Министерство образования и науки РФ

Иркутский государственный технический университет

Т.В.Кушнарёва И.В.Богданова Ю.Л.Барановская

Aircraft Operation Issues

Учебное пособие по английскому языку

Издательство

Иркутского государственного технического университета

2015

УДК 802.0 (075.8)ББК Ш 143.21-923

Рекомендовано к изданию редакционно-издательским советом НИ ИрГТУ

Рецензенты:канд. филол. наук, доцент кафедры русского языка как иностранного МГЛУ ЕАЛИ А.Б. Антонова;канд. педагог. наук, доцент кафедры иностранных языков №2 НИ ИрГТУ Е.В.Дворак

Кушнарёва Т.В., Богданова И.В., Барановская Ю.Л. Aircraft Operation Issues: учеб. пособие по английскому языку. – Иркутск: Изд-во НИ ИрГТУ, 2015. – 160 с.

Пособие соответствует требованиям образовательной программы дисциплины «Иностранный язык в сфере профкоммуникации» по направлению 162300 «Техническая эксплуатация летательных аппаратов и двигателей».

Состоит из 4 частей, по 3 раздела в каждой, приложения и грамматического справочника. Каждый раздел снабжен англо-русским словарем, текстовыми заданиями для аудиторной и самостоятельной работы по английскому языку. Тексты и упражнения составлены на основе оригинальной лексики, употребляемой современными носителями языка.

Предназначено для студентов второго и третьего курсов института авиамашиностроения и транспорта в рамках подготовки бакалавров.

ISBN © Кушнарёва Т.В., Богданова И.В., Ю.Л.Барановская 2015

© Иркутский государственный технический университет, 2015

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МЕТОДИЧЕСКАЯ ЗАПИСКА

Настоящее учебное пособие соответствует требованиям ФГОС-3 дисциплины «Иностранный язык в сфере профессиональной коммуникации» по направлению подготовки «Техническая эксплуатация летательных аппаратов и двигателей». Пособие отвечает специфике профессионально-ориентированного обучения иностранному языку в нелингвистическом вузе и предназначено для студентов института авиамашиностроения и транспорта.

Основная цель учебного пособия – совершенствование навыков и умений чтения и перевода аутентичных текстов на английском языке, овладение обучающимися специальной авиационной терминологией и формирование иноязычной коммуникативной компетенции.

Структурно учебное пособие состоит из двух разделов, которые представляют собой взаимосвязанный, взаимодействующий комплекс, в процессе работы над которым студенты должны овладеть лексическим (терминологическим) материалом, систематизировать и активизировать грамматические структуры, закрепить и усовершенствовать реализацию данных структур во всех видах речевой деятельности.

Первый раздел включает в себя фрагменты занятий, объединенных по тематическому принципу. Основной единицей организации практической работы с учебным материалом является занятие. Каждое занятие рассчитано для аудиторной работы и включает в себя лексический минимум узкоспециального формата, основной текст и систему упражнений.

Второй раздел состоит из дополнительных текстов и краткого грамматического справочника. Дополнительные тексты предназначены для самостоятельной и индивидуальной работы, с учетом задач обучения и индивидуальных способностей и умений студентов. В данной части учебного пособия тексты организованы в соответствии с видами чтения и отвечают различным стратегиям работы над текстом. Краткий грамматический справочник отвечает основным требованиям образовательной программы по дисциплине и необходим для составления иноязычного высказывания узкопрофессионального формата, что значительно экономит время при организации процесса обучения.

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CONTENTS

Part 1. Civil Aviation

Unit 1.From the History of Aviation 5Unit 2. International Civil Aviation Organizations 11Unit 3. Modern Tendencies of Development 18

Part 2. Navigation

Unit 4. Air Navigation 26Unit 5. Radio Navigation

34Unit 6. Visual Navigation 40

Part 3. Safety Problem in Aviation

Unit 7. Weather 48Unit 8. Human Factor 55Unit 9. Security 64

Part 4. Emergency

Unit 10. The Concept of Emergency 72Unit 11. Emergency Solution 79Unit 12. Emergency Prevention 86

Appendix 94

Grammar Reference 117Literature 157

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Part 1. Civil Aviation

Unit 1. From the History of Aviation

Active vocabulary

1. human flight – полет человека2. to fasten – завязывать, завязать3. safety - безопасность4. air currents – воздушные потоки5. to operate – работать, действовать, управлять6. to descend – спускаться, спуститься7. glider – планер, параплан8. internal combustion engine – двигатель внутреннего сгорания 9. step forward – шаг вперед10. circular - круговой, круглый11. civil aviation – гражданская авиация12. growth - рост13. steam engine – паровой двигатель14. multiengined aircraft – самолет с несколькими двигателями15. useful load – полезная нагрузка, грузоподъемность16. to execute the first loop – выполнить первую петлю17. corkscrew - штопор18. cruising range – запас хода19. to be awarded for – быть награжденным за что-то20. outstanding – замечательный, выдающийся 21. research – исследование

Guess the meaning of the following words: Greek legend, principles of human flight, flying machine, balloon, aeroplane skis, dirigible, cruise, version, pioneers of aviation, ice-breaker, non-stop flight, helicopter model, aeronautics, mechanics, aerodynamics, practical experiments.

From the History of Aviation

Men have wanted to fly for more than two thousand years. Observations of flying birds gave men the idea of human flight. Every nation has many legends and tales about birdmen and magic carpets.

One of the most famous Greek legend is the legend of Daedalus and his son Icarus who made wings and fastened them on with wax. Daedalus landed in safety, Icarus was not so careful and he flew closer and closer to the sun. The wax melted, the wings came off and he fell into the sea.

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The first scientific principles of human flight appeared in the 14-th century. The problem was studied by the great scientist Leonardo de Vinci. He observed the flight of birds, studied the air and its currents and designed a flying machine the wings of which were operated by a man.

But the first actual flight which man made was that in the balloon. In October 1783 the Montgolfier brothers in France sent two men almost 25 meters up in a balloon which descended 10 minutes later, about 2.5 kilometres away.

The first Russian aircraft designer was Alexander Mozhaisky. His airplane, a monoplane, with two light steam engines was tested on August I, 1882. With the first Russian pilot, I.N. Golubev, the plane rose into the air and flew a distance of 200 metres before it landed.

At that time, the same work was being conducted by Otto Lilienthal, a remarkable German inventor. In 1891 he made his flight in a glider covering 35 meters. In 1903 two Americans, the brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright, built their aeroplane. It flew only 32 metres but it was the first aeroplane with an internal combustion engine that was a big step forward.

