U.S. HISTORY STUDY SHEET FOR THE EOC EXAMContent Focus Terms, People, Organizations, Events, Documents, and Laws

The Civil War, Reconstruction, and Westward Expansion(Benchmarks SS.912.A.2.1 - SS.912.A.2.7)

1. Kansas-Nebraska Act: This law created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, opening new lands for settlement, and had the effect of repealing the Missouri Compromise of 1820 by allowing white male settlers in those territories to determine through popular sovereignty whether they would allow slavery within each territory. The act was designed by Democratic Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois. The initial purpose of the Kansas–Nebraska Act was to open up many thousands of new farms and make feasible a Midwestern Transcontinental Railroad. It became a problem when popular sovereignty was written into the proposal so that the voters of the moment would decide whether slavery would be allowed or not. The result was that pro- and anti-slavery elements flooded into Kansas with the goal of voting slavery up or down, leading to a bloody civil war. The term "Bleeding Kansas" was coined by Republican Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, to describe this civil war; its violence indicated that compromise was unlikely. Many people believe the Civil War actually began in 1854 with the passage of this law.

2. Black Codes: In the United States, the most notorious Black Codes were laws passed by Southern states in 1865 and 1866, after the Civil War. These laws had the intent and the effect of restricting African Americans' freedom and of compelling them to work in a labor economy based on low wages or debt.

3. Compromise: an agreement or a settlement of a dispute that is reached by each side making concessions.

4. Debt peonage: Debt bondage (also known as debt slavery or bonded labor) is a person's pledge of their labor or services as security for the repayment for a debt or other obligation. The services required to repay the debt may be undefined, and the services' duration may be undefined. Debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation.

5. Nadir: The word is used figuratively to mean the lowest point of a person's spirits or the lowest point in terms of quality in an activity or profession.

6. Popular sovereignty: the power of the people of a nation to directly or indirectly control the policies and directives of the government.

7. Indian reservation system: In 1851, the United States Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Act which authorized the creation of Indian reservations in modern day Oklahoma. Relations between settlers and natives had grown increasingly worse as the settlers encroached on territory and natural resources in the West. By the late 1860s, President Ulysses S. Grant pursued a stated "Peace Policy" as a possible solution to the conflict between white settlers and American Indian tribes whose lands were being taken. The policy included a reorganization of the Indian Service, with the goal of relocating various tribes from their ancestral homes to parcels of lands established specifically for their inhabitation.

8. Sharecropping: Sharecropping is a system of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crops produced on the land.

Sharecropping was a way for very poor farmers (both black and white) to earn a living from land owned by someone else. The landowner provided land, housing, tools and seed, and perhaps a mule, and a local merchant loaned money for food and supplies. At harvest time the sharecropper received a share of the crop (from one-third to one-half), which paid off his debt to the merchant. By the late 1860s white farmers also became sharecroppers.

9. State’s rights: The balance of national government powers and those powers held by the states as defined in the Supremacy Clause of the U.S. Constitution was first addressed in the case of McCulloch v. Maryland (1819). The Court's decision by Chief Justice John Marshall asserted that the laws adopted by the federal government, when exercising its constitutional powers, are generally superior to any conflicting laws adopted by state governments. A major dispute over states' rights was over the issue of slavery. Supporters of slavery often argued that slavery was a right reserved to the states by the 10th amendment.

10. Suffrage: Suffrage is the right to vote gained through the democratic process. Throughout the course of American history, suffrage has been extended to more and more groups of people who had previously been denied the right. The major extensions of suffrage occurred with the 15TH amendment (black males), the 19th amendment (women), 24th amendment (eliminated pol taxes and literacy tests as requirements to vote), and the 26th amendment (lowered the age of voting from 21 to 18).

11. Abraham Lincoln: 16th President of the USA, and the leader of America through the American Civil War. A practical and effective war president, Lincoln made many moves that were questioned, such as his promotion of Ulysses S. Grant to the position of leader of the Union’s armed forces when Grant began the war as a captain, or his move to suspend habeas corpus and position martial law in the border states to prevent a possible change of heart (border states were states that were slave states that didn’t secede and states that were on the border of the 36-30 line). To Lincoln, the preservation of the United States was more important than anything else; for Lincoln, the end justified the means.

12. Stephen Douglas: Douglas was an American politician from Illinois and the designer of the Kansas–Nebraska Act. He was a U.S. Representative, a U.S. Senator, and the Democratic Party nominee for President in the 1860 election, which he lost to Republican Abraham Lincoln. Douglas had previously defeated Lincoln in the 1856 Illinois Senate race, which was noted for the famous Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858 over westward expansion of slavery into the western territories. Ironically, the Kansas-Nebraska Act was the cause of bloody fighting in those two territories, and many historians believe that the Civil War really began with the passage of that law in 1854. The disaster of the act was the catalyst that allowed Lincoln to win the 1860 Presidential election.

13. Jefferson Davis: The only President of the Confederate States of America. Under Davis’ leadership, the confederacy faced insurmountable odds and was finally vanquished in April of 1865. After Davis was captured in 1865, he was accused of treason but was not tried and was released after two years. While not disgraced, Davis had been displaced in white Southern affection after the war by his leading general, Robert E. Lee. Nevertheless, many Southerners empathized with his defiance, refusal to accept defeat, and resistance to Reconstruction.

14. Ulysses S. Grant: He was the 18th president of the United States (1869–1877) following his success as military commander in the American Civil War. Under Grant, the Union Army defeated the Confederate military; the war ended with the surrender of Robert E. Lee's army at Appomattox Court House in Virginia. As president, Grant led the Radical Republicans in their effort to eliminate vestiges of Confederate nationalism and slavery, protect African American citizenship, and defeat the Ku Klux Klan. During his second term the country's economy was devastated by the Panic of 1873, while investigations exposed corruption scandals in the administration. The conservative white Southerners regained control of Southern state governments and Democrats took control of the federal House of Representatives. By the time Grant left the White House in 1877, his Reconstruction policies were being undone.

15. Andrew Johnson: He was the 17th President of the United States, serving from 1865 to 1869. Johnson became president as Abraham Lincoln's vice president at the time of Lincoln's assassination. The new president favored quick restoration of the seceded states to the Union and full implementation of Lincoln’s plan to reunite the nation without overly punishing the south. His plans, however, did not give protection to the former slaves, and he came into conflict with the Radical Republican dominated Congress, culminating in his impeachment by the House of Representatives. The first American president to be impeached, he was acquitted in the Senate by one vote. His political career was finished, however.

16. Robert E. Lee: He was an American career military officer who is best known for having commanded the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in the American Civil War. He emerged as a shrewd tactician and battlefield commander, winning numerous battles against far superior Union armies. His abilities as a tactician have been praised by many military historians, and he is even today revered in the Deep South.

17. Ku Klux Klan: The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is the name of three distinct past and present far-right organizations (1. Post-Civil War, 2. Xenophobic anti-immigration throughout the first 1/3 of the 20th century, and 3. The anti-black civil rights movement that began sometime in the 1950’s and continues to this day, albeit with less fanfare and power) which have advocated extremist reactionary currents such as white supremacy, white nationalism, and anti-immigration, historically expressed through real and symbolic terrorism. Since the mid-20th century, the KKK has also been anti-communist. The current manifestation is splintered into several chapters with no connection to each other; it is classified as a hate group by the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center. It is estimated to have between 5,000 and 8,000 members as of 2012.

18. Carpetbaggers: In United States history, a carpetbagger was a Northerner (Yankee) who moved to the South after the U.S. Civil War, especially during the Reconstruction era (1865-1877), in order to profit from the instability and power vacuum that existed at this time.

19. Scalawags: In United States history, scalawags were southern whites who supported Reconstruction, carpetbaggers, and the Republican Party after the American Civil War.

20. Freedman’s Bureau: was a U.S. federal government agency (1866-1870) that aided distressed freedmen (freed slaves) during the Reconstruction era of the United States, though by 1870 it had been considerably weakened and was completely gone by the end of Reconstruction in 1876-1877.

21. Radical Republicans: The Radical Republicans were a faction within the Republican Party from about 1854 (before the American Civil War) until the end of Reconstruction in 1877. They called themselves "radicals" because they opposed the lenient policies of more moderate factions of the Republican party factions led by Abraham Lincoln and after the war by "conservatives" (in the South) and "liberals" (in the North). Radical republicans strongly opposed slavery during the war and after the war distrusted ex-Confederates, demanding harsh policies for the former rebels, and emphasizing civil rights and voting rights for freedmen (recently freed slaves).

22. Rutherford B. Hayes: was the 19th President of the United States (1877–1881). As president, he oversaw the end of Reconstruction, and was actually elected in the closest election in American Presidential election history. The vote was so close that Northern Republicans felt obligated to end reconstruction in a compromise with the Southern state leadership who were ready to demand a recount and/or decry the election as being “fixed”. Hayes began the efforts that eventually led to civil service reform (Pendleton Act of 1883), and attempted to reconcile the divisions left over from the Civil War and Reconstruction.

23. William Tecumseh Sherman: Sherman was an American soldier, businessman, educator and author. He served as a General in the Union Army during the American Civil War (1861–65), for which he received recognition for his outstanding command of military strategy as well as criticism for the harshness of the "scorched earth" policies that he implemented in conducting total war against the Confederate States. Sherman served under General Ulysses S. Grant in 1862 and 1863 during the campaigns that led to the fall of the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg on the Mississippi River and ended with the routing of the Confederate armies in the state of Tennessee. In 1864, Sherman succeeded Grant as the Union commander in the western theater of the war after Grant took command of the entire Union army. He proceeded to lead his troops east during the scorched earth campaign of 1864 and 1865 to capture of the city of Atlanta, a military success that contributed to the re-election of President Abraham Lincoln. Sherman's subsequent march through Georgia and the Carolinas further undermined the Confederacy's ability to continue fighting.

24. The Anaconda Plan: This is the name widely applied to an outline strategy for subduing the Southern states in the American Civil War. Proposed by General-in-Chief Winfield Scott, the plan emphasized the naval blockade of the Southern ports, and called for an advance up the Mississippi River to cut the South in two, which would effectively end the western war.

25. Civil Rights Act of 1866: This Act declared that people born in the United States and not subject to any foreign power are entitled to be citizens, without regard to race, color, or previous condition of slavery or involuntary servitude. It also said that any non-white citizen has the same rights as a white citizen to make and enforce contracts, sue and be sued, give evidence in court, and inherit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, and convey real and personal property. Additionally, the Act guaranteed to all citizens the "full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of person and property, as is enjoyed by white citizens, and ... like punishment, pains, and penalties..."

26. Compromise of 1850: The Compromise of 1850 was a package of five laws passed in September 1850, which defused a four-year confrontation between the slave states of the South and the free states of the North regarding the status of western territories acquired

during the Mexican-American War (1846–1848). The compromise delayed secession and civil war for 10 years but ultimately failed to prevent that disaster from occurring. The following are the provisions of this compromise:

A. Texas’ application to become a state was approved after it surrendered its claim to New Mexico (over which it had threatened war) as well as its claims north of the Missouri Compromise Line, transferred its large public debt to the federal government, and retained control over El Paso that it had established earlier in 1850, with the Texas Panhandle thrown in at the last moment.

B. California's application for admission as a free state with its current boundaries was approved and a Southern proposal to split California at parallel 35° north to provide a Southern territory was not approved (this made the Missouri compromise 36-30 line obsolete).

C. The South avoided adoption of the symbolically significant Wilmot Proviso (the Wilmot Proviso, one of the major events leading to the American Civil War, would have banned slavery in any territory to be acquired from Mexico following the Mexican War).

D. The new New Mexico Territory and Utah Territory could in principle decide in the future to become slave states (popular sovereignty), even though Utah and a northern fringe of New Mexico were north of the Missouri Compromise Line where slavery had previously been banned in territories.

E. The most concrete Southern gain was the Fugitive Slave Act, the enforcement of which outraged Northern public opinion. It required that all escaped slaves were, upon capture, to be returned to their masters and that all officials and citizens of Free states had to cooperate in this law.

27. Dred Scott vs. Sandford (1857): In this decision, the Court held that African Americans whether slave or free, could not be American citizens and therefore had no standing to sue in federal court (in other words, if a free black person in a free state was forced into slavery in that state, the black person could legally do nothing about it, even though slavery was illegal in that state!). It went further to say that the federal government had no power to regulate slavery in the federal territories acquired after the creation of the United States.

28. Battle of Gettysburg: Considered by many (along with the rebel surrender at Vicksburg the next day) to be the turning point of the Civil War, this three day battle in the summer of 1863 involved the largest number of casualties of any battle in this horrible war. General Lee believed that the North would be open to surrendering the war if he could penetrate into union territory in Pennsylvania as far as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, or even Philadelphia possibly. General Grant and President Lincoln sent troops to try and stop them and Gettysburg, PA was where they ended up meeting. The Union dug in and after suffering some early losses on day one, had begun to wear down Lee’s troops by the end of the second day. On the third day, a desperate plan was put together by Lee to try and use a massive assault on the center of the Union lines to try and break through. The Union leader at Gettysburg, General George Meade, predicted the night before that Lee would attempt this, and the Union forces were ready for it and decimated the rebel charge. This suicide run is known as “Pickett’s charge”, named after Maj. Gen. George Pickett, one of three Confederate generals who led the assault. Defeated, Lee soon ordered a retreat from battle, and while what was left of his army did

escape, they were never able to fight offensively again and never really threatened the union militarily after this.

29. Gettysburg Address: The Gettysburg Address is a speech by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln, one of the best-known in American history. It was delivered by Lincoln during the American Civil War, on the afternoon of Thursday, November 19, 1863. In it, Lincoln reiterated the principles of human equality espoused by the Declaration of Independence and proclaimed the Civil War as a struggle not only for the preservation of the Union, but also one that would bring true equality to all of its citizens.

30. Battle of Vicksburg: It began in May of 1863 with two major Union assaults (May 19 and 22, 1863) against the Confederate fortifications outside of Vicksburg which were repulsed with heavy casualties. Grant decided to besiege (surround and starve out) the city beginning on May 25. With no reinforcements, their supplies nearly gone, and after holding out for more than forty days, the garrison finally surrendered on July 4 when they heard that Lee had lost at Gettysburg the previous day. This action, when combined with Lee's defeat at Gettysburg by is considered to be the turning point of the war..

31. Emancipation Proclamation of 1863: This presidential statement proclaimed the freedom of slaves in the ten states that were still in rebellion, and was based on the president's constitutional authority as commander in chief of the armed forces. The Proclamation also ordered that "suitable" persons among those freed could be enrolled into the paid service of United States' forces, and ordered the Union Army (and all segments of the Executive branch) to "recognize and maintain the freedom of" the ex-slaves.

32. The Civil War Amendments (AKA Reconstruction Amendments): This refers to the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth amendments to the United States Constitution, adopted between 1865 and 1870, the five years immediately following the Civil War. The amendments were important in implementing the Reconstruction of the American South after the war. Their proponents saw them as transforming the United States from a country that was (in Abraham Lincoln's words) "half slave and half free" to one in which the constitutionally guaranteed "blessings of liberty" would be extended to the entire populace, including the former slaves and their descendants. The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery. The Fourteenth Amendment included the privileges and immunities clause (all people are guaranteed the same privileges no matter what state they find themselves in), and the due process (all people will be treated fairly by the law) and equal protection clauses (all people are entitled to the equal protection of the law, meaning no one should be above the law or be treated differently than anyone else under the law) applicable to all persons. The Fifteenth Amendment prohibits discrimination in voting rights of citizens on the basis of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude."

33. Radical Republican Reconstruction Plan: The Radical Republicans opposed Lincoln's terms for reuniting the United States during Reconstruction, which began in 1863, which they viewed as too lenient. They proposed an "ironclad oath" that would prevent anyone who supported the Confederacy from voting in elections; Lincoln blocked it. Radicals passed the Wade-Davis Bill (the bill made re-admittance to the Union for former Confederate states contingent on a majority in each Southern state taking the Ironclad oath to the effect they had never in the past supported the Confederacy) in 1864; Lincoln vetoed it. The Radicals demanded a more aggressive prosecution of the war, a faster end to slavery and the total destruction of the Confederacy. After the assassination of

Lincoln, Vice President Andrew Johnson became president. Although he appeared at first to be a Radical, he broke with them, and the Radicals and Johnson became embroiled in a bitter struggle. Johnson proved a poor politician and the Radicals soon had full control of Congress and could override Johnson's vetoes. Johnson vetoed 21 bills passed by Congress during his term, but the Radicals overrode 15 of them, including the Reconstruction Acts (the creation of five military districts in the South, each commanded by a general, which would serve as the acting government for the region in order to enforce the laws of the Constitution regarding the rights of blacks and the provisions of the Civil War amendments).

Late 19 th Century, Industrial Revolution, Farmer’s Challenges, the Shift From a Rural Agrarian to an Urban Industrial Society, Immigration, and the Labor Movement

(Benchmarks SS.912.A.3.1 - SS.912.A.3.13)34. The Great Migration was the movement of 6 million African-Americans out of the rural

Southern United States to the Northeast, Midwest, and West from the end of the civil war through most of the 20th century.

