production First word spoken between 10-14 months and by 16-24 months babies have

a language explosion Holophrases - one word demonstrates a whole thought First sentences produced 8 to 12 months after first words

o Telegraphic speech - stringing together words and showing understanding how they are linked

Leaving out non-critical words Example - want cookie

Infant Directed Speech: Parentese - long vowel sounds, short consonants, high tons Infants show a preference for it

Chapter 6: Social and Personality Development in Infancy

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development: Stage 1: trust vs mistrust (0-18 months)

o Depends on how well needs are met by the caregivero If there is mistrust, there might be problems forming close bonds with

others Stage 2: autonomy vs shame and doubt (18 months to 3 years)

o Autonomy if encouraged exploration and freedom within safe boundaries

o Overly restricted/overly protective: shame, self-doubt and unhappiness develop

Emotions in Infancy: Do Infants Experience Emotional Highs and Lows Izard (MAX) We do not have a full range of emotions at birth Three basic emotions - they are present at birth (innate)

o Interesto Distresso Disgust

At 6 weeks - social smileso Smiles in response to people smiling at you

Complex emotions - self conscious emotionso Come later in life - 2 years

Smiling: Earliest smiles: little meaning 6-9 weeks: reliable smiling begins

o Smiles are first relatively indiscriminate, then more selective Social smile: smiling in response to another person smiling

o Smiling at things that give them pleasure 18 months: smiling becomes more frequent toward humans than toward

nonhuman objects, particularly towards their caregivers End of year 2: use smiling purposefully

o Show sensitivity to emotional expressions of others

Stranger Anxiety and Separation Anxiety: Stranger anxiety: as memory develops, ability to recognize familiar people

emerges, ability to anticipate and predict events increases, appearance of unknown persons causes fear

o Weariness around an unfamiliar persono Seen around 6 months of ageo Emerges because infants memories are becoming strongero Less anxious around female strangers than male strangers

Separation Anxiety: seen in all infantso Coincides with stranger anxietyo Peaks at 14 months across cultures o Begins around 7-8 months

Social referencing: feeling with others feel First occurs around 8 to 9 months Infants looking for clues from those around them in situations where they do

not know what to doo Trying to figure out how they should act

Development of Self-Awareness: Begins around 12 months Influenced by cultural upbringing Rouge test - put something on the infants nose (paint, blush)

o Does the infant react when placed in front of a mirror

Attachment: Positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular,

special individual Monkeys that preferred the fuzzy monkey to the one that had milk

o Comfort was chosen over food Attachment is based on a need for safety and security

o Securely attached children should perceive their caregiver as a secure base from which they can explore and then return for comfort

Mothers and Attachment: Mothers are more responsive in how they interact to the child’s needs

o Warm and affectionateo Generational

Differences in Attachment between Mothers and Fathers:

Most infants preferred to be soothed by their mother when in unusually stressful circumstances

Moms spend more time nurturing and fathers spend more time playing Fathers play is more physical and mothers play more verbal games