In the following years aviation made big advances. In 1908 Henry Farman, in France, made a circular flight of one kilometre. A year later Bleriot crossed the English Channel. In 1913 a Russian student Lobanov invented aeroplane skis and this enabled to land and take off in winter.

In 1913 the Russian designer Igor Sikorsky built the world's first multiengined heavy aircraft. That same year the Russian pilot Nesterov executed the first loop. Another Russian pilot, Artseulov, in 1916 proved that a pilot could take his plane out of a corkscrew.

At the beginning of the 20-th century the dirigible was invented. The most known inventor of a dirigible is Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, a retired German army officer. His famous "Graf Zeppelin" in 1929 began a cruise which took 21 days 8 hours and 26 minutes to circle the world.

An outstanding event in the history of aviation took place in Petersburg in 1913. That year a heavy multiengined aeroplane "Russky Vityaz» was constructed. It weighed 4,940 kg and had a 1,440 kg useful load. On August 2, 1913 with seven passengers on board it set up a world record by remaining in the air for 1 hour 34 minutes. Its top speed was over 90 km/hr.

In 1914 an improved version of the multiengined heavy bomber of the Ilya Murometz type was built. It weighed 3,000 kg and had a 1,760 kg useful load, a maximum cruising range of 700 km and a top speed of more than 110 km/hr.

Among the pioneers of aviation are the names of aircraft designers Tupolev, Polikarpov, Sukhoi, Arkhangelsky, Ilyushin, Yakovlev and others; the pilots Vodopyanov, Doronin, Kamanin, Lyapidevsky and some others - the first Heroes of the Soviet Union who were awarded this title for saving the passengers and the crew after ice-breaker Chelyuskin had been crashed by ice. In 1937 the world applauded the daring non-stop flight by Chkalov and his crew

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to the USA via the North Pole on the ANT-23. In 1938 Soviet aviatrixes Grisodubova, Raskova and Osipenko made a non-stop long-distance flight to the Far East and became the first Heroes of the Soviet Union among women.

And, of course, it is necessary to mention the names of the outstanding Russian scientists who considerably contributed aviation. It is the Great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov who developed the scientific principles of flight of bodies heavier-than-air and built the first helicopter model in the world.

The Great Russian scientist D.I. Mendeleyev is the author of man outstanding researches in aeronautics. He developed the principles of the stratostat design with a pressurized cabin.

S.A.Chaplygin, the outstanding scientist in mechanics, is one of the founders of the modern aviation theory and the pioneer in aerodynamics of high speeds.

Special services in science belong to another famous scientist who is called "father of Russian aviation". And this is N.E.Zhukovsky. He was the first to develop a scientific wing theory and the principles of airscrew design. From that time aerodynamics has been a science combining theoretical knowledge with practical experiments. All modern aerodynamical calculations are based on his outstanding theoretical works.

A. Comprehension

1. Read the text. Choose the sentences which contain information about:1) Leonardo de Vinci;2) the dirigible;3) "Russky Vityaz»;4) S.A.Chaplygin.

2. Answer the following questions:1). When did the first scientific principles of human flight appear?2) Who was the first to study the problem of human flight?3) What was the first actual flight man made?4) Why was it impossible to fly in a balloon?5) Who was the first Russian aeroplane designer?6) What plane did he design?7) What distance did the plane cover?8) Who designed the first glider?9) What is glider?10) What event took place in Petersburg in 1913?11) How long did “Russky Vityaz” stay in the air?12) Who was “the father of Russian aviation”?

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B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) The first scientific principles of human flight were studied by the great scientist Leonardo de Vinci.2) The airplane of Alexander Mozhaisky rose into the air and fell into the sea.3) Two Frenchmen, the brothers Wright, built their aero plane with an internal combustion engine.4) Bleriot crossed the English Channel in 1909.5) On August 2, 1913 "Russky Vityaz» set up a world record by remaining in the air for 2 hours.6) N.E.Zhukovsky is a "father of Russian aviation".

2. Give definitions to:1) flying machine;2) monoplane;3) aeroplane skis;4) multiengined aeroplane;5) aviatrixes; 6) aerodynamics.

3. Fill in the following table using the information from the text.

Russian Pioneers of Aviation (aircraft designers and pilots)

Names Time Period Achievements

4. Give the English equivalents for:Приземлиться безопасно, ближе к солнцу, полет человека, поток воздуха, воздушный шар, подняться в воздух, изобретать, улучшенная версия, конструктор самолета, конструкция крыла, модель вертолета, мировой рекорд, ледокол, максимальная скорость, беспосадочный полет, паровой двигатель, лыжи самолета, герои Советского Союза, аплодировать, выдающиеся исследования, теоретические знания.

5. Fill in the correct preposition, then make sentences using the completed phrases:1) observations … flying birds;2) to fall … the sea;3) to be operated… a man;4) to rise … the air;

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5) aeroplane … an internal combustion engine;6) to take the plane … a corkscrew;7) … the beginning of the 20-th century;8) to set … a world record;9) the first Heroes … the Soviet Union… women;10) the outstanding scientist .. mechanics.

6. Translate the following words into Russian paying attention to the means of word formation (prefixes and suffixes):1) observe – observer – observation;2) safe – safely – safety – unsafe;3) science – scientist – scientific;4) design – designer;5) fly – flight;6) invent – inventor – invention;7) construct – constructor – construction;8) improve – improvement;9) weigh – weight – weightless;10) develop – development.

7. Read the text and fill in the gaps with words from the list.Items, contract, interest, passengers, civil, economy, kilometers.

Farnborough Air Show Proves a Success for Russian Companies

The Farnborough air show which was held in Britain on July 19-24.2004 proved to be an even greater success for the Russian defense industry companies than the Russian Expo Arms 2004, which was held in Nizhny Tagil a week earlier.

The largest … of the show was a $1 billion deal signed between Sukhoi Civil Aircraft and Russia's Siberia Airlines. The deal is for a delivery of 50 Russian Regional Jet civil aircraft, which will begin in 2007. Each plane costs approximately $20 million, can seat from 60 to 95 … and is capable of flying up to 5,000...

The planes are designed jointly by Russia's Sukhoi Civil Aircraft and Ilyushin Aircraft and U.S. Boeing Corporation. The aircraft will be powered by SM146 engines.

Among other achievements of the fair, which showed 180 … of military equipment and aircraft from Russia, was a great … expressed by several countries towards a unique Ka-31 radar picket helicopter. The helicopter is capable of carrying out both military and … tasks and is an …-priced surveillance machine.