35. The Homestead Act of 1862 was the first of several Homestead acts, the 'Homestead Act of 1862”, was signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln on May 20, 1862. Anyone who had never taken up arms against the U.S. government (including freed slaves and women), was 21 years or older, or the head of a family, could file an application to claim a federal land grant. There was also a residency requirement (The occupant had to reside on the land for five years, and show evidence of having made improvements. If so, and the land would be theirs for free).

36. The Anaconda Plan is the name widely applied to an outline strategy for subduing the seceding states in the American Civil War. Proposed by General-in-Chief Winfield Scott, the plan emphasized the blockade of the Southern ports, and called for an advance down the Mississippi River to cut the South in two.

37. The Compromise of 1877 was a purported informal, unwritten deal that settled the intensely disputed 1876 U.S. presidential election, pulled federal troops out of state politics in the South, and ended the Reconstruction Era.

38. The Dawes Act of 1877 was adopted by Congress in 1887. It authorized the President of the United States to survey Indian tribal land and divide it into allotments for individual Indians. The stated objective of the Dawes Act was to stimulate assimilation of Indians into American society.

39. The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 is a federal law designed to regulate the railroad industry, particularly its monopolistic practices. The law required that railroad rates be "reasonable and just," but did not empower the government to fix specific rates. It also required that railroads publicize shipping rates and prohibited short haul or long haul fare discrimination, a form of price discrimination against smaller markets, particularly farmers. The Act created a federal regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), which it charged with monitoring railroads to ensure that they complied with the new regulations. The Act was the first federal law to regulate private industry in the United States.

40. The Freeport Doctrine was articulated by Stephen A. Douglas at the second of the Lincoln-Douglas debates on August 27, 1858, in Freeport, Illinois. Lincoln tried to force Douglas to choose between the principle of popular sovereignty proposed by the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the majority decision of the United States Supreme Court in the Dred

Scott case of, which stated that slavery could not legally be excluded from U.S. territories (since Douglas professed great respect for Supreme Court decisions, and accused the Republicans of disrespecting the court, yet this aspect of the Dred Scott decision was contrary to Douglas' views and politically unpopular in Illinois). Instead of making a direct choice, Douglas' response stated that despite the court's ruling, slavery could be prevented from any territory by the refusal of the people living in that territory to pass laws favorable to slavery. Likewise, if the people of the territory supported slavery, legislation would provide for its continued existence.

41. The Ostend Manifesto was a document written in 1854 that described the rationale for the United States to purchase Cuba from Spain while implying that the U.S. should declare war if Spain refused.

42. The Industrial Revolution refers to the movement away from an agrarian (agricultural) based economy to an economy centered on manufacturing. There is generally thought to have been two of these revolutions, the first beginning in England in the late 18th century and rapidly spread across Europe and into America and mainly involved the manufacture of textiles (the creation of woven fabrics). The first Industrial Revolution evolved into the second Industrial Revolution between 1840 and 1870, when technological and economic progress continued with the increasing adoption of steam power (steam-powered railways, boats and ships), the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the increasing use of machinery in steam powered factories. Eventually, the revolution exploded at the turn of the 20th century with the creation of controlled electric power.

43. Reservation System refers to the 1851 Indian Appropriations Act which gave funds to move western tribes onto reservations. Commissioner of Indian Affairs Orlando Brown explained the rationale behind this policy in 1850. Brown suggested that reservations should be “a country adapted to agriculture, of limited extent and well-defined boundaries; within which all, with occasional exceptions, should be compelled constantly to remain until such time as their general improvement and good conduct may supersede the necessity of such restrictions.”

44. A monopoly exists when there is only one seller of a good or service and there is no reasonable alternative available. Monopolies are generally considered undesirable in a free enterprise system as they tend to keep prices high and quality levels of goods and services produced low – competition, the opposite idea of monopoly, does the opposite and is considered to be one of the cornerstones of a free enterprise system. In America, only certain types of monopolies are legal. Corporations have tried to get around anti-monopoly laws in several ways, disguising their business models so as to attempt to avoid detection by the law.

45. The Grange is a fraternal organization in the United States which encourages families to band together to promote the economic and political well-being of the community and agriculture. The Grange, founded after the Civil War in 1867, is the oldest American agricultural advocacy group with a national scope. The Farmers' Alliance was an organized agrarian economic movement among American farmers that developed and flourished in the 1870s and 1880s. The movement included several parallel but independent political organizations — the National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union among the white farmers of the South, the National Farmers' Alliance among the white and black farmers of the Midwest and High Plains, where the Granger movement had been strong, and the Colored Farmers' National Alliance and Cooperative Union,

consisting of the African American farmers of the South. These organizations formed as a direct result of agricultural surpluses, or overproduction, which resulted in lowered prices for agricultural goods and caused many farmers to go poor. In the view of farmers, banks charged outrageous interest rates, and monopolistic railroads not only charged outrageous rates but their rates were unfair and arbitrary in that the railroads charged farmers higher rates than they charged fellow industrialists. This movement led to some major accomplishments, including the passage of the Granger Laws, the establishment of free rural mail delivery, and the rise of the Populist Party, a short lived but influential political party that stood up for the rights of ordinary American workers and farmers. While the Populist Party ended after the election of 1896, many of their ideas and principles were adopted by the Progressive Movement in the first part of the 20th century.

46. The Granger Laws were a series of laws passed in several Midwestern states of the United States, namely Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois, in the late 1860s and early 1870s. The Granger Laws were promoted primarily by a group of farmers known as the Grange. The main goal of the Grange was to regulate rising prices of railroad and grain elevator company fees after the American Civil War.

47. The Cross of Gold Speech was delivered by William Jennings Bryan, a former United States Representative from Nebraska, at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago on July 9, 1896. In the address, Bryan supported bimetallism or "free silver", which he believed would bring the nation prosperity. He decried the gold standard, concluding the speech by saying, "you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold". Bryan's address helped catapult him to the Democratic Party's presidential nomination and is considered one of the greatest political speeches in American history. For twenty years, Americans had been bitterly divided over the nation's monetary standard. The gold standard, which the United States had effectively been on since 1873, limited the money supply but eased trade with other nations, such as the United Kingdom, whose currency was also based on gold. Less money in circulation doesn’t affect the wealthy, but it does affect everyone else. Bryan lost the election, but his progressive attitude toward helping the less fortunate rang true and ushered in a new wave of progressive political and economic thought.

48. The Suffrage Movement has, at times, focused more on expanding the rights of a single group, such as for women, or for African Americans. However, the general term refers to expanding the vote to all adults regardless of their sex, sexual orientation, race, or ethnicity.

49. The National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) was formed on May 15, 1869 in New York City. It was created in response to a split in the American Equal Rights Association over whether the woman's movement should support the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (which gave black males the right to vote). Its founders, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, opposed the Fifteenth Amendment unless it included the vote for women. The NWSA worked to secure women's voting rights through a federal constitutional amendment - contrarily, its rival, the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), believed success could be more easily achieved through state-by-state campaigns. In 1890 the NWSA and the AWSA merged to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA).

50. Urbanization refers to the post-Civil War – 1930 migration of people from farming areas (rural) to cities and towns (urban).

51. Urban centers are areas with high population density which may actually have multiple urban centers. For example, Miami has many municipalities with urban populations, such as North Miami, Hialeah, Liberty City, and Kendall. Each of these municipalities is their own urban center.

52. The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 is a United States federal law that was designed to regulate the railroad industry, particularly its monopolistic practices. Act required that railroad rates be "reasonable and just," but did not empower the government to fix specific rates. It also required that railroads publicize shipping rates and prohibited short haul or long haul fare discrimination, a form of price discrimination against smaller markets, particularly farmers. The Act created a federal regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), which it charged with monitoring railroads to ensure that they complied with the new regulations.

53. Child labor was a horrific norm in American society during the post-Civil War period until the Keating-Owen Act was passed in 1916. The law effectively ended child labor under the age of 14, but it was ruled unconstitutional by the US Supreme Court in 1918. Child labor was not truly eliminated until 1938 with the passage of the Fair Labor Standards Act.

54. Ida Tarbell was an American teacher, author and journalist. She was one of the leading "muckrakers" of the progressive era. She is best known for her 1904 book “The History of the Standard Oil Company”, which is considered to be one of the greatest literary works of 20th-century American journalism. She depicted John D. Rockefeller as miserly, money-grabbing, and viciously effective at monopolizing the oil trade. This book led to the US Supreme Court declaring Standard Oil to be an illegal monopoly and breaking it up into 33 separate companies.

55. The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron prior to the open hearth furnace. The process is named after its inventor, Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on the process in 1855. The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown through the molten iron. The oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten.

56. A market economy is an economy in which decisions regarding investment, production and distribution are based on supply and demand.

57. A planned economy is an economic system in which decisions regarding production and investment are embodied in a plan formulated by a central authority, usually by a public body such as a government agency.

58. A political machine is a political organization in which an authoritative boss or small group commands the support of a corps of supporters and businesses (usually campaign workers), who receive rewards for their efforts. The machine's power is based on the ability of the workers to get out the vote for their candidates on Election Day.

59. Henry Morrison Flagler (January 2, 1830 – May 20, 1913) was an American industrialist and a founder of Standard Oil. He was also a key figure in the development of the eastern coast of Florida along the Atlantic Ocean and was founder of what became the Florida East Coast Railway. He is known as the father of Miami, Florida and also founded Palm Beach, Florida.

60. Muckrakers were turn of the century investigative journalists who exposed corruption in business and government and publicized it in books, newspapers and magazines. This

many times forced business and government to institute changes in response to this negative press.

61. Ida Minerva Tarbell (November 5, 1857 – January 6, 1944) was an American teacher, author and journalist. She was one of the leading "muckrakers" of the progressive era. She wrote many notable magazine series and biographies. She is best known for her 1904 book The History of the Standard Oil Company, which was listed as No. 5 in a 1999 list by New York University of the top 100 works of 20th-century American journalism. She depicted John D. Rockefeller as crabbed, miserly, money-grabbing, and viciously effective at monopolizing the oil trade.

62. Immigration refers to the migration of foreign people into the United States to live here permanently or semi-permanently. Americans, despite the imagery of America as a “melting pot” have always been afraid of and generally been against immigration. This fear of foreigners (xenophobia) has led to many historical events that both define and haunt the American experience (Sacco and Vanzetti, the 2nd coming of the KKK, etc.).

63. Settlement houses were privately operated houses designed to help new immigrants to a large city to adapt easier, find jobs, learn the English language and about American culture, and to basically aid in the “Americanization” process.

64. Innovation, or invention, was a major force of the late 19th and early 20th century and still is today. People like Thomas Edison (lightbulb, electric generator, phonograph), Nicola Tesla (AC electricity), and Henry Ford (assembly line mass production factory) stand out as great turn of the century innovators.

65. The Knights of Labor was the largest and one of the most important American labor organizations of the 1880s. Its most important leader was Terence V. Powderly. The Knights promoted the social and cultural uplift of the working man, rejected Socialism and radicalism, and demanded the eight-hour day. In some cases it acted as a labor union, negotiating with employers, but it was never well organized, and after a rapid expansion in the mid-1880s, it suddenly lost its new members and became a small operation again.

66. The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was one of the first federations of labor unions in the United States. It was founded in Columbus, Ohio in May 1886 by an alliance of craft unions disaffected from the Knights of Labor, a national labor association. Samuel Gompers of the Cigar Makers' International Union was elected president of the Federation at its founding convention and was reelected every year except one until his death in 1924. The AFL was the largest union grouping in the United States for the first half of the 20th century, even after the creation of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) by unions that were expelled by the AFL in 1935 over its opposition to industrial unionism. While the Federation was founded and dominated by craft unions throughout the first fifty years of its existence, many of its craft union affiliates turned to organizing on an industrial union basis to meet the challenge from the CIO in the 1940s. In 1955, the AFL merged with its longtime rival, the Congress of Industrial Organizations, to form the AFL-CIO, a federation which remains in place to this day. Together with its offspring, the AFL has comprised the longest lasting and most influential labor federation in the United States.

67. Lewis Latimer was an African American draftsman and inventor who was born in Chelsea, Massachusetts, on September 4, 1848, the youngest of five children of Rebecca Latimer. He is best known for inventing an improved process for creating a carbon filament for light bulbs that was superior to Thomas Edison's original paper filament,

which would burn out quickly. Latimer’s carbon filament introduced long lasting light bulbs and made it possible for cities to consider creating electric grids to electrify entire cities and towns.

68. Gentlemen’s agreements were a tactic used by T. Roosevelt in dealing with corporations that were trying to monopolize an industry and/or engaging in unfair labor practices. TR would many times offer to not go after a business legally, with the business promising to not engage in such practices and to basically follow the rules that TR set down. This allowed the business to remain out of trouble and TR to promote and maintain a business environment that was more open and competitive.

69. Government regulation was a no-no until the progressives began their revolution, because laissez-faire capitalism was the way of American business and government up until that point. But progressives saw government as a potential agent of positive change and began involving the government in regulating business. Laws such as the Sherman and Clayton Anti-Trust Acts, the Keating-Owen Act, and the creation of various government agencies that had legal authority to not only regulate business but also to arrest and charge business leaders with crimes changed the country from a laissez-faire nation to a nation that had business under government oversight.

70. Social Darwinism is a modern name given to various theories of society that emerged in the United States and Europe in the 1870s, and which sought to apply biological concepts of natural selection and survival of the fittest to sociology and politics. Social Darwinists generally argue that the strong should see their wealth and power increase because of their inherent genetic superiority while the weak should see their wealth and power decrease, resulting from a lack of strong genes. Obviously, different social Darwinists have different views about which groups of people are the strong and the weak, and they also hold different opinions about the precise mechanism that should be used to promote strength and punish weakness.

71. The Social Gospel movement was a Protestant Christian intellectual movement that was most prominent in the early 20th century United States and Canada. The movement applied Christian ethics to social problems, especially issues of social justice such as economic inequality, poverty, alcoholism, crime, racial tensions, slums, unclean environment, child labor, inadequate labor unions, poor schools, and the danger of war. This movement gave rise to philanthropy, as well as organized institutions such as settlement houses, YMCA organizations, and charitable organizations such as the Salvation Army.

72. George Washington Carver (by January 1864 – January 5, 1943), was an American scientist, botanist, educator, and inventor. The exact day and year of his birth are unknown; he is believed to have been born into slavery in Missouri in January 1864. Carver's reputation is based on his research into and promotion of alternative crops to cotton, such as peanuts, soybeans and sweet potatoes, which also aided nutrition for farm families. He wanted poor farmers to grow alternative crops both as a source of their own food and as a source of other products to improve their quality of life.

73. Binder Boys - The strangest element of the Florida real estate industry was the use of binder boys to start land transactions and to relieve realtors of the task of standing around hot, vacant land waiting for investors. Most binder boys were young, ambitious men and women willing to take a binder, or down payment with a thirty day financing period. Many binder boys were college students with tennis or golf skills who

demonstrated the desirability of some future real estate development by just playing a game of tennis for the tourists. Often there was little more than a fancy entrance way and a tennis court resting in some isolated field. Binder boys did not get paid a commission until the binder check cleared the bank, a process than sometimes took several weeks. However, South Florida lived real estate during this time and binders discovered the mere presentation of their binder receipts gave them instant credit in hotels, restaurants, and nightspots. It was exciting being a young person with so much expected money going into your bank account.

74. The Chinese Exclusion Act was a United States federal law signed by Chester A. Arthur on May 6, 1882, following revisions made in 1880 to the Burlingame Treaty of 1868. Those revisions allowed the U.S. to suspend Chinese immigration, a ban that was intended to last 10 years. This law was repealed by the Magnuson Act on December 17, 1943.

75. The Haymarket affair (also known as the Haymarket massacre or Haymarket riot) refers to the aftermath of a bombing that took place at ``a labor demonstration on Tuesday May 4, 1886, at Haymarket Square in Chicago. It began as a peaceful rally in support of workers striking for an eight-hour day. An unknown person threw a dynamite bomb at police as they acted to disperse the public meeting. The bomb blast and ensuing gunfire resulted in the deaths of seven police officers and at least four civilians; scores of others were wounded.

76. The Sherman Antitrust Act (Sherman Act, July 2, 1890, Ch. 647, 26 Stat. 209, 15 U.S.C. §§ 1–7) is a landmark federal statute on United States competition law passed by Congress in 1890. It prohibits certain business activities that federal government regulators deem to be anticompetitive, and requires the federal government to investigate and pursue trusts, companies, and organizations suspected of being in violation. It was the first federal statute to limit cartels and monopolies, and today still forms the basis for most antitrust litigation by the United States federal government.

77. The Homestead Strike was an industrial lockout and strike which began on June 30, 1892, culminating in a battle between strikers and private security agents on July 6, 1892. The battle was the second largest and one of the most serious disputes in U.S. labor history. The final result was a major defeat for the union and a setback for efforts to unionize steelworkers. Carnegie Steel was the overall victor.

78. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act was enacted on July 14, 1890 as a United States federal law. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act did not authorize the free and unlimited coinage of silver that the Free Silver supporters wanted. However, it increased the amount of silver the government was required to purchase on a recurrent monthly basis to 4.5 million ounces. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act had been passed in response to the growing complaints of farmers' and miners' interests. Farmers had immense debts that could not be paid off due to deflation caused by overproduction, and they urged the government to pass the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in order to boost the economy and cause inflation, allowing them to pay their debts with cheaper dollars.

Late 19 th and Early 20 th Century World Affairs, Imperialism, the Spanish-American War, Pre through Post War - World War I

(Benchmarks SS.912.A.4.1 - SS.912.A.4.11)79. George Dewey (December 26, 1837 – January 16, 1917) was an admiral of the United

States Navy. He is best known for his victory at the Battle of Manila Bay during the

Spanish-American War. He was also the only person in the history of the United States to have attained the rank of Admiral of the Navy, the most senior rank in the United States Navy.

80. The Teller Amendment was an amendment to a joint resolution of the United States Congress, enacted on April 20, 1898, in reply to President William McKinley's War Message. It placed a condition of the United States military in Cuba. According to the clause, the U.S. could not annex Cuba but only leave "control of the island to its people."

81. The Treaty of Portsmouth formally ended the 1904-05 Russo-Japanese War. In accordance with the treaty, both Japan and Russia agreed to leave Manchuria and return its sovereignty to China, but Japan leased the Liaodong Peninsula (containing Port Arthur and Talien), and the Russian rail system in southern Manchuria with access to strategic resources. Japan also received the southern half of the Island of Sakhalin from Russia, so many looked on this war as a Japanese victory.

82. Imperialism is the process of stronger nations taking over weaker countries to add territory to their land control, open up new markets to become richer, and to test and expand military capabilities. In the end imperialism leads to an attempt to build an empire.

83. The Open Door Policy originates with British commercial practice, as was reflected in treaties concluded with China after the First Opium War (1839–1842). Through the acquisition of the Philippine Islands, and when the partition of China by the European powers and Japan seemed imminent, the United States felt its commercial interests in China were threatened. U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent notes to the major powers (France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia), asking them to declare formally that they would uphold Chinese territorial and administrative integrity and would not interfere with the free use of the treaty ports within their spheres of influence in China. The open door policy stated that all European nations, and the United States, could trade with China.

84. The four main reasons WW 1 happened:a. Imperialism: Domination by one country of the political, economic, or cultural life

of another country or region. Imperial competition amongst the major Euro powers and America contributed to the feelings of distrust and animosity amongst the combatants. This led to…

b. Militarism: A glorification of the military leading to a buildup of the armed forces, usually presaging a war effort. In this era, the need for a strong military was two-fold; a nation needed it for imperial conquest, and it also needed it to protect themselves from other major military powers geographically nearby (France and Germany, for example). This in turn led to…

c. Nationalism: A strong feeling of pride in and devotion to one’s country; this became extreme in this era, many times evolving into xenophobia, a fear and distrust of anyone and anything foreign. Many times this feeling of superiority over other nations manifested itself in the glory of victorious armed forces and a desire to gain even more by conquest. Nationalism also aided the desire for independence in some

European regions such as the Balkan Peninsula, the region where WW 1 actually began. This led to…

d. Alliances: Contracts between two or more nations to respond militarily if another nation attacks one of them. For example, if England and France are allies and Germany attacks France, England is required to go to war with Germany. As Germany became more and more powerful, a fear developed in France and Russia, Germany’s Western and Eastern neighbors, that Germany might try and defeat one of them in order to gain more land, money, and power. The balance of power in Europe was shifting out of balance as Germany had quickly become the most powerful, and so France and Russia decided to join together as a defense against potential German aggression. Russia responded by initiating an alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy (The Triple Alliance) and began to build their navy up. England was alarmed as their navy was what set them apart in Europe and was also what protected their island from attack. In response, England joined France and Russia in what became the Triple Entente. When the heir to the Austria-Hungarian throne, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo, the capital city of Bosnia, in June of 1914, Austria-Hungary wished to attack Bosnia and asked Germany if they would support them. Germany answered with the famous Blank Check, telling Austria-Hungary that they backed them up no matter what the cost. Russia was allied with Bosnia, so when Austria-Hungary attacked Bosnia, Russia was required to respond. Once Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany declared war on each other, the rest of the allied nations fell in and declared war. That’s how WW 1 started.

85. New Technology in WW 1: Chemical warfare (using poisonous gases and chemical compounds, mainly chlorine, to either kill or incapacitate enemies), mobile radio field telephones for battle communication, cannons capable of firing shells as far as 120 kilometers (74.5 miles) and fighter planes were flown into battle zones for the first time ever. Other examples are flamethrowers, tanks, and submachine guns and other types of automatic weapons.

86. The Sussex Pledge was the agreement with the USA whereby Germany agreed to stop their unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic (this meant Germany had previously attacked any ships they thought might be helping their enemy, even if the attacking commander lacked evidence to show that to be the case). When a French cross-channel passenger ferry, the Sussex, was torpedoed without warning on March 24, 1916, the ship was severely damaged and about 50 lives were lost. Although no US citizens were killed in this attack, it prompted President Woodrow Wilson to declare that if Germany were to continue unrestricted submarine warfare, the United States would break diplomatic relations with Germany. Fearing the entry of the United States into World War I, Germany attempted to appease the United States by issuing this pledge. There were three primary elements of the pledge:a. Passenger ships would not be targeted;b. Merchant ships would not be sunk until the presence of weapons had been

established, if necessary by a search of the ship;c. Merchant ships would not be sunk without provision for the safety of passengers and

crew.

By early 1917 Germany had become wrongly convinced that they could defeat the Allies by reinstituting unrestricted submarine warfare before the United States could enter the war. The Sussex pledge was therefore cancelled in January 1917. The resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram caused the United States to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917.

87. The RMS Lusitania, a passenger cruise ship, was hit by a torpedo and sunk on May 7, 1915 during the First World War, as Germany waged submarine warfare against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The ship was torpedoed by a German U-boat (German submarines were called U-boats) and sank in 18 minutes, killing 1,198 and leaving 761 survivors. The sinking turned public opinion in many countries against Germany, especially in the United States, as it contributed heavily to America’s entry into World War I and became an iconic symbol in military recruiting campaigns of why the war was being fought.

88. The Selective Service Act of 1917 authorized the federal government to raise a national army for the American entry into World War I through conscription, also referred to as a draft. The Act was canceled with the end of the war in November of 1918.

89. The Big Four refers to the top Allied leaders who met at the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919 following the end of World War I (1914–18). The Big Four are also known as the Council of Four. It was composed of Woodrow Wilson of the United States, David Lloyd George of Britain, Vittorio Orlando of Italy, and Georges Clemenceau of France.

90. A conscientious objector is an "individual who has claimed the right to refuse to perform military service" on the grounds of freedom of thought, conscience, and/or religion.

91. Propaganda involves the mass publishing/disseminating of information with the aim of persuading people to accept and embrace a particular idea(s). Propaganda is not necessarily untruthful, but truth is not what propaganda is about. The purpose is to persuade, not tell the truth. As a result, truth is many times twisted, and lies are not at all uncommon, all for the sake of convincing the public of something. During wartime, or the prelude to a war, propaganda is widely used to “sell” the war to the public.

92. African-Americans eagerly volunteered to join the Allied cause following America's entry into World War 1. By the time of the armistice with Germany on November 11, 1918, over 350,000 African Americans had served with the American Expeditionary Force on the Western Front. Most African American units were largely relegated to support roles and did not see combat. One of the most distinguished units was the 369th Infantry Regiment, known as the "Harlem Hellfighters", which was on the front lines for six months, longer than any other American unit in the war. 171 members of the 369th were awarded the Legion of Merit.

93. Women in World War I were mobilized in unprecedented numbers on all sides. The vast majority of these women in America went to work in the civilian work force to replace the men who’d left to fight the war or work in greatly expanded munitions (weapons and ammunition) factories. Thousands served in the military in support roles, usually either as nurses or clerical workers, but in Russia some saw combat as well.

94. The home front during World War I covers the domestic, economic, social and political histories of countries involved in that conflict. It covers the mobilization of armed forces and war supplies, but does not include the military history. America had the largest

industrial, financial and agricultural base of any of the great powers, but it took 12–18 months to fully reorient it to the war effort. American money, food and weapons flowed freely to Europe from spring 1917, but American troops arrived much more slowly. The US Army in 1917 was small and poorly equipped, and much of American manufacturing shifted over to provide for the war effort. Because young men were fighting in the war, many jobs that blacks and women would never have had a chance at opened up. Meanwhile, propaganda promoting the war effort was very effective, convincing Americans to not only support the war effort, but also to sacrifice by going through ration programs, and buying war bonds to help pay for the war. War bonds are loans given to the US government by Americans with the promise that they could collect the war bond amount, with interest, at a date far in the future, usually 20 years.

95. The War Industries Board (WIB) was a United States government agency established on July 28, 1917, during World War I, to coordinate the purchase of war supplies. The organization encouraged companies to use mass-production techniques to increase efficiency and urged them to eliminate waste by standardizing products.

96. The Committee on Public Information, also known as the CPI or the Creel Committee, was an independent agency of the government of the United States created to influence U.S. public opinion to be in favor of American participation in World War I.

97. The Espionage Act of 1917 originally prohibited any attempt to interfere with military operations, to support U.S. enemies during wartime, to promote insubordination in the military, or to interfere with military recruitment. In 1919, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled in Schenck v. United States that the act did not violate the freedom of speech of those convicted under its provisions.

98. The Sedition Act of 1918 was an Act of the United States Congress that extended the Espionage Act of 1917 to cover a broader range of offenses, notably speech and the expression of opinion against the government or the war effort or interfered with the sale of government bonds.

99. The Zimmermann Telegram (or Zimmermann Note) was a 1917 diplomatic proposal from the German Empire to Mexico to make war against the United States. The proposal was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence. Revelation of the contents outraged American public opinion and helped generate support for the United States declaration of war on Germany in April. The Foreign Secretary of the German Empire, Arthur Zimmermann, sent the telegram in which instructed Ambassador Eckardt that if the U.S. appeared likely to enter the war, he was to approach the Mexican Government with a proposal for military alliance, with funding from Germany. Mexico was promised territories in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona that had been lost to the United States starting in 1836 as parts of the former Republic of Texas, and in 1848 with the Mexican Cession.

100. Entangling alliances among the European powers affected World War I by causing a small regional conflict to explode into an international war. The first of the two major alliances in this war were the Central Powers dominated by Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. Their opponents were the Allies made up of France, Great Britain, Russia, Japan, Italy and eventually the United States. The war began with a relatively small incident, the June 28, 1914, assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb. Serbia said they had nothing to do with the assassination; however, knowing that Serbia had designs on its

territories in the Balkans, the government of Austria-Hungary suspected Serbia of complicity and so they attacked. This caused a cascade of alliances to go into effect. Russia rushed to the support of its ally Serbia by mobilizing its troops. This caused Austria-Hungary and Germany to mobilize their troops against Russia. At this point, to defend its ally and attack its longtime enemy, Germany, France began to ready its troops. Germany attacked France through Belgium, a country whose neutrality Great Britain had sworn to defend. This act dragged the British military into the war. By September 1914, Japan and the Ottoman Turks had joined as well, creating a tangled conflict between the alliances that took place not only in Europe but also throughout the world, in the open sea, and in European colonies in Africa and Asia.

101. Trench Warfare used occupied fighting lines consisting of deep trenches, with an area in the middle between the enemy trenches called “no man’s land’. Any attacks had to be carried out with one side climbing out of their trenches and rushing toward the enemy trench, exposing them to the machine guns and artillery fire from the enemy. The trenches gave significant protection from the enemy's machine gun and small arms fire and also greatly enhanced protection from the enemy’s artillery fire, but if you were outside of the trench, your life was in serious danger. Attacks, even if successful, usually sustained severe casualties.The most prominent case of trench warfare occurred on the Western Front in World War I. A revolution in military arms and firepower made the newer weapons ridiculously powerful, but this was not matched by similar advances in mobility and body armor, so the trenches were the only place on a battlefield that offered any protection from the enemy. No man's land was fully exposed to artillery fire from both sides.

102. An armistice is a formal agreement of warring parties to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, since it might be just a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace but the attempt fails.

103. The Treaty of Versailles ended World War 1. France was absolutely committed to hurting Germany badly for punishment, and to make sure that Germany would never again posed a threat to France. As a result, the treaty was extremely punitive towards Germany. Several points in the treaty really stuck in Germany’s throat. One of the most important and controversial required Germany to accept responsibility for the war, which became known as the War Guilt clause. The treaty also forced Germany to disarm (disarmament is when a country either voluntarily or involuntarily eliminates or drastically cuts back on the amount of weaponry they possess)their military, make substantial territorial concessions (they lost all of their material possessions and some of their own territory as well), and pay massive reparations to certain countries that had formed the Allied/Entente powers, mainly France. The total cost of these reparations was assessed at 132 billion Marks (roughly equivalent in US money to $442 billion – another way to look at it is that this sum was equal to approximately half of the total amount of gold ever found). At the time economists, notably John Maynard Keynes predicted that the treaty was too harsh—a "Carthaginian peace" (Carthage was literally destroyed forever by the Roman legions) and said the figure was excessive and counter-productive. He was right.

104. The "Fourteen Points" was a statement by United States President Woodrow Wilson that the Great War was being fought for a moral cause and for postwar peace in Europe. People in Europe generally welcomed Wilson's intervention, but his main Allied

colleagues (Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George of the Great Britain, and Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy) were skeptical of the applicability of Wilsonian idealism.

105. The League of Nations was an organization for international cooperation established at the initiative of the victorious Allied Powers at the end of World War I. During the war influential groups in the United States and Britain had urged the creation of such a body, and U.S. President Woodrow Wilson strongly favored the idea as a means of preventing another destructive world conflict. A league covenant (contract) embodying the principles of collective security (joint action by League members against an aggressor), arbitration of international disputes, reduction of weapons, and open diplomacy, was formulated and subscribed to by the Allies at the Paris Peace Conference (1919). It never really worked; even though it was President Wilson’s plan (it was one of his famous 14 Points) Americans were deeply suspicious of this; many saw the possibility of the American government becoming subverted to the will of the League. As a result, America never joined the league and by the 1930’s, was rendered powerless. It suspended its activities during World War II and then was replaced after the war by the United Nations, which still exists today.

Demobilization, the Roaring 20’s, the Harlem Renaissance, the First Red Scare, the Fundamentalist Movement, the Beginning of the Black Civil Rights Movement, the Great

Depression, and the New Deal (Benchmarks SS.912.A.5.1 - SS.912.A.5.12)

106. Demobilization is the breaking down of the military and its soldiers once a war effort is completed. It is the antonym of mobilization, which refers to the gearing up of the military in preparation for an upcoming war.

107. Socialism is an economic system characterized by social ownership of the means of production and co-operative (people and government) management of the economy.

108. Communism is a revolutionary socialist movement to create a classless, moneyless, and stateless social order structured upon common (state) ownership of the means of production, as well as a social, political and economic ideology that aims at the establishment of this social order via dictatorship.

109. Anarchism is a political philosophy that favors stateless societies often defined as self-governed voluntary institutions. Several anarchist authors have defined this as more specific institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations. Anarchism believes that the state, meaning any national government, is undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful to the people.

110. The Red Scare had two phases, both being steeped in misinformation and xenophobia. The 1st Red Scare occurred after World War 1, once Americans had some time to digest exactly what Communism was and how this new governmental philosophy in Russia might affect America down the road. It became a nation-wide anti-communist/Socialist hysteria provoked by a fear that there would be a Communist revolution in America which would change every aspect of the American way of life. There was a second Red Scare in the 1950 after World War II (1939–45), and was popularly known as "McCarthyism" after its most famous supporter, Senator Joseph McCarthy. McCarthyism coincided with increased popular fear of communist espionage consequent to a Soviet Eastern Europe, the Berlin Blockade (1948–49), the Chinese Civil War (where the Chinese adopted Communism as a governmental form), the confessions

of spying for the Soviet Union given by several high-ranking U.S. government officials, and the Korean War, also a communist battle. McCarthy claimed that he had evidence of major politicians, political leaders, and celebrities that were actively aiding the Russians and other Communist organizations. He was lying and was never able to prosecute a single person and left office in disgrace. Today, McCarthyism stands for the practice of making formal accusations without proper regard for evidence. It also means the practice of making unfair allegations or using unfair investigative techniques.

111. The Dawes Plan was an attempt in 1924 to solve the German reparations problem, which had bedeviled international politics following World War I. The plan provided for a staggered payment plan for Germany's payment of war reparations. Because the plan resolved a serious international crisis, Dawes shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 1925 for his work.