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8. Find some key words in the text and try to express the main idea of this air show.

9. Put the following words in the correct order to make sentences:1) was - at - the - 20-th - beginning - the - century - invented - dirigible- of- the;2) 1937 - in - the - applauded - world - the - flight - Chkalov - to- by- USA - the;3) is - S.A.Chaplygin - pioneer - in - the - of - aerodynamics - speeds - high;4) aircraft - be - will - the - by - powered - engines - SM146;5) is - helicopter - capable - the - carrying - of - military- out - and - tasks – both - civil;6) Show- Farnborough - Proves - a - Air - Success - Companies - Russian - for;7) develop - N.E.Zhukovsky - the - to - was - first - a - theory - scientific - wing;8) has - aerodynamics - a - been - combining - science - with - knowledge - practical - experiments - theoretical;9) birds - observations - gave - the - of - flying - men - human - idea - flight - of;10) plane - can - each - from - seat - 60 - 95 - to - passengers. 10. Translate the following sentences into English:

Научные принципы полета человека изучались великим ученым Леонардо да Винчи. Он изучал потоки воздуха и создал первую летающую машину.

Первый фактический полет был сделан на воздушном шаре в 1783 г. Этот полет длился 10 минут, и его высота была 25 метров.

Первым русским конструктором самолета был Александр Можайский. Он сконструировал моноплан с двумя паровыми двигателями в 1882 году.

Ученые и конструкторы многих стран работали над созданием и совершенствованием летательных аппаратов. Большим шагом вперед было создание первого самолета с двигателем внутреннего сгорания, сконструированного двумя американцами, братьями Райт.

Первый в мире многомоторный самолет был сконструирован русским конструктором Игорем Сикорским, а в начале 20-го столетия был изобретен дирижабль.

В 1913 г. в Петербурге был сконструирован тяжелый многомоторный самолет «Русский витязь». Полет «Русского Витязя» продолжался 1 час 34 минуты, его скорость была 90 км/час.

В 1937 году русский летчик Чкалов со своим экипажем совершил беспосадочный полет в США через Северный полюс.

Ломоносов построил модель первого вертолета. Менделеев разработал конструкцию стратостата с

герметизированной кабиной.

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С. Discussion

1. Choose one of the first Russian pilots and speak on his outstanding achievements in aviation.2. Work in pairs. Student A is a journalist, student B is a representative of the Russian company at the Farnborough air show. Discuss the achievements of Russia there. Then prepare an interview. Use the following words to introduce a list of ideas: firstly, secondly, finally.

Unit 2. International Civil Aviation Organizations

Active vocabulary

1. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) - международная организация гражданской авиации;

2. headquarters – штаб-квартира;3. to gather – собрать, собирать;4. air navigation – аэронавигация;5. to encourage – поощрять, стимулировать; 6. traffic services- службы обслуживания воздушного движения;7. International Air Transport Association (IATA) – международная

ассоциация воздушного транспорта;8. to unite – объединить, объединять;9. objective – цель, задача;10. to provide – обеспечить, предоставить;11. to contribute – содействовать, способствовать, внести вклад;12. maintenance deficiencies - недостатки обслуживания;13. data – данные; 14. to investigate – расследовать, исследовать;15. to conform – соответствовать; 16. International Federation of Air Traffic Controllers' Association

(IFATCA) - международная федерация авиадиспетчеров;17. airspace – воздушное пространство;18. peculiarity – особенность, своеобразие.

Guess the meaning of the following words: nationality, conference, coordination agency, to standardize, territory, Convention, principles and techniques, technical specifications, meteorology, information services, aviation

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specialists, world airlines, concentrate, cooperation, association, procedures, European organization.

A. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

It is known that the pioneers of aviation were men of different nationalities and of many countries: Deadalus and Leonardo de Vinci, Lilienthal and Bleriot, Mozhaiski and the Wright brothers and others. So the aeroplane is a creature of no one country's knowledge and efforts. A peculiarity of air transport made it clear from the start that the development of aviation was impossible without international agreement. That's why the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) was created. It happened in 1944 at a conference of 52 nations held in Chicago. At present there are about 200 member States in ICAO. Its headquarters is in Canada, Montreal. The working languages of ICAO are English, French, Spanish and Russian. Russia has been the member of ICAO since 1970.

It is very difficult to describe all of ICAO's activities. ICAO solves many problems on the international level. ICAO has a coordination agency. One of its purposes is to gather knowledge widely scattered among nations and to standardize the equipment and operational techniques used in air navigation in and over the territories of its member-states. The main task of ICAO is the flight safety. The aims of the Organization are spelt out in Article 44 of the Chicago Convention. These are to develop the principles and techniques of international air navigation, to plan and develop international air transport; to encourage the arts of aircraft design and operation for peaceful purposes; to encourage the development of airways, airports and air navigation facilities for international civil aviation, and so on.

To ensure the safe and efficient worldwide aviation operation ICAO has developed technical specifications forming the basis for uniform rules and procedures. Standardization affects the air-worthiness of aircraft, facilities and services required for aircraft operations elsewhere. These include: aerodromes, communications, navigational aids, meteorology, air traffic services, .search and rescue, information services. ICAO is doing much to make the air more clear. There are special standards to reduce noise by designing new quieter aircraft. ICAO has set up standards for air crew and controllers as well. IСAO is also doing much to prepare and train aviation specialists.

B. International Air Transport Association (IATA)

The second in its importance organization after ICAO for international civil aviation is IATA - International Air Transport Association founded in 1945. It is one of the international civil aviation organizations uniting world airlines. IATA is concentrated on the safety problem. Its main objective is to

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contribute to safe and regular development of civil aviation and to cooperation of world airlines. Its Technical Committee deals with the problem of safety, standardization of aviation equipment, training of flying personnel, communications, meteorology, aerodromes, navigational aids, etc. All IATA members report the data on flying, taxying and other ground incidents including maintenance deficiencies. Flight safety experts, aviation specialists and scientists of the member States investigate these accidents to prevent them in future. Russia is a member of IATA, it conforms to the IATA's standards, procedures and documents which is of great importance for studying and solving the problems which IATA deals with.

C. IFATCA and Eurocontrol

International Federation of Air Traffic Controllers' Association (IFATCA) was founded in 1961 with the purpose to enable the national associations to study and solve the problems for the development of air traffic control art and to create a better understanding among the controllers serving international aviation.