112. Tariffs are taxes one country places on any goods being exported to that nation by another nation. This raises the price of the foreign goods, and gives an advantage to companies based in the home country. Tariffs are seen as protectionist because the main reason is to shelter American businesses and American jobs from foreign competition.

113. Flappers were a "new breed" of young Western women in the 1920s who wore short skirts, bobbed their hair, listened to jazz, and showed openly their disdain for what was then considered acceptable female behavior. Flappers were seen as brash for wearing excessive makeup, drinking and smoking, treating sex in a casual manner, driving automobiles, and otherwise doing things women were not supposed to be doing at that time – they ignored social and sexual norms. This movement of independence is one of the precursors to the women’s rights movement that began in the 1960’s.

114. The impact of climate and natural disasters in the 1920’s and 1930’s refers to the fact that the Florida land boom of the 1920's was interrupted by a series of natural disasters in Florida, including freezes which hurt citrus production, and major hurricanes, especially the 1926 storm, a category 4 to 5 hurricane by modern standards that absolutely devastated Miami and left a heavy trail of damage all the way up the state, even in Pensacola. In the Midwest, a long drought during the 1930s, particularly in 1934-1936, combined with farming methods that did not include crop rotation, fallow fields, cover crops, soil terracing and wind-breaking trees to prevent wind erosion, caused these disastrous storms to develop. Many people left their land and moved penniless to the east of west coasts, creating an even more desperate situation for cities during the Great Depression.

115. The Everglades National Park is a U.S. National Park in Florida that protects the southern 20 percent of the original Everglades. In the United States, it is the largest tropical wilderness, the largest wilderness of any kind east of the Mississippi River, and is visited on average by one million people each year. It has been declared an International Biosphere Reserve, a World Heritage Site, and a Wetland of International Importance, one of only three locations in the world to appear on all three lists.

116. The Jazz Age was a feature of the 1920s when jazz music and dancing became popular. This occurred particularly in the United States, but also later in Britain, France and elsewhere. Jazz played a significant part in wider cultural changes during the period, and its influence on pop culture continued long afterwards. Jazz music originated mainly in New Orleans, and is/was a fusion of African and European music. The Jazz Age is

often referred to in conjunction with the phenomenon referred to as the Roaring Twenties.

117. The Roaring Twenties is a term used to refer to the 1920s in the United States, Canada, and Western Europe, a period that’s characterized by the decade's distinctive cultural scene in New York City, Chicago, Paris, Berlin, London, Los Angeles, and many other major cities during this ten year period of sustained economic prosperity. The French called it the "années folles" ("Crazy Years"), emphasizing the era's social, artistic and cultural dynamism. American jazz music blossomed, the flapper redefined modern womanhood and Art Deco fashion styles peaked (the Art Deco style is most cleanly preserved in the architecture of South Beach). Economically the era saw the first large-scale use of automobiles, telephones, motion pictures, and electricity. It also marked a time of unprecedented industrial growth, accelerated consumer demand and aspirations, and significant (and positive) changes in the quality of life.

118. Constitutional Amendments related to this era: a. 16th: provided for a national income tax. Ratified in 1913.b. 17th: established the direct election of United States Senators by popular vote rather

than by the choice of state legislatures.c. 18th: established Prohibition; in other words, it made the manufacture, sale, transport,

and/or possession of alcoholic beverages illegal in the USA. Ratified in 1919.d. 19th: gave women the right to vote. Ratified in 1920.e. 21st: Repealed the 18th amendment and ended Prohibition. Ratified in 1933.

119. The Fordney–McCumber Tariff of 1922 raised American tariffs in order to protect American factories and farms. Congress displayed a pro-business attitude in passing the ad valorem tariff, but also promoted foreign trade through providing huge loans to Europe, which in turn bought more American goods.

120. The Teapot Dome scandal was a bribery incident that took place in the United States from 1920–1923, during the administration of President Warren G. Harding. Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall leased Navy petroleum reserves at Teapot Dome in Wyoming and two other locations in California to private oil companies at low rates without competitive bidding. In 1922 and 1923, the leases became the subject of a sensational investigation by Senator Thomas J. Walsh. Fall was later convicted of accepting bribes from the oil companies.

121. Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti (better known as Sacco and Vanzetti) were Italian-born anarchists (see below) who were convicted of murdering two men during the armed robbery of a shoe factory in Braintree, Massachusetts, United States in 1920. Both adhered to a strain of anarchism that advocated relentless warfare against a violent and oppressive government. After a few hours' deliberation, the jury found Sacco and Vanzetti guilty of first-degree murder on July 14, 1921. A series of appeals followed, funded largely by a private Sacco and Vanzetti Defense Committee. The appeals were based on recanted testimony, conflicting ballistics evidence, a prejudicial pre-trial statement by the jury foreman, and a confession by an alleged participant in the robbery. All appeals were denied by the original trial judge and eventually by the Massachusetts State Supreme Court. By 1925, the case had drawn worldwide attention. As details of the trial and the men's suspected innocence became known, Sacco and Vanzetti became the center of one of the largest international causes célèbres (an issue or incident arousing widespread controversy, outside campaigning and heated public debate) in modern

history. In 1927, protests on their behalf were held in every major city in North America and Europe, as well as Tokyo, Sydney, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, and Johannesburg. Celebrated writers, artists, and academics pleaded for their pardon or for a new trial. Nothing worked, however. Sacco and Vanzetti were sentenced to death in April 1927, accelerating the outcry. Responding to a massive influx of telegrams urging their pardon, Massachusetts governor Alvan Fuller appointed a three-man commission to investigate the case. After weeks of secret deliberation, which included interviews with the judge, lawyers, and several witnesses, the commission upheld the verdict. Sacco and Vanzetti were executed via electric chair on August 23, 1927. Subsequent riots destroyed property in Paris, London, and other cities around the world.

122. Anarchism is often defined as a political philosophy which holds the state and its governments to be undesirable, unnecessary, or harmful. It advocates a stateless society absent of any governmental bodies, where local communities of people make decisions voluntarily.

123. "A return to normalcy" (i.e. a return to the way of life before World War I) was United States presidential candidate Warren G. Harding’s campaign promise in the election of 1920. This pledge basically promised to return America to pre-WWI isolationism.

124. Four-Power Treaty, all parties agreement to respect the Pacific holdings of the other countries signing the agreement, to not seeking further territorial expansion, and promised mutual consultation with each other in the event of a dispute over territorial possessions.

125. The Kellogg–Briand Pact was a 1928 international agreement in which promised not to use war to resolve disputes or conflicts. Parties failing to abide by this promise would "be denied the benefits furnished by this treaty". It was signed by Germany, France and the United States on August 27, 1928, and by most other nations soon after. Sponsored by France and the U.S., the Pact renounced the use of war and called for the peaceful settlement of disputes.

126. The Neutrality Acts were passed by the United States Congress in the 1930s, in response to the growing problems in Europe and Asia that eventually led to World War II. The growth in isolationism and non-interventionism in the US following its costly involvement in World War I was the cause of these acts, and sought to ensure that the US would not become entangled again in foreign conflicts.

127. The Washington Naval Conference was a military conference called by President Warren G. Harding and held in Washington from 12 November 1921 to 6 February 1922. Conducted outside the auspices of the League of Nations, it was attended by nine nations—the United States, Japan, China, France, Britain, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Portugal—regarding interests in the Pacific Ocean and East Asia. Soviet Russia was not invited to the conference. It was the first international conference held in the United States and the first disarmament conference in history, and it is still studied by political scientists as a model for a successful disarmament movement.

128. Immigration vs. Nativism was a philosophical battle in the US in the 1920’s regarding whether or not the US should shut down its borders to immigrants (nativism) or continue to accept foreigners into the country as the US always had in the past. In the 1920’s, a quota system was put in place to limit immigration. It’s a battle that continues to this day, with each side of the issue having periods of dominance over the years.

129. Booker Taliaferro Washington (April 5, 1856 – November 14, 1915) was an African-American educator, author, orator, and advisor to Republican presidents. He was the dominant leader in the African-American community in the United States from 1890 to 1915. Representative of the last generation of black American leaders born in slavery, he spoke on behalf of the large majority of blacks who lived in the South but had lost their ability to vote through disfranchisement by southern legislatures. Historians note that Washington, "advised, networked, cut deals, made threats, pressured, punished enemies, rewarded friends, greased palms, manipulated the media, signed autographs, read minds with the skill of a master psychologist, strategized, raised money, always knew where the camera was pointing, traveled with an entourage, waved the flag with patriotic speeches, and claimed to have no interest in partisan politics. In other words, he was an artful politician."

130. W.E.B. Du Bois (February 23, 1868 – August 27, 1963) was an American sociologist, historian, civil rights activist, and author. After graduating from Harvard, where he was the first African American to earn a doctorate, he became a professor of history, sociology and economics at Atlanta University. Du Bois was one of the co-founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. Du Bois rose to national prominence as the leader of the Niagara Movement, a group of African-American activists who wanted equal rights for blacks. Du Bois and his supporters opposed the Atlanta Compromise, an agreement crafted by Booker T. Washington which provided that Southern blacks would work and submit to white political rule, while Southern whites guaranteed that blacks would receive basic educational and economic opportunities. Instead, Du Bois insisted on full civil rights and increased political representation, which he believed would be brought about by the African-American intellectual elite. He referred to this group as the talented tenth and believed that African Americans needed the chances for advanced education to develop its leadership.

131. Marcus Mosiah Garvey, Jr., (17 August 1887 – 10 June 1940), was a Jamaican political leader, publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, and orator who was a staunch proponent of the Black nationalism and Pan-Africanism movements, to which end he founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL). He founded the Black Star Line, part of the Back-to-Africa movement, which promoted the return of the African people to their ancestral lands.

132. Irving Berlin (May 11, 1888 – September 22, 1989) was a great American composer and lyricist of Belarusian Jewish origin in Russian Empire, nowadays Belarus), widely considered one of the greatest songwriters in American history. He published his first song, "Marie from Sunny Italy", in 1907 and had his first major international hit, "Alexander's Ragtime Band" in 1911.

133. Langston Hughes (February 1, 1902 – May 22, 1967) was an American poet, social activist, novelist, playwright, and columnist. He was one of the earliest innovators of the then-new literary art form jazz poetry. Hughes is best known for his work during the Harlem Renaissance.

134. The Harlem Renaissance was a black artistic movement in New York City in the 1920s, when writers, poets, painters, and musicians came together to express feelings and experiences, especially about the injustices of Jim Crow laws. A few of the leading

figures of the movement included Duke Ellington, Zora Neale Hurston, and Langston Hughes.

135. Mary Jane McLeod Bethune (July 10, 1875 – May 18, 1955) was an American educator and civil rights leader best known for starting a school for African-American students in Daytona Beach, Florida, that eventually became Bethune-Cookman University and for being an advisor to President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

136. A. Philip Randolph (April 15, 1889 – May 16, 1979) was a leader in the African-American civil-rights movement, the American labor movement and socialist political parties.

137. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was created in 1909 by a group of liberal thinkers (including Du Bois, Jane Addams and John Dewey). Its mission is "to ensure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination".

138. The Eighteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution established prohibition of alcoholic beverages in the United States, which made the production, transport and sale of alcohol illegal.

139. Fundamentalism is the demand for a strict adherence to specific Biblical doctrines, with the core idea that the Bible was the direct word of God in absolute. Often it is understood as a reaction against Modernist theology, which tended to dismiss some areas of the Bible while embracing others. The term "fundamentalism" was originally coined by its supporters to describe a movement within the Protestant community of the United States in the early part of the 20th century, and that had its roots in the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy of that time.

140. The Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits any United States citizen to be denied the right to vote based on sex. It was ratified on August 18, 1920.

141. The Rosewood massacre was a violent, racially motivated conflict that took place during the first week of January, 1923 in rural Levy County, Florida, United States. At least six blacks and two whites were killed, and the town of Rosewood was abandoned and destroyed in what contemporary news reports characterized as a race riot. Racial disturbances were common during the early 20th century in the United States, reflecting the nation's rapid social changes. Florida had an especially high number of lynchings in the years before the massacre.

142. The Volstead Act was enacted to carry out the intent of the Eighteenth Amendment, which established prohibition in the United States. The three distinct purposes of the Act were to prohibit intoxicating beverages, to regulate the manufacture, sale, or transport of intoxicating liquor, and to ensure an ample supply of alcohol and promote its use in scientific research and in the development of fuel, dye and other lawful industries and practices, such as religious rituals.

143. The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression in the decade preceding World War II. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, but in most countries it started in 1929-1930 and lasted until the late 1930’s or middle 1940’s. It was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century; some historians believe that it was the worst economic disaster in the history of civilization. The depression originated in the United States, after the fall in stock prices that began around September 4, 1929, and became worldwide news with the stock market

crash of October 29, 1929 (known as Black Tuesday). The Great Depression had devastating effects internationally. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%. Unemployment in the U.S. rose to 30+% and in some countries rose as high as 50%. Construction was virtually halted in most countries. Farming and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by approximately 60%. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s. In many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until after the end of World War II.

144. The Wall Street Crash of 1929, also known as Black Tuesday or the Stock Market Crash of 1929 began in late October of 1929 and was the most devastating stock market crash in the history of the United States, when taking into consideration the full extent and duration of its fallout. The crash signaled the beginning of the 10-year Great Depression that affected all Western industrialized countries. During that fateful month, there were actually three separate “black” days where the stock market showed major signs of weakness. On October 24, or "Black Thursday, the market lost 11 percent of its value at the opening bell on very heavy trading. Over the weekend, the events were covered by the newspapers across the United States and the panic deepened. On October 28, or Black Monday, the slide continued with a record loss for a day of 13%. The next day, the big one, Black Tuesday, October 29, 1929, another 12% loss continued the slide. The volume of stocks traded on October 29, 1929 was a record that was not broken for nearly 40 years. By the end of the slide in 1932 (yes three full years!) the stock market had lost 89% of its value.

145. The New Deal was a series of domestic programs enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1937. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as executive orders during the first term (1933–37) of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The programs were in response to the Great Depression, and focused on what historians call the "3 R’s": Relief, Recovery, and Reform, meaning relief for the unemployed and poor; recovery of the economy to normal levels; and reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression. Many historians distinguish between a "First New Deal" (1933–34) and a "Second New Deal" (1935–38), with the second one more liberal and more controversial. The "First New Deal" (1933–34) dealt with diverse groups, from banking and railroads to industry and farming, all of which demanded help for economic survival. The "Second New Deal" in 1935–38 included the Wagner Act to promote labor unions, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) relief program (which made the federal government by far the largest single employer in the nation), the Social Security Act, and new programs to aid farmers and migrant workers. The final major items of New Deal legislation were the creation of the United States Housing Authority and Farm Security Administration, both in 1937, and the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which set maximum hours and minimum wages for most categories of workers and eliminated child labor under the age of 14.

146. 1933 bank holidays were called by FDR on several occasions. By closing all the banks, FDR stopped the run on those financial institutions and also gave some comfort to the people who were worried about their bank accounts. After announcing he would close the banks, he told the public that federal examiners would check each and every bank closed. Those that were financially strong would be allowed to reopen. Those that were in bad shape would be closed, and those that needed help would be provided aid from the

federal government. It boosted the confidence of the public that the government was doing something to protect their money.

147. Bull markets are characterized by optimism, investor confidence and expectations that strong results will continue. Bear markets are the complete opposite, characterized by fear, pessimism, and a distinct lack of investor confidence. Bull markets see stock prices rising, while bear markets see stock prices plummeting. It's difficult to predict consistently when the trends in the market will change. Part of the difficulty is that psychological effects and speculation may sometimes play a large role in the markets. The use of "bull" and "bear" to describe markets comes from the way the animals attack their opponents. A bull thrusts its horns up into the air while a bear swipes its paws down. These actions are metaphors for the movement of a market. If the trend is up, it's a bull market. If the trend is down, it's a bear market.

148. The National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) was a law passed by the United States Congress in 1933 authorizing the President to regulate American industry in an attempt to raise prices after severe deflation during the first few years of the Great depression and to stimulate economic recovery. It also established a national public works program known as the Public Works Administration (PWA), an attempt to create jobs via the creation of a large-scale public works construction agency, the PWA. The law also created a new agency; the National Recovery Administration (NRA). The PWA built large-scale public works such as dams, bridges, hospitals, and schools, while the NRA became the primary New Deal agency established by President Franklin Roosevelt in 1933. Its goal was to eliminate "cut-throat competition" by bringing industry, labor and government together to create codes of fair practices and set fair prices. The NRA intended to reduce "destructive competition" and to help workers by setting minimum wages and maximum weekly hours, as well as minimum prices at which products could be sold.

149. The Dust Bowl, or the Dirty Thirties, was a period of severe dust storms causing major ecological and agricultural damage to American and Canadian prairie lands in the 1930s, particularly in 1934 and 1936. The phenomenon was caused by severe drought combined with farming methods that did not include crop rotation, fallow fields, cover crops, soil terracing and wind-breaking trees to prevent wind erosion.