Eurocontrol is the European organization working for air navigation safety. It was created in 1963 for better service of European airspace. The increase of fast flying civil transport aircraft brought a number of difficulties and resulted in the necessity of new operating methods and use of advanced technology. Some European countries have signed the agreement of cooperation for the safety of air navigation and organized common air traffic services in the upper airspace.

A. Comprehension

1. Read text A. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text.1) Russia has been the member of ICAO since 1970.2) The aeroplane is a creature of no one country's knowledge and efforts.3) ICAO has set up standards for air crew and controllers.4) ICAO solves many problems on the international level.5) The main task of ICAO is the flight safety.

2. Read texts B and C. Choose the sentences which contain information about:1) safety problem;2) ground incidents;3) great importance;4) air traffic control;5) the agreement of cooperation.

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3. Answer the following questions:1. What is ICAO?2. When and where was ICAO created?3. How many member States are there in ICAO?4. How long has Russia been the member of ICAO?6. Where is the ICAO's headquarters?7. What are the working languages of ICAO?8. Where are the main aims of ICAO spelt out?9. How does ICAO ensure the safe and efficient aviation operation?10. What for are the uniform rules and procedures required?11. What is IATA concentrated on?12. Who report the data on flying, taxying and other ground incidents?13. Why was IFATCA founded? 14. What agreement have some European countries signed in Eurocontrol?

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Give the Russian equivalents for:1) international agreement;2) member States;3) to solve many problems;4) widely scattered;5) in and over the territories;6) to develop the principles;7) the arts of aircraft design;8) air navigation facilities;9) to ensure the efficient aviation;10) to contribute to regular development of civil aviation; 11) to be of great importance;

2. Complete the following sentences: 1) The development of aviation was impossible without international…….. a) services; b) agreement; c) level.2) ICAO has developed technical……. forming the basis for uniform rules.a) problems; b) cooperation; c) specifications.3) There are special …….. to reduce noise.a) standards; b) principles; c) communications.4) Its main objective is to contribute to safe and regular ….. of civil aviation.a) flights; b) rules; c) development.5) IFATCA was founded with the purpose to create a better ….. among the controllers.a) equipment; b) understanding; c) knowledge.

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3. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once.Civil, air, working, to solve, to gather, flight, peaceful, information, to reduce, to sign.1)…………noise; 6)………. transport;2)………….agreement; 7)……….purposes;3)…………..aviation; 8)………..problems;4)…………..languages; 9)………..knowledge;5)………….safety; 10)………..service.

4. Give the English equivalents for:Воздушный транспорт, безопасность полета, конструкция самолета, навигационные средства, правила воздушного движения, авиационные специалисты, проблема безопасности, информационная служба, мировые авиакомпании, воздушная навигация, полет самолета, специальные стандарты, мирные цели, международная авиация, воздушное пространство.

5. Fill in the missing conjunctions in the following sentences:1) Russia conforms to the IATA's documents … is of great importance for solving the problems … IATA deals with.2) It is known … the pioneers of aviation were men of different nationalities.3) European countries have signed the agreement of cooperation … they want the safety of air navigation.4) It happened at a conference of 52 nations in Chicago … at present there are about 200 member States in ICAO.5) The development of aviation was impossible without international agreement … the International Civil Aviation Organization was created.6) It was decided … ICAO would start working … the Convention was ratified by 26 states.

6. Fill in the following table using the information from the text.

Aviation Organization

Date of Foundation

Main Tasks/Purposes

7. Which word is the odd one out in each group and why?1. English, Turkish, Spanish, Russian;2. member, gather, pioneer, worker;3. headquarters, airplane, worldwide, knowledge;

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4. held, prepare, investigate, sign.

8. Form the adjectives from the following nouns and give their Russian equivalents.Difficulty, activity, cooperation, difference, necessity, creature, possibility, nation, peace, operation, navigation, efficiency, importance, cooperation.

9. Distribute the words below according to the parts of speech. Underline suffixes and prefixes. Translate the words. Verb Noun Adverb AdjectiveKnowledge, clear, describe, encourage, development, standardization, safety, airspace, efficient, widely, gather, understanding, international, fast, solve, equipment, operational, air-worthiness, happened, communication, main, task, conform, upper, develop, international, include, accidents, prevent, training.

10. Read the text. Fill in the correct preposition. … November 1944 … Chicago 52 nations signed the Convention …

International Civil Aviation. The 96 Articles … the Convention provide … the adoption … international standards and recommended practices. It was decided that ICAO would come… being (start working) after the Convention was ratified … 26 states. It happened … the 4-th … April … 1947. Montreal was chosen as the headquarters … the Organization.

The ICAO activities are numerous. The main task is to provide the necessary level … standardization …the safe and regular air operations. SAHRS (International Standard and Recommended practices) regulate air navigation, recommend installation … navigation facilities and suggest the reduction … customs formalities. International standards must be strictly observed … all member States. Recommended practices are desirable but not essential.

ICAO has a Sovereign body, the Assembly, and a governing body, the Council. The Assembly meets once… 3 years and reviews the work… the technical, economic and legal fields … detail.

One … the major Council duties is to adopt International Standards and Recommended Practices. It may act as an arbiter … Member States. And, general, it may take any steps necessary to maintain the safety and regularity … air operations.

11. Make these sentences a) interrogative, b) negative.1) There are 18 Annexes to the Convention.2) The Secretariat staff provides the permanent organizational work.3) ICAO has 6 regional offices. 4) The working languages of ICAO are English, French, Spanish and Russian.

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5) In 1958 the Warner Awards were established by ICAO for outstanding contributions to international civil aviation.6) The development of aviation was impossible without international agreement. 7) The increase of civil transport aircraft brought a number of difficulties.

12. Translate the following sentences into English: Ясно, что невозможно обеспечить безопасный полет без

международного сотрудничества. ИКАО была создана в 1944 г. на Конференции 52 наций в Чикаго. Штаб-квартира ИКАО находится в Канаде, в Монреале. В настоящее время в ИКАО около 200 стран – членов ИКАО. Россия не была членом ИКАО до 1970 г.

ИКАО решает много проблем, но главная из них - безопасность полетов.

Основная задача ИКАО – стандартизировать оборудование и технику, используемые в воздушной навигации над территориями ее стран - участников. Существуют общие правила полета и процедуры, которые все страны – участники должны соблюдать. ИКАО много делает для подготовки и тренировки авиационных специалистов, как пилотов, так и диспетчеров.