150. The term business cycle (or the economic boom/bust cycle) refers to economy-wide fluctuations in production, trade and economic activity in general over several months or years in an economy organized on free-enterprise principles. The business cycle is the upward and downward movements of levels of GDP or GNP (Gross Domestic Product and Gross National Product) and refers to the period of expansions and contractions in the level of economic activities (business fluctuations) around its long-term growth trend. These fluctuations typically involve shifts over time between periods of relatively rapid economic growth (an expansion or boom), and periods of relative stagnation or decline (a contraction or recession which can in a worst case scenario become a depression). Business cycles are usually measured by considering the growth rate of real gross domestic product. A typical cycle is boom followed by recession followed by recovery, and then boom again. Despite being termed cycles, these fluctuations in economic activity do not follow a mechanical or predictable pattern.

151. Gross national product (GNP) is the market value of all the products and services produced in one year by labor and property supplied by the residents of a country.

152. Gross domestic product (GDP) is the market value of all officially recognized final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time.

153. A sit-down strike is a form of civil disobedience in which an organized group of workers, usually employed at a factory or other centralized location, take possession of the workplace by "sitting down" at their stations, effectively preventing their employers from replacing them with strikebreakers or, in some cases, moving production to other locations.

154. Buying on margin refers to the purchase of stocks by borrowing the necessary funds from a bank or stockbroker. Buying on margin refers to the initial payment made to the broker for the stock being purchased. The collateral for the funds being borrowed is the marginable securities in the investor's account – if the stock begins to fall, the bank or broker can call in your margin loan, forcing you to sell other stock assets to pay off the margin loan.

155. Speculation is the practice of engaging in risky financial transactions in an attempt to profit from short or medium term fluctuations in the market value of a tradable good such as a financial instrument, rather than attempting to profit from the underlying financial attributes embodied in the instrument such as capital gains, interest, or dividends. Speculators usually pay little attention to the fundamental value of a security and instead focus purely on price movements.

156. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) was a United States federal law of the New Deal era which restricted agricultural production by paying farmers not to plant on part of their land and/or to kill off excess livestock. Its purpose was to reduce crop surplus and therefore effectively raise the value of crops.

157. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) was a public work relief program that operated from 1933 to 1942 in the United States for unemployed, unmarried men from relief families, ages 18–25. It provided unskilled manual labor jobs related to the conservation and development of natural resources in rural lands owned by federal, state and local governments.

158. The Bonus Army was the popular name of an assemblage of some 43,000 marchers—17,000 World War I veterans, their families, and affiliated groups—who gathered in Washington, D.C., in the spring and summer of 1932 to demand cash-payment redemption of their service certificates which were not supposed to be paid off until 1945. Its organizers called it the Bonus Expeditionary Force to echo the name of World War I's American Expeditionary Forces, while the media called it the Bonus March. It was led by Walter W. Waters, a former army sergeant. The government refused to pay the certificates off and riots ensued. Several marchers were killed, many more wounded, and they were unceremoniously swept out of Washington, defeated by the military and police.

159. Many of the war veterans had been out of work since the beginning of the Great Depression. The World War Adjusted Compensation Act of 1924 had awarded them bonuses in the form of certificates they could not redeem until 1945. Each service certificate, issued to a qualified veteran soldier, bore a face value equal to the soldier's

promised payment plus compound interest. The principal demand of the Bonus Army was the immediate cash payment of their certificates.

160. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) is a United States government corporation operating as an independent agency created by the Banking Act of 1933. As of January 2013, it provides deposit insurance guaranteeing the safety of a bank depositor's accounts in member banks up to $250,000 for each deposit.

161. The Social Security Act of 1935 provided benefits to retirees and the unemployed, and a lump-sum benefit at death. Payments to current retirees are financed by a payroll tax on current workers' wages, half directly as a payroll tax and half paid by the employer. The act also gave money to states to provide assistance to aged individuals (Title I), for unemployment insurance (Title III), Aid to Families with Dependent Children (Title IV), Maternal and Child Welfare (Title V), public health services (Title VI), and the blind (Title X).

162. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) was the primary New Deal agency established by U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) in 1933. The goal was to eliminate "cut-throat competition" by bringing industry, labor and government together to create codes of "fair practices" and set prices.

163. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is a federally owned corporation in the United States created by congressional charter in May 1933 to provide navigation, flood control, electricity generation, fertilizer manufacturing, and economic development in the Tennessee Valley, a region particularly affected by the Great Depression. The TVA was envisioned not only as a provider, but also as a regional economic development agency that would use federal experts and electricity to rapidly modernize the region's economy and society.

164. The Works Progress Administration (renamed in 1939 as the Work Projects Administration; WPA) was the largest and most ambitious New Deal agency, employing millions of unemployed people (mostly unskilled men) to carry out public works projects, including the construction of public buildings and roads. In much smaller but more famous projects the WPA employed musicians, artists, writers, actors and directors in large arts, drama, media, and literacy projects.

165. The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (also known as the Wagner Act) is a US labor law which guarantees basic rights of private sector employees to organize into trade unions, engage in collective bargaining for better terms and conditions at work, and take collective action including strike if necessary. The act also created the National Labor Relations Board which conducts elections which, if voted in favor of representation, awards labor unions (also known as trade unions) with a requirement for the employer to engage in collective bargaining with this union.

166. The Smoot-Hawley Tariff was an act sponsored by Senator Reed Smoot and Representative Willis C. Hawley and signed into law on June 17, 1930, that raised U.S. tariffs on over 20,000 imported goods to record levels. The act, and the ensuing retaliatory tariffs by foreign trading partners, reduced American exports and imports by more than half. Economists agree that Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act increased the severity of the Great Depression.

167. The Seminole Indians are a Native American people originally from Florida. Today, most live in Oklahoma reservations with a minority in Florida. The Seminole nation emerged in a process of ethnogenesis out of several groups of Native Americans,

most significantly Creek Indians and from northern Muscogee Indians. During their early decades, the Seminole became increasingly independent of other Creek groups and established their own identity. They developed a thriving trade network in the British and second Spanish periods (roughly 1767–1821). The tribe expanded considerably during this time, and was further supplemented from the late 18th century by free black people and escaped enslaved people who settled near and paid tribute to Seminole towns. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the tribe was forced out of Florida to reservations in Oklahoma. Fewer than 200 Seminoles were left, but they initiated a comeback and today the tribe is a very vocal and very important part of the Florida experience. The following idea started with the Seminoles - in the late 1970s the tribe won numerous court challenges to initiate Indian Gaming, which many tribes have adopted to generate revenues for welfare, education and development. The Seminoles started with a bingo hall; today, the Seminole Hard Rock Casinos is what it turned into. Not bad, huh?

Pre Through Post World War II and the Beginning of the Cold War (i.e. the Foreign and Domestic Policy Events Involving the Cold War During the

Truman and Eisenhower Administrations)(Benchmarks SS.912.A.6.1 - SS.912.A.6.12

168. The Atlantic Charter was a pivotal policy statement first issued in August 1941 that early in World War II defined the Allied goals for the post-war world. It was drafted by Britain and the United States, and later agreed to by all the Allies. The Charter stated the ideal goals of the war: no territorial aggrandizement; no territorial changes made against the wishes of the people; restoration of self-government to those deprived of it; free access to raw materials; reduction of trade restrictions; global cooperation to secure better economic and social conditions for all; freedom from fear and want; freedom of the seas; and abandonment of the use of force, as well as disarmament of aggressor nations.

169. The Neutrality Acts were passed by the United States Congress in the 1930s, in response to the growing turmoil in Europe and Asia that eventually led to World War II. They were spurred by the growth in isolationism and non-interventionism in the US following its costly involvement in World War I, and sought to ensure that the US would not become entangled again in foreign conflicts. The legacy of the Neutrality Acts is widely regarded as having been generally negative: they made no distinction between aggressor and victim, treating both equally as "belligerents"; and they limited the US government's ability to aid Britain and France against Nazi Germany. The acts were largely repealed in 1941, in the face of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

170. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 is the direct reason why the USA entered World War II. The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike conducted by the Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The attack was intended to prevent US action interfering with military goals the Empire of Japan was planning in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States. The base was attacked by 353 Japanese fighter planes, bombers, and torpedo planes in two waves, launched from six aircraft carriers. All eight U.S. Navy battleships were damaged, with four being sunk. All but one (The USS Arizona) were later raised, and six of the eight battleships were returned to service and went on to fight in the war. 2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 others were wounded.

171. The Home Front during World War II covers the activities of the civilians in our nation while at war. World War II was a total war; homeland production became more valuable to both the Allied and Axis powers than ever before. Life on the home front during World War II was a significant part of the war effort for all participants and had a major impact on the outcome of the war. Governments became involved with new issues such as rationing, manpower allocation, home defense, evacuation in the face of air raids, and response to occupation by an enemy power. The morale and psychology of the people responded to leadership and propaganda. Women were mobilized to an unprecedented degree, both at home and in the military. The success in mobilizing economic output was a major factor in supporting combat operations. All of the powers involved had learned from their experiences during World War I and tried to use its lessons and avoid making errors. In the United States, farming and other production was increased. For example, citizens were encouraged to plant "victory gardens", personal farms that families worked on that would make up for shortages in vegetables and fruits as a result of rationing.

172. The internment of Japanese Americans was the World War II confinement of approximately 120,000 people of Japanese heritage who lived on the Pacific coast of the United States. The U.S. government ordered the confinement of Japanese Americans in 1942, shortly after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor. The internment was applied unequally as a geographic matter: almost all who lived on the West Coast were sent to camps, while in Hawaii, where 150,000-plus Japanese Americans comprised over one-third of the population, only 1,200 to 1,800 were interned. Sixty-two percent of the internees were American citizens. Many of the confined families had relatives fighting for America in the war.

173. The Battle of the Coral Sea, fought during May 4–8, 1942, was a major naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II between the Imperial Japanese Navy and naval and air forces from the United States and Australia. The battle marked the first action in which aircraft carriers engaged each other, as well as the first in which neither side's ships sighted or fired directly upon the other. Although a tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk, the battle would prove to be a strategic victory for the Allies for several reasons. First, the battle marked the first time since the start of the war that major Japanese naval advance had been stopped by the Allies. Secondly, the Japanese fleet carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku – one damaged and the other with a no aircraft to launch from it – were unable to participate in the Battle of Midway, which took place the following month, ensuring a rough parity in aircraft between the two adversaries and contributing significantly to the US victory in that battle (Midway along with the battle of the Coral Sea is considered by most historians to be the turning point in the Pacific war against Japan). The severe losses in carriers at Midway prevented the Japanese from attempting to take any more Pacific islands. Two months after Midway, the Allies took advantage of Japan's vulnerability in the South Pacific and launched the Guadalcanal Campaign that, along with the New Guinea Campaign, eventually broke Japanese defenses in the South Pacific and was a significant contributing factor to Japan's ultimate defeat in World War II.

174. Lend-Lease (enacted March 11, 1941) was the law that started a program under which the United States of America supplied the United Kingdom, the USSR, Republic of China, Free France, and other Allied nations with materiel between 1941 and 1945. It

was signed into law on March 11, 1941, a year and a half after the outbreak of World War II in Europe in September 1939. This was nine months before the U.S. entered the war in December 1941. The Act effectively ended the United States' pretense of neutrality. A total of $50.1 billion (equivalent to $639 billion today) worth of supplies were shipped: $31.4 billion to Britain, $11.3 billion to the Soviet Union, $3.2 billion to France, $1.6 billion to China, and smaller sums to other Allies.

175. The Normandy landings, codenamed Operation Neptune and/or Operation Overlord were the landing operations of the Allied invasion of Normandy, during World War II. The landings commenced on Tuesday, June 6, 1944 (D-Day), beginning at 6:30 am. In planning, as for most Allied operations, the term D-Day was used for the day of the actual landing, which was dependent on final approval. The landings were conducted in two phases: an airborne assault landing of 24,000 British, American, Canadian and Free French airborne troops shortly after midnight, and an amphibious landing of Allied infantry and armored divisions on the coast of France starting at 6:30 am. Some surprise was achieved thanks to inclement weather and a comprehensive deception plan implemented in the months before the landings, although it does appear that the Germans knew it was coming, but were unsure where exactly the attack would focus on.

176. The Allied Invasion of Italy was the Allied landing on mainland Italy on 3 September 1943, by General Harold Alexander's 15th Army Group (comprising Lieutenant General Mark Clark's U.S. Fifth Army and General Bernard Montgomery's British Eighth Army) during the Second World War. The operation followed the successful invasion of Sicily during the Italian Campaign. The main invasion force landed around Salerno on the western coast in Operation Avalanche, while two supporting operations took place in Calabria (Operation Baytown) and Taranto (Operation Slapstick).

177. Victory in Europe Day—known as V-E Day or VE Day—was the public holiday celebrated on 8 May 1945 (in Commonwealth countries, 7 May 1945) to mark the date when the World War II Allies formally accepted the unconditional surrender of the armed forces of Nazi Germany and the end of Adolf Hitler's Third Reich, thus ending the war in Europe.

178. Cash and carry was a policy requested by U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt at a special session of the United States Congress on September 21, 1939. It replaced the Neutrality Acts of 1936. The revision allowed the sale of material to belligerents, as long as the recipients arranged for the transport using their own ships and paid immediately in cash, assuming all risk in transportation.

179. Hiroshima and Nagasaki are the two Japanese cities that were chosen to be the targets of the first (and only) wartime use of nuclear weapons. A uranium gun-type atomic bomb (Little Boy) was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, followed by a plutonium implosion-type bomb (Fat Man) on the city of Nagasaki on August 9. Within the first two to four months of the bombings, the acute effects of the atomic bombings killed 90,000–166,000 people in Hiroshima and 39,000–80,000 in Nagasaki; roughly half of the deaths in each city occurred on the first day. During the following months, large numbers died from the effect of burns, radiation sickness, and other injuries, compounded by illness and malnutrition. In both cities, most of the dead were civilians.

180. Victory over Japan Day (also known as Victory in the Pacific Day, V-J Day, or V-P Day) is a name chosen for the day on which Japan surrendered, effectively ending World War II, and subsequent anniversaries of that event. The term has been applied to both of the days on which the initial announcement of Japan's surrender was made – to the afternoon of August 15, 1945, in Japan, and, because of time zone differences, to August 14, 1945 (when it was announced in the United States and the rest of the Americas and Eastern Pacific Islands) – as well as to September 2, 1945, when the signing of the surrender document occurred, officially ending World War II.

181. The Final Solution AKA Final Solution to the Jewish Question refers to Nazi Germany's plan during World War II to systematically rid the world of the Jewish population through genocide. This policy was formulated in procedural terms at the Wannsee Conference in January 1942, and culminated in the mass murder of two thirds of the Jewish population of Europe, as well as other “undesirables”. These included Gypsies, Poles and other Slavs, as well as people with physical or mental disabilities, Jehovah's Witnesses, homosexuals, Communists, and Socialists. This mass murder of between 6 and 15 million people by Hitler’s Nazi regime is collectively referred to as “the Holocaust”.

182. Loyalty Review Boards were created in response to public fears and Congressional investigations into communism in the United States. President Harry S. Truman issues an executive decree establishing a sweeping loyalty investigation of federal employees as fears concerning communist activity in the United States, particularly in the federal government, increased. Congress had already launched investigations of communist influence in Hollywood, and laws banning communists from teaching positions were being instituted in several states. Of most concern to the Truman administration, however, were persistent charges that communists were operating in government offices. In response to these fears and concerns, Truman issued an executive order on March 21, 1947, which set up the Loyalty Review Program which in turn created the Loyalty review Boards to check the loyalty of federal employees. In announcing his order, Truman indicated that he expected all federal workers to demonstrate "complete and unswerving loyalty" the United States. Anything less, he declared, "constitutes a threat to our democratic processes."

183. National Security refers to the requirement of the government to maintain the survival of the United States through the use of economic power, diplomacy, military power, and political power. The concept developed mostly in the United States after World War II.

184. The Cold War, often dated from 1947 to 1991, was a sustained state of political and military tension between powers in the Western Bloc, dominated by the United States with NATO among its allies, and powers in the Eastern Bloc, dominated by the Soviet Union along with the Warsaw Pact.

185. The Iron Curtain symbolized the ideological conflict and physical boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1991. The term symbolized efforts by the Soviet Union to block itself and its dependent and central European allies off from open contact with the west and non-communist areas.

186. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949.

The organization constitutes a system of collective defense whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, one of the 28 member states across North America and Europe, the newest of which, Albania and Croatia, joined in April 2009.

187. George Frost Kennan (February 16, 1904 – March 17, 2005) was an American adviser, diplomat, political scientist, and historian, best known as "the father of containment" and as a key figure in the emergence of the Cold War. He later wrote standard histories of the relations between Russia and the Western powers. He was also a core member of the group of foreign policy elders known as "The Wise Men". In the late 1940s, his writings inspired the Truman Doctrine and the U.S. foreign policy of "containing" the Soviet Union, thrusting him into a lifelong role as a leading authority on the Cold War.