В мире существуют и несколько других международных авиационных организаций. Так, например, члены ИАТА сообщают данные о катастрофах, которые произошли в их стране. А эксперты ИАТА расследуют эти катастрофы, чтобы предотвратить их в будущем. ИФАТКА помогает всем диспетчерам, обслуживающим международную авиацию, лучше понимать друг друга. Евроконтроль был создан для лучшего обслуживания европейского воздушного пространства.

С. Discussion

1. Speak on one of the International Civil Aviation Organizations and describe its different activities, main tasks and purposes. Use the following words to express reality: in fact, in general, actually, as a matter of fact, in practice etc.2. Work in pairs. You are the members of different International Civil Aviation Organizations. Ask each other questions discussing the problems they deal with.

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Unit 3. Modern Tendencies of Development

Active vocabulary

1. link – связь;2. vehicle – транспортное средство, машина;3. freight – груз;4. to assess – оценить, оценивать;5. cockpit – кабина;6. rudder – руль;7. to retract – отказать, отказаться, убрать;8. accommodation – размещение, проживание;9. to expand – расширить, расширять;10. landing gear – шасси, стойки шасси;11. surface – поверхность, площадь;12. high-capacity – высокая производительность, пропускная

способность;13. circumstance – обстоятельство;14. to reveal – выявить, раскрыть, показать;15. diversified – разнообразный;16. apron – перрон;17. to arrange – организовать, устроить, договориться;18. to handle – обращаться, обрабатывать;19.overhaul – капитальный ремонт;20. double deck – двухэтажный;21. to ensure – обеспечить, гарантировать;22. aisle – проход, коридор;23. Range – диапазон, спектр, ряд;24. extensive – обширный;25. payload – грузоподъемность, полезная нагрузка;26. stretched – протянувшийся, растянутый;27. to launch – запустить, запускать.

Guess the meaning of the following words : distance, to patrol, resources, mineral, components, the fuselage, baggage, instruments, vertical stabilizer, horizontal, stability, maneuvering, structure, airport, theory, practice, charts, centre, hangars, character, factor, operation, function, radio communications, brigade, electricity, terminals, hotel, electronic, carousel, program, strategic, modifications.

Aircraft

In the dynamic world of today, aviation provides a rapid transportation link between different population centers. In many places the

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aeroplane is the only known vehicle for the large-scale movement of passengers and freight over large distances. The airplane has made it possible to patrol the forests, to fight their fires, to assess their timber resources and to plan their harvesting. It has made an enormous contribution to the photographing and mapping of the vast territories, to exploring and prospecting for mineral wealth and to studying and assessing the water resources.

The main components of airplanes are as follows:1. The fuselage is the main body of the airplane and contains the pilot's

compartment (cockpit) and passenger and baggage compartments. The cockpit contains the flight controls and instruments.

2. The wings are the main lifting surfaces which support the aircraft in flight. Aircraft may be divided into monoplanes and biplanes.

3. The tail unit or empennage consists of a vertical stabilizer and rudder and the horizontal stabilizer and elevators to provide the necessary stability in flight.

4. The three basic flight control surfaces are the ailerons, the elevators and the rudder.

5. The power plant is the heart of the airplane. There are many types of engines: turboprop, turbojet, turbofan, rocket engines, etc.

6. The landing gear or undercarriage is used during maneuvering of the aircraft on the ground while taxying, taking off and landing. In flight the retractable landing gear is retracted into the wing or the fuselage structure.

A. Comprehension

1. Read the text and answer the following questions:1) What does aviation provide?2) What are the main parts of the aircraft?3. What does the fuselage contain?4) Why are the wings required?5) What does the tail unit provide?6) What is the power plant?7) What types of engines do you know?8) When are the landing gears used?

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) The airplane has made a great contribution to exploring and prospecting for mineral wealth.2) The wings are the main body of the airplane.3) The cockpit and instruments support the aircraft in flight.

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4) Vertical and horizontal stabilizers, rudder and elevators provide the necessary stability in flight.5) The landing gear is used during assessing the water resources.6) The heart of the airplane is the power plant.

2. Match the numbers to the letters.1. aeroplane; a) cockpit;2. tail unit; b) vehicle;3. turboprop; c) type of engine;4. landing gear; d) empennage;5. compartment; e) territory;6. area. f) undercarriage.

3. Give the Russian equivalents for:1) rapid transportation link;2) movement of passengers;3) to plan harvesting;4) to study the water resources;5) main components;6) lifting surfaces;7) to provide the necessary stability;8) the heart of the airplane;9) rocket engines;10) the only known vehicle.

4. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once.Dynamic, pilot’s, vertical, power, landing, main, transportation, large-scale. 1) ……..movement; 5) ………world;2) ……..body; 6)………..stabilizer;3)………link; 7)…………gear;4) ……..compartment; 8)…………plant;

5. Which word is the odd one out in each group and why?1. fuselage, wings, vehicle, empennage;2. turboprop, turbojet, turbofan, turbine;3. ailerons, cockpit, elevators, rudder;4. prospecting, taxying, taking off, landing.

6. Give the English equivalents for:Населенные центры, минеральные и водные ресурсы, применение авиации, перевозка пассажиров, пассажирское и грузовое отделения, приборы самолета, навигационные приборы, рули управления самолетом, пилотская

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кабина, конструкция фюзеляжа, аварийная ситуация, поисково-спасательные операции.

7. Read the text. Fill in the gaps with words from the list.Established, terminal, airports, traffic, working, practice, post office, small, area, millions, provide, service.

Airport

There are airports in every country. In theory, an aircraft can fly an infinite number of paths through the air from any surface point to any other. In………, paths of flight lead from airport to airport. Aircraft not only need proper landing and taking off facilities. Moreover, those who use aircraft need services and accommodations which the airport must ……….

In the early days of aviation when aeroplanes were ……. a cow pasture could be used as a "flying field". But with the continuous increase of air……. and the introduction of high-capacity aircraft it became necessary to expand airport facilities, to build new terminal buildings and to construct new ……….

In the interest of aviation safety and air traffic assistance and control air traffic rules were ………... The rules relate chiefly to weather minima, flight altitudes and traffic patterns which are to be used under different circumstances. Much can be learned about the nature of a specific airport from aeronautical charts which pilots use. For example, the chart reveals the type and size of an airport, the radio facilities it uses and its altitude and location.

The modern airport is a complex structure, a centre of most diversified services. ……….. of passengers and thousands of tons of airfreight are handled by modern airports. Thousands of people are ………… at airports.

In practical any airport can be divided into two main parts: the landing area (runways and taxiways) and the terminal …. (aprons, buildings, car parking areas, hangars, etc.). There is also a third part - terminal air traffic control. The landing area includes runways and taxiways. The number of runways, their length and location depend on the volume and character of traffic, the prevailing wind direction and other factors.

The runways and taxiways should be arranged so that to prevent delays on landing, taxying and take off operations.

Aprons are required for aircraft to make final checks prior to departure.

The main function of the ……… buildings is to handle the departing and arriving passengers and their baggage.

Among the airport services are: flight assistance service, air traffic control services - airport traffic control, approach control, air route traffic control, radio communications and weather observation and forecasting service.

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At every airport there is a number of supplementary……… such as rescue and security services, an airport clinic, a fire brigade, special vehicles and equipment units (water trucks, tow tractors, etc.).

Other services include maintenance, overhaul and repair of stationary and mobile equipment, the supply of electricity, water, heat and air conditioning.

The facilities include runways, air navigational aids, passenger and cargo terminals. The airport has a hotel, a …….., bank offices, restaurants, car rental firms, etc. In the terminal there is everything for quick passenger handling: check-in desks, electronic flight information board of departure and arrival times, the baggage claim carousel and many others.

8. Choose the sentences which contain information about:1) charts; 2) the landing area; 3) passenger handling;4) aprons;5) "flying field";6) supplementary services.

9. Give the Russian equivalents for:1) take off facilities;2) cow pasture;3) air traffic assistance;4) flight altitudes;5) different circumstances;6) aeronautical charts;7) runways and taxiways;8) wind direction;9) prior to departure;10) forecasting service;11) air navigational aids.

10. Find four sentences in the text with grammatical structure there be (имеется кто-то/ что-то где-то). Translate them into Russian.

11. Fill in the correct form of the verb: 1) Aviation ….. a rapid transportation link between different population centers.a) provides; b) is providing; c) provide.2) The facilities ….. runways, air navigational aids, passenger and cargo terminalsa) includes; b) include; c) are including.3) The chart ….. the type and size of an airport, the radio facilities.a) reveal; b) revealed; c) reveals.

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4) The number of runways, their length and location ….. on the volume and character of traffic.a) are depending; b) depends; c) depend. 12. Fill in the following table:

Verb Noun Adjectiveintroduce

safetyprevent

navigationalcooperation

createinformation

practicalcontinue

detective

13. Give English equivalents for: Средства посадки и взлета, правила управления воздушным движением, схема движения, радиосредства, зона посадки, преобладающее направления ветра, службы аэропорта, контроль подхода, наблюдение за погодой, служба поиска и спасания, обслуживание пассажиров, грузовой терминал.

14. Read the text and fill in the appropriate form of the verbs:

Airbus A-380

The 555 seat, double deck Airbus A380 is the most ambitious civil aircraft program yet. When it … (enter) service in March 2006, the A380 … (be) the world's largest airliner.

Airbus first …(begin) studies on a very large 500 seat airliner in the early 1990s. It all started as a strategic play to end Boeing's dominance of the very large airliner market and complete Airbus' product line-up.

Key design aims … (include) the ability to use existing airport infrastructure with little modifications to the airports, and direct operating costs per seat 15-20% less than those for the 747-400. With 49% more floor space and only 35% more seating than the previous largest aircraft, Airbus … (ensure) wider seats and aisles for more passenger comfort. Using the most advanced technologies, the A380 is also designed to have 10-15% more range, lower fuel burn and emissions, and less noise.

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The A380 would feature an advanced version of the Airbus common two crew cockpit, with pull-out keyboards, for the pilots, extensive use of composite materials such as GLARE, and four turbofan engines now under development.

Several A380 models are planned: the basic aircraft … (be) the 555 seat A380-800 and high gross weight A380-800, with the longer range A380-800R planned. The A380-800F freighter is able to carry a 150 tons payload. Future models … (include) the shortened, 480 seat A380-700, and the stretched, 656 seat, A380-900.

The Airbus A380 … (be) officially launched on December 19, 2000, and production … (start) on January 23, 2002.

15. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once.Civil, operating, advanced, double, turbofan, crew, strategic, passenger.1)………..deck; 5) ………..comfort;2)………..aircraft; 6)………..play;3)………..costs; 7)………..version;4)………..cockpit; 8)……….engines.

16. Fill in the correct preposition, then make sentences using the completed phrases:1) to begin studies ….;2) ….. the late 1990s;3) wider seats ….comfort;4) a version …. the Airbus;5) pull-… keyboard;6) use ….composite materials;7) ….development;8) …. the longer range;9) …. December 19;10) … March 2006.

17. Make these sentences (a) interrogative, (b) negative.1) Double deck Airbus A380 enters service in March 2006.2) Airbus began studies on a large 500 seat airliner in 1990s.3) Future models will include the shortened A380-700.4) Airbus is ensuring wider seats and aisles for more passenger comfort.5) The aeroplane has become the only known vehicle for the large-scale movement of passengers.6) Before the production started in January 2002, the company had already launched The Airbus A380.

18. Translate the following sentences into English:

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Авиация применяется во многих аспектах общественной жизни. Она обеспечивает быструю перевозку пассажиров и груза из одной точки в другую. В некоторых местах авиация является единственным средством перевозки.

Фюзеляж является основной частью самолета. Несущими поверхностями самолета являются крылья. Крылья и хвостовое оперение состоят из подвижных частей, таких как руль высоты, руль поворота, руль направления, стабилизатор, элерон. В кабине пилота много приборов, показывающих скорость и высоту полета, работу двигателя и другую информацию.

Почти в каждом городе есть аэропорт, большой или маленький. Размер аэропорта зависит от объема перевозимых пассажиров и груза. С увеличением воздушного транспорта и с введением новых современных самолетов старые аэропорты расширяются и реконструируются.

Для обеспечения безопасности полетов существуют правила воздушного движения.

Аэробус А-380 является самым большим авиалайнером в мире. Он обеспечен более широкими сиденьями и проходами для большего удобства пассажиров.

С. Discussion

1. Speak on the advantages of this airliner modification (Airbus A-380). Try to use the following phrases: in the first place (firstly), what is more (furthermore), in addition, moreover, all things considered.2. Roleplay the following situation. You work at the airport. Choose one of the airport services and present its activity in class. Use the following words to move on to the next point: then, after this/ that, subsequently.