188. George Catlett Marshall, Jr. GCB (December 31, 1880 – October 16, 1959), was an American military leader, Chief of Staff of the Army, Secretary of State, and the third Secretary of Defense. Once noted as the "organizer of victory" by Winston Churchill for his leadership of the Allied victory in World War II, Marshall served as the United States Army Chief of Staff during the war and as the chief military adviser to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. As Secretary of State, his name was given to the Marshall Plan, which was based on a speech made as the commencement address at Harvard in the spring of 1947, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953. The Marshall Plan (officially the plan’s name was the European Recovery Program (ERP), was the American initiative to aid Europe, in which the United States gave $17 billion (approximately $160 billion in current dollar value) in economic support to help rebuild European economies after the end of World War II. The idea was to keep the Soviet Union from going into these war-torn nations and attempting to help their recovery, as the fear was that the Soviets wouldn’t leave and would attempt to turn that nation communist.

189. The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was the American program to aid Europe, in which the United States gave economic support to help rebuild European economies after the end of World War II in order to prevent the spread of Soviet Communism. The plan was in operation for four years beginning in April 1948.

190. The Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance (1955–1991), more commonly referred to as the Warsaw Pact, was a mutual defense treaty between eight communist states of Central and Eastern Europe in existence during the Cold War. The founding treaty was established under the initiative of the Soviet Union and signed on 14 May 1955, in Warsaw.

191. The Berlin blockade (24 June 1948 – 12 May 1949) was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of post–World War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under Allied control. Their aim was to force the western powers to allow the Soviet zone to start supplying Berlin with food and fuel, thereby giving the Soviets practical control over the entire city. In response, the Western Allies organized the Berlin airlift to carry supplies to the people in West Berlin. Aircrews from the United States Air Force, the British Royal Air Force, the Royal Australian Air Force, Royal Canadian Air Force, Royal New Zealand Air Force, and South African Air Force

flew over 200,000 flights in one year, providing up to 4700 tons of daily necessities such as fuel and food to the Berliners.

192. The Dumbarton Oaks Conference was an international conference at which the United Nations was formulated and negotiated among international leaders. The conference was held at Dumbarton Oaks from August 21, 1944 through October 7, 1944.

193. The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization established on October 24, 1945, to promote international cooperation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was created following the Second World War to prevent another such conflict. At its founding, the UN had 51 member states; there are now 193. The organization is financed by voluntary contributions from its member states. Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security, promoting human rights, fostering social and economic development, protecting the environment, and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine, natural disaster, and armed conflict.

194. The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military trials, held by the Allied forces of World War II, most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of Nazi Germany. The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg, The first and best known of these trials, described as "the greatest trial in history" by Norman Birkett, one of the British judges who presided over it, was the Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal (IMT) held between November of 1945 and October of 1946.

195. The Tehran Conference was a strategy meeting held between Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill from 28 November to 1 December 1943. It was held in the Soviet Embassy in Tehran, Iran and was the first of the World War II conferences held between all of the "Big Three" Allied leaders (the Soviet Union, the United States, and the United Kingdom). It closely followed the Cairo Conference and preceded both the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences. Although all three of the leaders present arrived with differing objectives, the main outcome of the Tehran Conference was the commitment to the opening of a second front against Nazi Germany by the Western Allies.

196. The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference and codenamed the Argonaut Conference, held February 4–11, 1945, was the World War II meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and General Secretary Joseph Stalin, respectively, for the purpose of discussing Europe's post-war reorganization. The conference convened in the Livadia Palace near Yalta, in the Crimea.

197. The Potsdam Conference was held at Cecilienhof, the home of Crown Prince Wilhelm Hohenzollern, in Potsdam, occupied Germany, from July 17 to August 2, 1945. (In some older documents it is also referred to as the Berlin Conference of the Three Heads of Government of the USSR, USA and UK [2][3]) Participants were the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States. The three powers were represented by Communist Party General Secretary Joseph Stalin, Prime Ministers Winston Churchill,[4] and, later, Clement Attlee,[5] and President Harry S. Truman. Stalin, Churchill, and Truman—as well as Attlee, who participated alongside Churchill while awaiting the outcome of the 1945 general election, and then replaced Churchill as Prime Minister after the Conservative's defeat to the Labour Party—gathered to decide how to administer

punishment to the defeated Nazi Germany, which had agreed to unconditional surrender nine weeks earlier, on 8 May (V-E Day). The goals of the conference also included the establishment of post-war order, peace treaties issues, and countering the effects of the war.

198. The Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, also known informally as the G.I. Bill of Rights, was a law that provided a range of benefits for returning World War II veterans (commonly referred to as G.I.s). Benefits included low-cost mortgages, low-interest loans to start a business, cash payments of tuition and living expenses to attend university, high school or vocational education, as well as one year of unemployment compensation. By 1956, roughly 2.2 million veterans had used the G.I. Bill education benefits in order to attend colleges or universities, and an additional 5.6 million used these benefits for some kind of job training program. The G.I. Bill was a major factor in the creation of the American middle class, but also substantially increased racial inequality because many of the benefits of the G.I. Bill were not granted to soldiers of color.

199. The Berlin Blockade (June 24, 1948 –May 12, 1949) was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of post–World War II Germany (USA, Britain, France, and he Soviet Union), the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under allied control because the Western sections of Berlin had introduced a new German currency called the Deutschmark. The Soviets offered to drop the blockade if the Western Allies withdrew the Deutschmark from being used in West Berlin. In response, the Western Allies organized the Berlin Airlift to carry supplies to the people in West Berlin. Aircrews from the United States Air Force, the British Royal Air Force, the Royal Canadian Air Force, the Royal Australian Air Force, the Royal New Zealand Air Force, and the South African Air Force flew over 200,000 flights in one year, providing up to 4,700 tons of necessities daily, such as fuel and food, to the West Berliners. Neither side wanted a war; as a result, the Soviets did not disrupt the airlift. By the spring of 1949 the airlift was clearly succeeding, and by April it was delivering more cargo than had previously been transported into the city by rail. On May 11, 1949, the USSR lifted the blockade of West Berlin. However, this crisis highlighted the competing ideological, political, and economic visions for postwar Europe, particularly Germany. The clash ultimately led to the division of that country into East Germany and West Germany in 1949, a division that didn’t end until 1989.

200. The Truman Doctrine was an international relations policy set forth by the U.S. President Harry Truman in a speech on March 12, 1947, which stated that the U.S. would support Greece and Turkey with economic and military aid to prevent them from falling into the Soviet sphere. Historians often consider it to be the start of the Cold War, and the start of the containment policy to stop Soviet expansion.

201. Containment was a United States policy using numerous strategies to prevent the spread of communism abroad. A component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to enlarge communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, Africa , and Vietnam. It represented a middle-ground position between isolationism, détente and rollback.

202. The domino theory was a theory prominent from the 1950s to the 1980’s that evinced the belief that if one nation in a region came under the influence of communism,

then the surrounding countries would follow in a domino effect; if one fell, the others would fall as well.

203. The Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways (commonly known as the Interstate Highway System) is a network of freeways that forms a part of the National Highway System of the United States. The system is named for President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who championed its formation. Construction was authorized by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, and the original portion was completed 35 years later. The network has since been extended, and as of 2012, it had a total length of 47,714 miles, making it the world's second longest highway system after China's.

204. A suburb is a residential area either existing as part of a city (urban area) or as a separate residential community within commuting distance of the city. In most English-speaking regions, suburban areas are defined in contrast to central or inner-city areas and tend to be somewhat more affluent (wealthy) comparative to urban areas.

205. Women in the workforce earning wages or a salary are part of a modern phenomenon, one that developed at the same time as the growth of paid employment for men. However, women have been challenged by prejudice and discrimination in the workforce in many areas. Until the last 50-100 years in America, legal and cultural practices, combined with the influence of longstanding religious and educational conventions, restricted women's entry and participation in the workforce. The result has been economic dependency upon men, and consequently women have traditionally suffered from a poor socioeconomic status. As professional occupations and formal education has become increasingly more open to women, their situation has dramatically improved, albeit not to the same status of men. Women's lack of access to higher education effectively excluded them from the practice of well-paid and high status professional occupations. Entry of women into the higher professions like law and medicine was delayed in most countries due to women being denied entry to universities and qualification for degrees; for example, Cambridge University only fully validated degrees for women late in 1947, and even then only after much opposition and acrimonious debate. Women were largely limited to low-paid and poor status occupations for most of the 19th and 20th centuries, or earned less pay than men for doing the same work. However, throughout the 20th century, public perceptions of paid work shifted as the workforce increasingly moved to office jobs that do not require heavy labor, and women increasingly acquired the higher education that led to better-compensated, longer-term careers rather than lower-skilled, shorter-term jobs.

206. The nuclear arms race was a competition for supremacy in nuclear warfare between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies during the Cold War and was a large part of the race to see which nation was the world’s most powerful superpower. This superpower competition was also evident in the Korean and Vietnam Wars, the Space Race and with Olympic competitions as well. During the Cold War, in addition to the American and Soviet nuclear stockpiles, other countries developed nuclear weapons, though none engaged in warhead production on nearly the same scale as the two superpowers. None of these defensive measures were secure, and by the late 1950’s both the United States and Soviet Union had enough nuclear missiles that each could obliterate the other side. Both sides developed the capability to launch a devastating attack even after sustaining a full assault from the other

side This policy was part of what became known as Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD); both sides knew that any attack upon the other would be devastating to themselves, thus in theory restraining them from initiating an attack. Later on both the soviets and Americans wanted to stop nuclear proliferation, or the spread of nuclear war capabilities to other nations. While this effort has been somewhat successful, there are four nations currently that either have nuclear weapons or are attempting to create them that are troubling to say the least (North Korea and Iran are in the process of creating a nuclear war program, and India and Pakistan, longtime enemies, already have nuclear capacity).

207. John Foster Dulles (February 25, 1888 – May 24, 1959) served as U.S. Secretary of State under Republican President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. He was a significant figure in the early Cold War era, advocating an aggressive moralistic stance against communism throughout the world. He negotiated numerous treaties and alliances to bring that about. He advocated support of the French in their war against the Viet Minh in Indochina but rejected the Geneva Accords that France and the Communists agreed to, and instead supported South Vietnam after the Geneva Conference in 1954.

208. The Korean War was fought from June 25, 1950 till July 27, 1953. Technically, it was between North and South Korea for control of the peninsula, but the reality was it was a Cold War conflict between the Democratic USA and Communist China and the Soviet Union. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the closing days of World War II. In August of 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan and—by agreement with the United States—occupied Korea north of the 38th parallel. U.S. forces subsequently occupied the south. By 1948, two separate governments had been set up. Both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of Korea, and neither side accepted the 38th parallel border as permanent. North Korean forces - supported by the Soviet Union and China—invaded South Korea on June 25, 1950 and pushed the democratic South Korean forces back into the southeastern corner of the peninsula. The United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire, which was ignored. On June 27, 1950, the UN Security Council decided to dispatch U.N. Forces to support South Korea, with the United States in the lead role. This war featured a United Nations force led by the United States of America fighting for the South, and a North Korean side whose main firepower came from mainly China with support from the Soviet Union. Outmaneuvered and suffering heavy casualties in the first two months of the conflict, South Korean forces were forced back to the Pusan perimeter. The arrival of the UN forces allowed the South Koreans to push the North Koreans and Chinese northward almost to the Chinese border, but then china redoubled their manpower and efforts and drove the South Koreans and UN forces back to the 38th parallel. The last two years of the war saw mostly a stalemate. The fighting ended on July 27, 1953, when the armistice agreement was signed. The agreement established a new border between the Koreas close to the previous one and created the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), a 2.5-mile (4.0 km)-wide fortified buffer zone between the two nations. Border incidents have continued to the present, and tensions between the two remain high. Note that the Korean War never officially ended; no peace treaty was signed or even discussed. The armistice still holds. For now.

Post-World War II Prosperity, The Foreign and Domestic Policy Events of the Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon Administrations, the Civil Rights Movement, Supreme Court Activism

Regarding Civil Rights (Warren and Burger Courts), the Vietnam War, the Women’s Rights Movement, and Watergate

(Benchmarks SS.912.A.6.13 - SS.912.A.7.13)

209. Hawks are politicians who are in favor of a strong military and who are not shy about engaging in war if the situation calls for it. Doves are politicians who are generally against war as a means of resolving conflicts and tend to rely on diplomacy and deal making to solve problems between nations

210. Panmunjom, located in Gyeonggi Province, is an abandoned village on the de facto border between North and South Korea, where the 1953 Korean Armistice Agreement that paused the Korean War was signed. The building where the armistice was signed still stands. Its name is often used as a metonym for the nearby Joint Security Area (JSA), where discussions between North and South still take place in blue buildings that straddle the Military Demarcation Line. As such, it is considered one of the last vestiges of the Cold War.

211. The South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was an international organization for collective defense in Southeast Asia created by the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, or Manila Pact, signed in September 1954 in Manila, Philippines. The formal institution of SEATO was established on 19 February 1955 at a meeting of treaty partners in Bangkok, Thailand.[1] The organization's headquarters were also in Bangkok. Eight members joined the organization.

212. The Cuban missile crisis was a 13-day confrontation in October 1962 between the United States and the Soviet Union over Soviet ballistic missiles deployed in Cuba. It played out on television worldwide and was the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full scale nuclear war. In response to the failed Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961, and the presence of American Jupiter ballistic missiles in Italy and Turkey against the USSR with Moscow within range, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev decided to agree to Cuba's request to place nuclear missiles in Cuba to deter future harassment of Cuba. An agreement was reached during a secret meeting between Khrushchev and Fidel Castro in July and construction on a number of missiles sites started later that summer.An election was underway in the U.S. and the White House had denied Republican charges that it was ignoring dangerous Soviet missiles 90 miles from Florida. These missile preparations were confirmed when an Air Force U-2 spy plane produced clear photographic evidence of medium-range and intermediate-range ballistic missile facilities. The United States established a military blockade to prevent further missiles from entering Cuba. It announced that they would not permit offensive weapons to be delivered to Cuba and demanded that the weapons already in Cuba be dismantled and returned to the USSR.After a period of tense negotiations an agreement was reached between Kennedy and Khrushchev. Publicly, the Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba and return them to the Soviet Union, subject to United Nations verification, in exchange for a US public declaration and agreement never to invade Cuba without direct provocation. Secretly, the US also agreed that it would dismantle all US-built Jupiter MRBMs, which

were deployed in Turkey and Italy against the Soviet Union but were not known to the public.

213. The Vietnam War was a Cold War-era conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from November 1, 1955 to the fall of Saigon on April 30, 1975. This war was fought between North Vietnam—supported by the Soviet Union, China and other communist allies—and the government of South Vietnam—supported by the United States and other anti-communist allies. The Viet Cong (also known as the National Liberation Front, or NLF), a South Vietnamese communist group aided by the North Vietnamese, fought a guerrilla war against anti-communist forces in the region. The People's Army of Vietnam (also known as the North Vietnamese Army) engaged in a more conventional war, at times committing large units to battle. As the war wore on, the part of the Viet Cong in the fighting decreased and the role of the NVA grew. U.S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, and airstrikes. In the course of the war, the U.S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam and surrounding areas. The U.S. government viewed American involvement in the war as a way to prevent a Communist takeover of South Vietnam and the Indochina peninsula as a whole (Domino theory). This was part of a wider containment strategy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. According to this theory, if one state went Communist, other states in the region would follow, and U.S. policy thus held that Communist rule over all of Vietnam was unacceptable. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam under communist rule. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina. UU.S. involvement massively escalated following the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident, in which a U.S. destroyer clashed with North Vietnamese fast attack craft, which was followed by the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which gave the U.S. President (Lyndon B. Johnson at the time) authorization to increase the U.S. military presence. Regular U.S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965 and escalated each year through 1968.

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Operations crossed international borders: bordering areas of Laos and Cambodia were heavily bombed by U.S. forces in an attempt to stop supplies flowing over the border to North Vietnamese forces. American involvement in the war peaked in 1968, the same year that the communist side launched the Tet Offensive. The Tet Offensive failed in its goal of overthrowing the South Vietnamese government but became the turning point in the war, as it persuaded a large segment of the United States population that its government's claims of progress toward winning the war were untrue despite many years of massive U.S. military and financial aid to South Vietnam. Disillusionment with the war, especially with the younger generation of people in the U.S. led to a large anti-war movement developing. Protests erupted all over the United States, from college campuses to the 1968 Democratic National Convention. This movement was part of a larger Youth Counterculture of the 1960’s, which identified with the rejection of conventional social norms of the 1950’s, especially the cultural standards of their parents, with respect to racial segregation and blind support for the Vietnam War and, less directly, the Cold War - with many young people fearing that America's nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union, coupled with its involvement in Vietnam, would lead to a nuclear holocaust. This created political pressure to end American involvement in Vietnam and led to the gradual withdrawal of U.S. ground forces as part of a policy known as Vietnamization, which aimed to end American involvement in the war while transferring the task of fighting the Communists to the South Vietnamese themselves. Despite the Paris Peace Accords, which was signed by all parties in January 1973 to supposedly end the war, the fighting continued so the accords were an utter failure. In the U.S. and the Western world, it all ended with the Case–Church Amendment of 1974, a

law passed by the U.S. Congress which moved to bring all American soldiers home. The capture of Saigon (South Vietnam’s capital) by the North Vietnamese Army in April of 1975 marked the end of the Vietnam War, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities; estimates of the number of Vietnamese service members and civilians killed vary from 800,000 to 3.1 million. 58,220 U.S. service members also died in the conflict.