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Part 2. Navigation

Unit 4. Air Navigation

Active vocabulary

1. to navigate – ориентироваться, перемещаться;2. compression – компрессия, сжатие;3. still – еще, все еще, до сих пор;4. altitude – высота;5. to determine – определять;6. to maintain – поддерживать, сохранять;7. reference – ссылка, справка;8. dead reckoning – экстраполяция;9. by means of – путем, посредством, с помощью;10. celestial – небесный;11. navigational aids – навигационное оборудование, средства

навигации;12. to touch down – приземляться, касаться земли;13. established – установленный;14. estimate – оценка, смета;15. preliminary – предварительный;16. transmitter – передатчик, датчик;17. receiver – приемник, ресивер;18. to penetrate – проникать.

Guess the meaning of the following words: distance, maximum, atmosphere, geographical position, principal methods of navigation, pilotage, time intervals, navigational techniques, discussion. numerous calculations, radio communication, meteorological situation.

A. Methods of Navigation

Learning to fly occupied the minds of men almost from the beginning of recorded history. It brings us stories of flying machines, but man’s first powered flight in a heavier-than-air machine was made in 1903.

This flight lasted for 12 seconds and covered a distance over the ground of only 120 feet. This flight was made against wind of 24 mph and was equal to a flight of 540 feet in still air. The maximum altitude attained was 12 feet above the ground.

In the old days pilots listened to the winds in the wires and were happy to fly at any speed. But now a fast flying aircraft pushes through the atmosphere so rapidly that the air can't get out fast enough because the air is

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compressed and heated by the compression. At such great speeds it's not so easy as before to pilot the plane, to determine the geographical position and to maintain desired directions to navigate.

Through centuries 4 principal methods of navigation have been developed. They may be briefly described as follows:

1. Pilotage, by which the pilot is directing the aircraft with the reference to visible landmarks.

2. Dead reckoning, by which the distance and direction are determined between two known positions, or in which position is determined from the distance and direction from a known position.

3. Radio navigation, or the determination of position by means of radio bearings, distances or time intervals.

4. Celestial navigation, in which position is determined by means of sextant observations of the sun, moon, planets, or stars, with exact time of the observations.

B. Navigator’s Role

Ever since the time when people found their way by using a column of smoke by day and fire by night, navigation, navigational techniques, and navigational aids have been the subject of discussion.

What is navigation? Navigation is the art of determining the geographical position and maintaining desired direction of an aircraft relative to the earth's surface.

A navigator belongs to the flying staff of the crew. He performs his duties by means of navigational aids and different instruments installed along the airways as well as in a plane and by making numerous calculations. That's why a navigator must know technical aids of air navigation and methods of their application during flight perfectly well. He should make navigational preparations for flight in good time. The navigator's duties performed by him during flight, are rather numerous: he must navigate the plane according to the flight plan from take off to touch down; control the progress of the aircraft by means of all established navigational methods and technical aids. He must know and observe the rules of radio communication and keep watch on airborne aids. The navigator has to get flight charts prepared personally and in advance. In addition to all duties mentioned above he must make a correct estimate of the meteorological situation.

In the course of preliminary preparation of the crew for flight the navigator together with other members of the flying staff studies the order of conducting flight on a given airway and radio aids available. Navigator's task is to determine aircraft's position, direction and speed of flight.

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Usually navigators fly on heavy planes. As aircraft become larger and faster, requirements to navigator's work increase. Longer flight sends out radio waves and then measures the amount of time that it takes for the waves to return.

A radar set includes a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter sends out at regular intervals short pulses of high-frequency waves. These can penetrate clouds and darkness. They move out in a straight line. Having met some object they are reflected back to the radar set and are translated into a spot of light on the screen.

Ground radar is used to guide planes to a landing in bad weather.

A. Comprehension

1. Read the texts and answer the following questions:1) What was made in 1903?2) What distance did the first flight cover?3) How did people pilot the plane long ago?4) What methods of navigation have been developed?5) What does a navigator belong to?6) How does he perform his duties?7) What must he know very well?8) What are the navigator's duties?9) Where do navigators usually fly?10) What does a radar set consist of?11) Why is ground radar used?

2. Read text B. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text.1) The navigator's duties are rather numerous.2) High-frequency waves can penetrate clouds and darkness.3) Navigator's task is to determine aircraft's position.4) Navigation has been the subject of discussion.5) A navigator belongs to the flying staff.

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) The maximum altitude attained was 12 feet under the ground.2) At great speeds it's easy to pilot the plane, to determine the geographical position.3) A navigator performs his duties by means of navigational aids and different instruments.4) He must control the progress of the aircraft by means of navigational methods and technical aids.

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5) Navigator's task is to determine principal methods of navigation.6) A transmitter set includes a radar and a receiver.

2. Give Russian equivalents for:1) heavier - than - air machine;2) to push through the atmosphere;3) heated by the compression;4) to maintain desired direction;5) the reference to visible landmarks;6) by means of radio bearings;7) sextant observations of the sun;8) the earth's surface;9) according to the flight plan;10) correct estimate;11) preliminary preparation;12) radio aids available.

3. Give definitions to the following words:1) navigation;2) navigator;3) pilotage;4) dead reckoning;5) radio navigation;6) celestial navigation.

4. Match the numbers to the letters:1. flying a) radar2. technical b) staff3. meteorological c) situation.4. high-frequency d) aids5. ground e) history6. recorded f) waves

5. Fill in the correct preposition, then make sentences using the completed phrases:1) to last…. 12 seconds;2) to be made …… wind;3) ….. still air;4) …. any speed;5) ….. centuries;6) …. the reference … visible landmarks;7) direction …. a known position;8) … means … radio bearings;

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9) preparations … flight;10) column … smoke … day;11) relative …. the earth's surface;12) to install…. the airways;13) according…. the flight plan;14)… take … to touch …; 15) flight … a given airway.

6. Make these sentences (a) interrogative, (b) negative.1) A fast flying aircraft pushes through the atmosphere rapidly.2) In the old days pilots listened to the winds in the wires.3) Through centuries people have developed 4 principal methods of navigation.4) He must navigate the plane according to the flight plan.5) A private pilot will usually use an aeronautical chart of the area.6) The aircraft is moving relative to the body of air.7) The chosen route is plotted on the map.

7. Read the text. Point out its main ideas and write them out.

Route Planning

The first step in navigation is deciding where one wishes to go. A private pilot planning a flight will usually use an aeronautical chart of the area which is published specifically for the use of pilots. This map will depict controlled airspace, radio navigation aids and airfields prominently, as well as hazards to flying such as mountains, tall radio masts, etc. It also includes sufficient ground detail - towns, roads, wooded areas - to aid visual navigation. The information is also updated in the notices to airmen, or NOTAMs.