214. Indochina is a peninsula in Southeast Asia lying roughly southwest of China, and east of India. Indochinese boundaries now encompass modern Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam. This is where the USA fought the Vietnam War.

215. The Tet Offensive was a military campaign during the Vietnam War that was launched on January 30, 1968 by forces of the Viet Cong and North Vietnam against South Vietnam, the United States, and their allies. It was a campaign of surprise attacks that were launched against military and civilian command and control centers throughout South Vietnam, during a period when no attacks were supposed to take place. The operations are referred to as the Tet Offensive because there was a prior agreement to "cease fire" during the Tet Lunar New Year celebrations. Both North and South Vietnam announced on national radio broadcasts that there would be a two-day cease-fire during the holiday. Nonetheless, the Communists launched an attack that began during the early morning hours of 30 January 1968, the first day of Tet.

216. Sputnik I was the first artificial Earth satellite. It was a 585 mm (23 in) diameter polished metal sphere, with four external radio antennae to broadcast radio pulses. The Soviet Union launched it into an elliptical low Earth orbit on 4 October 1957. It was visible all around the Earth and its radio pulses detectable. The surprise success precipitated the American Sputnik crisis, began the Space Age and triggered the Space Race, a part of the larger Cold War.

217. A baby boomer is a person who was born during the demographic post-World War II baby boom between the years 1945 and 1958. During this period, the birth rate in the United States (and many other areas as well increased greatly. The chart below

shows just how the birth rate changed post world war II:

218. The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) was a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution designed to guarantee equal rights for women. In 1972, it passed both houses of Congress and went to the state legislatures for ratification. The ERA failed to receive the requisite number of ratifications before the final deadline mandated by Congress of June 30, 1982 expired, and so it was not adopted, largely because anti-feminist activist Phyllis Schlafly mobilized conservatives to oppose the ERA.

219. The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 was signed by Lyndon B. Johnson on August 20, 1964, was central to Johnson's Great Society campaign and its War on Poverty. Implemented by the since disbanded Office of Economic Opportunity, the Act included several social programs to promote the health, education, and general welfare of the impoverished. Although most of the initiatives in the Act have since been modified, weakened, or altogether rolled back, its remaining programs include Head Start and Job Corps.

220. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abolished the National Origins Formula that had been in place in the United States since the Emergency Quota Act. It was proposed by Representative Emanuel Celler of New York, co-sponsored by Senator Philip Hart of Michigan, and promoted by Sen. Edward Kennedy of Massachusetts. The Hart-Celler Act abolished the racist national origins quota system (remember the Chinese Exclusion Act???) that had been American immigration policy since the 1920s, replacing

it with a preference system that focused on immigrants' skills and family relationships with citizens or U.S. residents rather than what nationality the immigrant was.

221. Social activism consists of efforts to promote, stop, or direct social, political, economic, or environmental change. Various forms of social activism range from writing letters to newspapers or politicians, political campaigning, economic activism such as boycotts or preferentially patronizing businesses, publicly assembled rallies, street marches, strikes, sit-ins, and hunger strikes. In the 1950’s and 1960’s, peaceful social activism reached its zenith in in an effort to eliminate racial segregation and discrimination.

222. The Congress of Racial Equality or CORE is a U.S. civil rights organization that played a pivotal role for African-Americans in the Civil Rights Movement. Membership in CORE is still stated to be open to "anyone who believes that 'all people are created equal' and are willing to work towards the ultimate goal of true equality throughout the world”.

223. The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) is an African-American civil rights organization. SCLC was closely associated with its first president, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.. The SCLC played a large role in the American Civil Rights Movement. On January 10, 1957, following the Montgomery Bus Boycott victory, Dr. King invited about 60 black ministers and leaders to the Ebenezer Church in Atlanta. Their goal was to form an organization to coordinate and support nonviolent direct action as a method of desegregating bus systems across the South. As time wore on, the role of the SCLC expanded to encompass all arenas of the black civil rights movement.

224. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was one of the organizations of the American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. It emerged from a series of student meetings led by Ella Baker held at Shaw University in April 1960. SNCC grew into a large organization with many supporters in the North who helped raise funds to support SNCC's work in the South, allowing full-time SNCC workers to have a $10 per week salary. Many unpaid volunteers also worked with SNCC on projects in Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Arkansas, and Maryland. SNCC played a major role in the sit-ins (where black people would sit at a table asking for service in a whites-only restaurant and refuse to leave until they were either served or arrested) and freedom rides (#233), both of which helped lead to the 1963 March on Washington. SNCC's major contribution was in its field work, organizing voter registration drives all over the South, especially in Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi.

225. The Little Rock Nine were a group of African American students enrolled in Little Rock Central High School in 1957. The ensuing Little Rock Crisis, in which the students were initially prevented from entering the racially segregated school by Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus, and then attended after the intervention of President Eisenhower. The U.S. Supreme Court issued its historic Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, on May 17, 1954. The decision declared all laws establishing segregated schools to be unconstitutional, and it called for the desegregation of all schools throughout the nation. After the decision, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) attempted to register black students in previously all-white schools in cities throughout the South. In Little Rock, the capital city of Arkansas, the Little Rock School Board agreed to comply with the high court's ruling.

Virgil Blossom, the Superintendent of Schools, submitted a plan of gradual integration to the school board on May 24, 1955, which the board unanimously approved. The plan would be implemented during the fall of the 1957 school year, which would begin in September 1957. By 1957, the NAACP had registered nine black students to attend the previously all-white Little Rock Central High, selected on the criteria of excellent grades and attendance.

226. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, was a landmark Supreme Court decision handed down on May 17, 1954. The decision declared all laws establishing segregated schools to be unconstitutional, and it called for the desegregation of all schools throughout the nation. The decision overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored legally enforced segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. The Warren Court's unanimous (9–0) decision stated that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." As a result, de jure (legal) racial segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. As a result, the decision was soon applied to all manner of public life, and paved the way for total desegregation to occur over the next 25-30 years. It is considered by many to be the most important single event in the black civil rights movement.

227. The March on Washington was one of the largest political rallies for human rights in United States history. The purpose of this demonstration was to call for civil and economic equal rights for African Americans. It began in Washington, D.C. on Tuesday, August 27, 1963 and concluded the next day. Thousands of Americans, of all ages, races, and ethnicities, headed to Washington to be a part of this historic event. The highlight of the event, however, occurred on Wednesday, August 28, 1963. Martin Luther King, Jr., standing in front of the Lincoln Memorial in the Washington Mall, delivered his historic "I Have a Dream" speech in which he called for an end to racism, looking forward to a day where his children would one day live in a nation where they “will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character” . Estimates of the number of participants varied from 200,000 to 300,000; it is widely accepted that approximately 250,000 people participated in the march. Observers estimated that 65-75% of the marchers were black, meaning that there was a sizable white minority present. The march is credited with helping to pass the Civil Rights Act (1964) and motivating the Selma to Montgomery marches which led to the passage of the Voting Rights Act (1965).

228. Ralph David Abernathy, Sr. (March 11, 1926 – April 17, 1990),[1] was a leader of the American Civil Rights Movement, a minister, and a close associate of Martin Luther King, Jr. in the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. Following King's assassination, Dr. Abernathy took up the leadership of the SCLC Poor People's Campaign and led the March on Washington, D.C., that had been planned for May 1968.

229. George Wallace (August 25, 1919 – September 13, 1998) was an American politician and the 45th governor of Alabama, having served two nonconsecutive terms and two consecutive terms: 1963–1967, 1971–1979 and 1983–1987. After four runs for U.S. president, he earned the title "the most influential loser" in 20th-century U.S. politics, according to biographers Dan T. Carter and Stephan Lesher. A 1972 assassination attempt left Wallace paralyzed, and he used a wheelchair for the remainder

of his life. He is remembered for his Southern populist and segregationist attitudes during the desegregation period. He eventually renounced segregation but remained a populist.

230. Thurgood Marshall (July 2, 1908 – January 24, 1993) was an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court, serving from October 1967 until October 1991. Marshall was the Court's 96th justice and its first African-American justice. Before becoming a judge, Marshall was a lawyer who was best known for his high success rate in arguing before the Supreme Court and for the victory in Brown v. Board of Education. He served on the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit after being appointed by President John F. Kennedy and then served as the Solicitor General after being appointed by President Lyndon Johnson in 1965. President Johnson nominated him to the United States Supreme Court in 1967.

231. Earl Warren (March 19, 1891 – July 9, 1974) was an American jurist and politician who served as the 14th Chief Justice of the United States (1953–1969) and the 30th Governor of California. He is known for the sweeping decisions of the Warren Court, which ended school segregation and transformed many areas of American law, especially regarding the rights of the accused, ending public-school-sponsored prayer, and requiring "one-man-one vote" rules of apportionment. He made the Court a power center on a more even base with Congress and the presidency especially through four landmark decisions: Brown v. Board of Education (1954), Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), Reynolds v. Sims (1964), and Miranda v. Arizona (1966).

232. The National Urban League (NUL), formerly known as the National League on Urban Conditions Among Negroes, is a nonpartisan civil rights organization based in New York City that advocates on behalf of African Americans and against racial discrimination in the United States. It is the oldest and largest community-based organization of its kind in the nation, dating its origins back to 1910.

233. The Nation of Islam (NOI) (members are referred to as Black Muslims) is a religious movement founded in Detroit, Michigan by Wallace D. Fard Muhammad on July 4, 1930. The Nation of Islam's stated goals are to improve the spiritual, mental, social, and economic condition of African Americans in the United States and all of humanity. Its critics accuse it of being black supremacists and anti-Semitic. After Fard Muhammad disappeared mysteriously in June 1934, the Nation of Islam was led by Elijah Muhammad, who established places of worship (called Temples or Mosques), a school named Muhammad University of Islam, businesses, farms and real estate holdings in the United States and abroad. Many believe Elijah Muhammad murdered Fard Muhammad, though he was never charged and Fard’s body was never found. There were a number of splits and splinter groups during Elijah Muhammad's leadership, most notably the departure of senior leader Malcolm X to become a Sunni Muslim. Many believe Malcolm X was also murdered on the orders of Elijah Muhammad. After Elijah Muhammad's death in 1975, his son Warith Deen Mohammed changed the name of the organization several times and brought it more into line with traditional Islam. Today, Louis Farrakhan is the leader, yet he is older and there is much debate as to who will take leadership after him.

234. Freedom Riders were civil rights activists who rode interstate buses into the segregated southern United States beginning in 1961 to challenge the non-enforcement of the United States Supreme Court decisions Irene Morgan v. Commonwealth of Virginia (1946) and Boynton v. Virginia (1960) which ruled that segregated public

buses were unconstitutional. The Southern states had ignored the rulings and the federal government had done nothing to enforce them. Boynton outlawed racial segregation in the restaurants and waiting rooms in terminals serving buses that crossed state lines. Five years prior to the Boynton ruling, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) had issued a ruling in Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company (1955) denouncing the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) doctrine of separate but equal in interstate bus travel. The ICC failed to enforce its ruling, and Jim Crow travel laws remained in force throughout the South. The Freedom Riders challenged this status quo by riding interstate buses in the South so as to challenge local laws that enforced segregation. The Freedom Rides, and the violent reactions they provoked, bolstered the credibility of the American Civil Rights Movement. They called national attention to the South’s absolute disregard for the federal law and the local white government sponsored and encouraged violence used to enforce segregation in the southern United States. White local police arrested riders for trespassing, unlawful assembly, and violating state and local Jim Crow laws, along with other alleged offenses, but they usually allowed white mobs to attack them for awhile before arresting them.

235. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 enacted July 2, 1964 was a landmark piece of civil rights legislation in the United States[1] that outlawed major forms of discrimination against racial, ethnic, national and religious minorities, and also women. It ended unequal application of voter registration requirements and racial segregation in schools, at the workplace and by facilities that served the general public (known as "public accommodations").

236. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is a landmark piece of national legislation in the United States that outlawed discriminatory voting practices that had been responsible for the widespread disenfranchisement of African Americans in the U.S. Echoing the language of the 15th Amendment, the Act prohibits states from imposing any "voting qualification or prerequisite to voting, or standard, practice, or procedure that would deny or abridge the right of any citizen of the United States to vote on account of race or color." Specifically, Congress intended the Act to outlaw the practice of requiring otherwise qualified voters to pass literacy tests in order to register to vote, a principal means by which Southern states had prevented African Americans from exercising the franchise. The Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, who had earlier signed the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law.

237. The Civil Rights Act of 1968, also known as the Houssing Rights act of 1968 was enacted April 11, and was a landmark piece of legislation in the United States that provided for equal housing opportunities regardless of race, creed, or national origin. The Act was signed into law during the King assassination riots by President Lyndon B. Johnson, who had previously signed the Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act into law.

238. The Selma to Montgomery marches, were marches and protests held in 1965, that marked the political and emotional peak of the American civil rights movement. All three marches were attempts to march from Selma to Montgomery where the Alabama capitol is located. They grew out of the voting rights movement in Selma, launched by local African-Americans who formed the Dallas County Voters League (DCVL). In 1963, the DCVL and organizers from the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) began voter-registration work. When white resistance to black voter registration proved intractable, the DCVL requested the assistance of Martin Luther King, Jr. and the

Southern Christian Leadership Conference, who brought many prominent civil rights and civic leaders to support voting rights. The first march took place on March 7, 1965 — "Bloody Sunday" — when 600 marchers, protesting the death of Jimmie Lee Jackson and ongoing exclusion from the electoral process, were attacked by state and local police with billy clubs and tear gas. The second march, the following Tuesday, resulted in 2,500 protesters turning around after crossing the Edmund Pettus Bridge. The third march started March 16. The marchers averaged 10 miles (16 km) a day along U.S. Route 80, known in Alabama as the "Jefferson Davis Highway". Protected by 2,000 soldiers of the U.S. Army, 1,900 members of the Alabama National Guard under Federal command, and many FBI agents and Federal Marshals, they arrived in Montgomery on March 24 and at the Alabama State Capitol on March 25.

239. Affirmative action refers to policies that take factors including "race, color, religion, sex, or national origin" into consideration in order to benefit an underrepresented group "in areas of employment, education, and business".

240. The Black Panther Party or BPP was a revolutionary Black Nationalist and socialist organization active in the United States from 1966 until 1982. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover called the party "the greatest threat to the internal security of the country today", and he supervised an extensive program of surveillance, infiltration, perjury, police harassment, and many other tactics designed to undermine Panther leadership, , discredit and criminalize the Party and Party leaders, and drain the organization of resources. The program has also been alleged to have used assassination plots against Black Panther leaders. Initially, the Black Panther Party's main purpose was to arm citizens' patrols in predominantly black neighborhoods so as to monitor the behavior of the police and challenge police brutality. As the late 1960’s came along, the Party began to develop community social programs as a core activity of party members, most famously their “Free Breakfast for Children Program”. They were also responsible for setting up many community health clinics in black neighborhoods. Black Panther Party membership reached a peak in 1970, with offices in 68 cities and thousands of members, but after 1970 the Party suffered a series of contractions. As concessions were made by the government on racial issues, public support for the party waned, and the group became more isolated. In-fighting among Party leadership led to expulsions and defections that decimated the membership. By 1982, the Black panther party was a shell of its former self and it basically disbanded.

241. Gray Panthers is an organization in the United States, which was founded in 1970 by Maggie Kuhn in response to her forced retirement at age 65. The organization supports a single-payer healthcare system, as well as an increase in welfare payments, pacifism, "lifelong public education", the rights of workers, reproductive rights, abolition of the death penalty, legalization of same-sex marriage, the legalization of medical marijuana, and environmentalism through advocacy, education and action.

242. The United Farm Workers of America (UFWA) is a labor union created from the merging of two groups, the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC) led by Filipino organizer Larry Itliong, and the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) led by César Chávez. This union changed from a workers' rights organization that helped workers get unemployment insurance to that of a union of farmworkers almost overnight, when the NFWA went out on strike in support of the mostly Filipino farmworkers of the AWOC in Delano, California who had previously initiated a grape

strike on September 8, 1965. The NFWA and the AWOC, recognizing their common goals and methods, and realizing the strengths of coalition formation, jointly formed the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee on August 22, 1966. This organization was accepted into the AFL-CIO in 1972 and changed its name to the United Farmworkers Union.

243. The American Indian Movement (AIM) is a Native American activist organization in the United State that was founded in 1968. It’s agenda focuses on native American spirituality, leadership, and sovereignty. The organization was formed to address various issues concerning the Native American urban community in Minneapolis, including poverty, housing, treaty issues, and police harassment.

244. Gideon v. Wainwright, (1963), is a landmark case in United States Supreme Court history. In the case, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that state courts are required under the Fourteenth Amendment to provide counsel in criminal cases for defendants who are unable to afford to pay their own attorneys, extending the identical requirement made on the federal government under the Sixth Amendment.

245. Escobedo v. Illinois, (1964) was a United States Supreme Court case holding that criminal suspects have a right to counsel during police interrogations under the Sixth Amendment.

246. Engel v. Vitale (1962) was a landmark United States Supreme Court case that determined that it is unconstitutional for state officials to compose an official school prayer and encourage its recitation in public schools.

247. Miranda v. Arizona (1966) was a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court which passed 5–4. The Court held that incriminating statements made in response to questioning by a defendant in police custody will be admissible at trial ONLY if the prosecution can show that the defendant was informed of the right to consult with an attorney before and during questioning and of the right against self-incrimination prior to questioning by police, and that the defendant not only understood these rights, but voluntarily waived them.

248. Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, (1978) was a landmark civil rights case where the Court held in a closely divided decision that race could be one of the factors considered in choosing a diverse student body in university admissions decisions. The Court also held, however, that the use of quotas in such affirmative action programs was not permissible; thus the Univ. of California, Davis, and medical school had, by maintaining a 16% minority quota, discriminated against Allan Bakke, 1940–, a white applicant. The legal implications of the decision were clouded by the Court's division. Bakke had twice been rejected by the medical school, even though he had a higher grade point average than a number of minority candidates who were admitted. As a result of the decision, Bakke was admitted to the medical school and graduated in 1982.

249. Roe v. Wade (1973) was a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court ruling on the legality of abortion. Decided simultaneously with a companion case, Doe v. Bolton, the Court ruled 7–2 that a right to privacy under the due process clause of the 14th Amendment extended to a woman's decision to have an abortion, but that this right must be balanced against two legitimate state interests; A. the regulation of when abortions are allowable and, B. protecting prenatal life and the health of pregnant women. Arguing that these state interests became stronger as the pregnancy progresses, the Court

resolved this balancing test by tying state regulation of abortion to the third trimester (6 th

month) of pregnancy.The Court later rejected this trimester framework, while at the same time affirming Roe 's central holding that a person has a right to abortion until viability (approximately 24-28 weeks of pregnancy). The Roe decision defined "viable" as "potentially being able to live outside the mother's womb, albeit with artificial aid".The decision swept many state and federal restrictions on abortion away in one great swoop in the United States, and immediately prompted a national debate that continues today about issues including whether, and to what extent, abortion should be legal, who should decide the legality of abortion, what methods the Supreme Court should use in constitutional adjudication, and what the role should be of religious and moral views in the political sphere. Roe v. Wade reshaped national politics, dividing much of the United States into pro-choice and pro-life camps, while activating grassroots movements on both sides.

250. The Wounded Knee incident began February 27, 1973 when about 200 Oglala Lakota and followers of the American Indian Movement (AIM) seized and occupied the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. The grassroots protest followed the failure of their effort to impeach the elected tribal president Richard Wilson, whom they accused of corruption and abuse of opponents; they also protested the United States government's failure to fulfill treaties with Indian peoples and demanded the reopening of treaty negotiations. Oglala and AIM activists controlled the town for 73 days while the United States Marshals Service, Federal Bureau of Investigation agents and other law enforcement agencies cordoned off the area. One of the Marshals involved in the operation was Tommy Robinson, later a United States Representative from Arkansas. The activists chose the site of the 1890 Wounded Knee Massacre for its symbolic value. Both sides were armed and shooting was frequent. An FBI agent was paralyzed from a gunshot wound early during the occupation, and later died from complications; a Cherokee and an Oglala Lakota were killed by shootings in April 1973. Ray Robinson, a civil rights activist who joined the protesters, disappeared during the events and is believed to have been murdered. Due to damage to the houses, the small community was not reoccupied until the 1990s.

1974 - 2014: Domestic and Foreign Policy of the Ford, Carter, Reagan, Bush I, Clinton, Bush II, and Obama Administrations Involving the American and Global Economy, Free

Trade Agreements, Terrorism and the American/Free World Response To It, the Arab/Islamic World and the Middle East, Russia/USSR, and Major American Social

Movements (Native American, Hispanic, Women, LGBT, Anti-War)Benchmarks SS.912.A.7.11 - SS.912.A.7.12

251. Apartheid was a system of racial segregation enforced through legislation by the National Party (NP) governments, who were the ruling party from 1948 to 1994, of South Africa, under which the rights of the majority black inhabitants of South Africa were curtailed and white supremacy was maintained. Apartheid was developed after World War II, and withstood efforts by black south Africans to protest and get rid of it. Reforms to apartheid in the 1970’s and 1980’s failed to stop the mounting opposition, and in 1990 President Frederik Willem de Klerk began negotiations to end apartheid,

culminating in multi-racial democratic elections in 1994, which were won by the African National Congress under Nelson Mandela.

252. Glasnost (Openness) was a policy that called for increased openness and transparency in government institutions and activities in the Soviet Union. Introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the second half of the 1980s, Glasnost is often paired with Perestroika (Restructuring), another reform instituted by Gorbachev at the same time. The word was frequently used by Gorbachev to specify the policies he believed might help reduce the corruption at the top of the Communist Party and the Soviet government, and moderate the abuse of administrative power in the Central Committee. Russian human rights activist and dissident Lyudmila Alexeyeva explained glasnost as a word that "had been in the Russian language for centuries. It was an ordinary, hardworking, nondescript word that was used to refer to a process, any process of justice of governance, being conducted in the open." Glasnost can also refer to the specific period in the history of the USSR during the 1980s when there was less censorship and greater freedom of information.

253. Inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. When the general price level rises, each unit of currency (such as a dollar) buys fewer goods and services. Consequently, inflation reflects a reduction in the purchasing power of money. A chief measure of price inflation is the inflation rate, the annualized percentage change in the consumer price index over time.

254. Terrorism is the systematic use of terror, often violent, especially as a means of forcing a people or government to do something they wouldn’t do normally. Common definitions of terrorism refer to those violent acts which are intended to create fear and are perpetrated for a religious, political or, ideological goal and deliberately target or disregard the safety of civilians.

255. OPEC is the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries. It is an oil cartel whose mission is to coordinate the policies of the oil-producing countries so as to secure a steady income to the member states and a secure supply of oil to the consumers. OPEC was created at the Baghdad Conference in September of 1960, by Iraq, Kuwait, Iran, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. Later it was joined by nine more states: Libya, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Indonesia, Algeria, Nigeria, Ecuador, Angola, and Gabon. OPEC was headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland before moving to Vienna, Austria, on September 1, 1965.

256. U.S. President Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to the People's Republic of China was an important step in formally normalizing relations between the United States and the People's Republic of China (PRC). It marked the first time a U.S. president had visited the China, which at that time considered the U.S. one of its most significant foes, and the visit ended 25 years of separation between the two sides.

257. The Camp David Accords were signed by Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin on 17 September 1978, following thirteen days of secret negotiations at Camp David. The two agreements were signed at the White House, and were witnessed by United States President Jimmy Carter. The second of these frameworks, A Framework for the Conclusion of a Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel, led directly to the 1979 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty, and resulted in Sadat and Begin sharing the 1978 Nobel Peace Prize.

258. Anwar El Sadat (1918 –1981) was the third President of Egypt, serving from October of 1970 until his assassination by fundamentalist army officers in October of 1981. As president, he led Egypt in the October War of 1973 to re-acquire Egyptian territory lost to Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War, making him a hero in Egypt and, for a time, the wider Arab World. Afterwards, he engaged in negotiations with Israel, culminating in the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty. This won him the Nobel Peace Prize but also made him unpopular among some Arabs, resulting in a temporary suspension of Egypt's membership in the Arab League and eventually his assassination by Islamic fundamentalist Egyptian army officers.

259. Menachem Begin (1913 – 1992) was the sixth Prime Minister of the State of Israel. Begin’s most significant achievement as Prime Minister was the signing of a peace treaty with Egypt in 1979, for which he and Anwar Sadat shared the Nobel Prize for Peace. In the wake of the Camp David Accords, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula, which was captured from Egypt in the Six-Day War. Later, Begin’s government promoted the construction of Israeli settlements in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Begin grew increasingly isolated. As IDF forces remained mired in Lebanon and the economy suffered from hyperinflation, the public pressure on Begin mounted. Depressed by the death of his wife Aliza in November 1982, he gradually withdrew from public life, until his resignation in October of 1983.

260. The Iranian Revolution refers to events involving the overthrow of the Pahlavi dynasty under Shah (King) Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who was supported by the United States and United Kingdom, and its replacement with an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the revolution. Demonstrations against the Shah began in October 1977, developing into a campaign of civil resistance that was partly secular and partly religious, and intensified in January 1978. Between August and December 1978 strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country. The Shah left Iran for exile on January 16, 1979 as the last Persian monarch and in the resulting power vacuum two weeks later Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Tehran to a greeting by several million Iranians. The royal reign collapsed shortly after on February 11 when guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran voted by national referendum to become an Islamic Republic on April 1, 1979, and to approve a new democratic-theocratic hybrid constitution whereby Khomeini became Supreme Leader of the country, in December 1979.

261. The Iran hostage crisis was a diplomatic crisis between Iran and the United States. Fifty-two Americans were held hostage for 444 days (November 4, 1979 to January 20, 1981), after a group of Islamist students and militants supporting the Iranian Revolution took over the American Embassy in Tehran. President Carter was seen as a devil by the Iranians, and they waited until the day Ronald Reagan took over the presidency before ending the standoff.

262. Globalization is the process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas and other aspects of culture. Advances in transportation and communications infrastructure, including the rise of the telegraph in the 19th century and now the internet in the 21st, are major factors in globalization, generating further interdependence of economic and cultural activities. The term globalization has been increasingly used since the mid-1980s and especially since the mid-1990s. In 2000, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) identified four basic

aspects of globalization: trade and transactions, capital and investment movements, migration and movement of people, and the dissemination of knowledge and culture. Furthermore, environmental challenges the entire world faces together, such as climate change, cross-boundary water and air pollution, and over-fishing of the ocean are linked with globalization efforts to improve and/or overcome these challenges together.

263. The Iran–Contra affair was a political scandal in the United States that came to light in November 1986. During the Reagan administration, senior administration officials secretly facilitated the sale of arms to Iran, the subject of an arms embargo. Some U.S. officials also hoped that the arms sales would secure the release of hostages and allow U.S. intelligence agencies to fund the Nicaraguan Contras. Under the Boland Amendment, further funding of the Contras by the government had been prohibited by Congress, so this was a violation of national law. The question quickly became what did Reagan know, and when did he know it? Reagan claimed to have no knowledge of the affair, but if that were true, that meant that the president wasn’t in control of the nation and its foreign policies. If he did know, then he was breaking the law. This was one of several black eyes the Reagan administration took as his second term wore on.

264. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is an agreement signed by Canada, Mexico, and the United States, creating a trilateral trade bloc in North America. The agreement came into force on January 1, 1994. The goal of NAFTA was to eliminate barriers to trade and investment between the US, Canada and Mexico. Many Americans dislike NAFTA because it doesn’t protect American business.

265. Operation Iraqi Freedom was the military operation which was designed to topple Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein from power. Instead of going smoothly and rapidly, it became a quagmire as the citizenry began to rebel against the American troops. What was thought at first to be an easy win turned into a ten year civil war which America had a difficult time exiting from. Many people would argue that we still haven’t extricated ourselves from it.

266. Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) is the official name used by the U.S. government for the War in Afghanistan, together with a number of smaller military actions, under the umbrella of the Global War on Terror (GWOT). Seizing upon a power vacuum after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan, the Taliban assumed the role of government from 1996–2001. Their extreme interpretation of Islamic law prompted them to ban music, television, sports, and dancing, and enforce harsh judicial penalties. Amputation was an accepted form of punishment for stealing, and public executions could often be seen at the Kabul football stadium. In 1996, Saudi dissident Osama bin Laden moved to Afghanistan and when the Taliban came to power, bin Laden was able to forge an alliance between the Taliban and his al-Qaeda organization.

267. The U.S. immigrant population grew rapidly during the 1990s and the first decade of the new millennium, with growth rates especially high across a wide band of states in the South, Southeast, Midwest, and Rocky Mountain regions. In many of these states, the foreign-born population more than doubled between 1990 and 2000. In 2000, over two-thirds of the nation's total foreign-born population lived in six "major destination" states:•California (28 percent),•New York (12 percent),•Texas (9 percent),

•Florida (9 percent),•New Jersey (5 percent), and•Illinois (5 percent)New data from the Census Bureau show that the nation’s immigrant population (both legal and illegal), reached 40 million in 2010, the highest number in American history. Nearly 14 million new immigrants (both legal and illegal) settled in the country from 2000 to 2010, making it the highest decade of immigration in American history. This is the case even though there was a net decline of jobs during the decade. In contrast, from 1990 to 2000 job growth was 22 million and 13.2 million new immigrants arrived. Immigrants come for many reasons, such as a desire to join relatives or to access public services. As a result, immigration remained high even with that prolonged period of economic weakness.

268. The United States presidential election of 2000 was the 54th quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 7, 2000. The contest was between Republican George W. Bush, the incumbent governor of Texas and son of former president George H. W. Bush, and Democratic candidate Al Gore, the incumbent Vice President. Bush chose former Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney as his running mate, and Gore chose Senator Joseph Lieberman as his. Both major party candidates focused primarily on domestic issues, such as the budget, tax relief, and reforms for federal social insurance programs, though foreign policy was not ignored. The final result of the election hinged on Florida, where Bush’s narrow margin of victory triggered a mandatory recount. Many votes went uncounted because many of the manual pin push ballot forms didn’t punch all the way through the hole, referred to as “hanging chads”. Litigation in select counties where this occurred started additional recounts, and this litigation ultimately reached the United States Supreme Court. The Court's extremely controversial decision in Bush v. Gore ended the recounts, effectively awarding Florida's electoral votes to Bush and granting him the victory. This marked the fourth election in U.S. history in which the winner failed to win a plurality of the popular vote (after the elections of 1824, 1876, and 1888). Gore actually won over half of the popular vote but still lost.

269. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) is an organization founded in 1964 with the purpose of liberating/reclaiming Palestine from Israel through armed struggle. It is recognized as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people by over 100 states with which it holds diplomatic relations, and has enjoyed observer status at the United Nations since 1974. The PLO was considered by the United States and Israel to be a terrorist organization until the Madrid Conference in 1991. In 1993, the PLO recognized Israel's right to exist in peace, accepted UN Security Council resolutions 242 and 338, which required them to reject "violence and terrorism"; in response, Israel officially recognized the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people.

270. The War on Terror (also known as the Global War on Terrorism) is a term commonly applied to an international military campaign which started as a result of the September 11, 2001 (AKA 9-11) terrorist attacks on the United States. This resulted in an international military campaign to eliminate al-Qaeda, the terror group that claimed responsibility for the attacks, and other terroristic militant organizations. The United Kingdom and many other NATO and non-NATO nations participate in the conflict. The

Bush administration and the Western media have since used the term to signify a global military, political, lawful, and conceptual struggle—targeting both organizations designated as terrorist and regimes accused of supporting them. It was typically used with a particular focus on militant Islamists and al-Qaeda.

271. Jihad is an Islamic term, and is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word jihād translates as a noun meaning "struggle". Jihad appears 41 times in the Quran and frequently in the idiomatic expression "striving in the way of God. A person engaged in jihad is called a mujahid; the plural is mujahideen. There are two commonly accepted meanings of jihad; an inner spiritual struggle and/or an outer physical struggle. The "greater jihad" is the inner struggle by a believer to fulfill his religious duties. This non-violent meaning is stressed by both Muslim and non-Muslim authors. The "lesser jihad" is the physical struggle against the enemies of Islam. This physical struggle can take a violent form or a non-violent form. The proponents of the violent form translate jihad as "holy war". This is the translation that has resulted in Islamic terrorist attacks.

272. Social movements are a type of group action. They are large, formal as well as informal, groupings of individuals or organizations which focus on specific political or social issues. In other words, they carry out, resist or undo a social change. Modern Western social movements became possible through 1) education (the wider dissemination of literature), 2) increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of 19th century societies, 3) freedom of expression found in Democratic societies, and 4) the relative economic independence prevalent in the modern Western culture. As a result, there is an unprecedented number of various contemporary social movements in the western world. Social movements have been and continue to be closely connected with democratic political systems. Occasionally, social movements have been involved in democratizing nations, but more often they have flourished after democratization. Over the past 200 years, they have become part of a popular and global expression of dissent, considered to be an important role of the people in a democracy.