The pilot will choose a route, taking care to avoid controlled airspace that is not permitted for the flight, restricted areas, and dangerous areas and so on. The chosen route is plotted on the map, and the lines drawn are called the track. The aim of all subsequent navigation is to follow the chosen track as accurately as possible.

When an aircraft is in flight, it is moving relative to the body of air through which it is flying; therefore maintaining an accurate ground track is not as easy as it might appear, unless there is no wind at all — a very rare occurrence. The pilot must adjust heading to compensate for the wind, using the forecast wind directions and speeds supplied by the meteorological authorities. These figures are generally accurate and updated several times per day, but the unpredictable nature of the weather means that the pilot must be prepared to make further adjustments in flight.

The primary instrument of navigation is the magnetic compass. The needle or card aligns itself to magnetic north, which does not coincide with true

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north, so the pilot must also allow for this, called the magnetic variation. The variation that applies locally is also shown on the flight map. Once the pilot has calculated the actual headings required, the next step is to calculate the flight times for each leg. This is necessary to perform accurate dead reckoning. The pilot also needs to take into account the slower initial airspeed during climb to calculate the time to top of climb.

The flight time will depend on both the desired cruising speed of the aircraft, and the wind - a tailwind will shorten flight times, a headwind will increase them.

The point of no return, sometimes referred to as the PNR, is the point on a flight at which a plane has just enough fuel, plus any mandatory reserve, to return to the airfield from which it departed. Beyond this point that option is closed, and the plane must proceed to some other destination. Similarly, the Equal time point, referred to as the ETP is the point in the flight where it would take the same time to continue flying straight, or track back to the departure aerodrome. The ETP is not dependant on fuel, but wind, giving a change in ground speed out from, and back to the departure aerodrome.

The final stage is to note which areas the route will pass through or over, and to make a note of all of the things to be done. Finally, the pilot should have in mind some alternative plans in case the route cannot be flown for some reason - unexpected weather conditions being the most common. At times the pilot may be required to file a flight plan for an alternate destination and to carry adequate fuel for this. The more work a pilot can do on the ground prior to departure, the easier it will be in the air.

8. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once. To choose, primary, magnetic, controlled, dead, ground, unpredictable, cruising, alternative, departure.1)……….airspace; 6)……. compass;2)…………a route; 7)…….reckoning;3)…………track; 8)…... speed;4) ……nature of the weather; 9)……aerodrome;5)……… instrument; 10)……plans.

9. Complete the following sentences: 1) An aeronautical chart of the area is ……. for the use of pilots.a) flown; b) published; c) required.2) …….. an accurate ground track is not as easy as it might appear.a) maintaining; b) flying; c) taking care.3) The pilot must be prepared to make further …….in flight. a) conditions; b) adjustments; c) speeds.4) The pilot needs to ……. the initial airspeed during climb.a) return; b) prepare; c) take into account.

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5) The ETP is not …….. on fuel, but wind.a) dependant; b) accurate; c) magnetic.

10. Give English equivalents for:Для использования пилотами, опасности полета, наземные детали, выбрать маршрут, запрещенные области, так точно, как это возможно, наземный путь, редкое событие, компенсировать ветер, обновляются несколько раз в день, магнитный компас, карта полета, подсчитать время полета, точка возврата, достаточно топлива, зависеть от ветра, в случае, неожиданные погодные условия, перед вылетом.

11. Fill in the following table as in the example:

Fly flew flown include

chosen permitted

supply drawn

might been

show take

made given

required

12. Match the words in the left column to the opposites in the right one:1) fast; 1) to forbid;2) to found; 2) slow;3) to arrive; 3) to reduce;4) heavy; 4) long;5) high; 5) light;6) to take off; 6) to depart;7) to increase; 7) to touch down;8) short; 8) to lose;9) to permit; 9) low;10) easy. 10) heavy.

13. Form the nouns from the following verbs and give their Russian equivalents.To calculate, to navigate, to apply, to prepare, to depart, to occur, to adjust, to depend, to begin, to return.

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14. Put the verbs in the correct tense:1) When an aircraft is in flight, it … (to move) relative to the body of air through which it … (to fly). 2) Once the pilot … (to calculate) the actual headings required, the next step is to calculate the flight times. 3) The primary instrument of navigation … (to be) the magnetic compass.4) Magnetic north … (not to coincide) with true north. 5) The pilot … (to need) to take into account the slower initial airspeed during climb. 6) The point of no return … (to be) the point on a flight at which a plane … (to have) just enough fuel to return to the airfield from which it … (to depart). 7) The more work a pilot can do on the ground, the easier it … (to be) in the air.

15. Translate the following sentences into English: Первый полет человека длился 12 секунд. Максимальная высота

полета составила 12 футов над землей. Не так легко, как может показаться, управлять самолетом на

больших скоростях. Навигация, навигационные приборы (приспособления) всегда являлись предметом широкого обсуждения. Существует 4 основных метода навигации. Радио навигация – это определение месторасположения посредством радиосвязи.

Навигатор является членом экипажа. Его обязанности довольно многочисленны. Он должен управлять самолетом в соответствии с планом полета. Задача навигатора – определить расположение самолета, направление и скорость полета.

Пилот выбирает маршрут, стараясь избегать запрещенных и опасных для полета зон. Выбранный маршрут наносится на карту, и необходимо следовать ему так точно, как это возможно.

Магнитный компас является первостепенным инструментом навигации.

Время полета зависит и от скорости самолета и от ветра. Точка возврата – это точка полета, при которой у самолета есть достаточно топлива, чтобы вернуться.

И наконец, пилот должен иметь в виду несколько альтернативных планов в случае, если маршрутом невозможно воспользоваться по некоторым причинам. Чем больше работы пилот может проделать на земле до отлета, тем легче будет в воздухе.

С. Discussion

1. Work in pairs. Student A is a navigator of an aircraft and student B wants to know everything about navigator's work. Discuss its duties, requirements and tasks. Use the following expressions used for describing:

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Well, because....... Well, the thing is.... If I could explain......Well, you see... It's like this, you see... The main reason is that…2. Using the information given in the text “Route Planning”, discuss the importance of choosing a route of the flight. Explain the factors which must be taken into account and note the instruments which can help pilots navigate a plane.

Unit 5. Radio Navigation

Active vocabulary

1. radio frequency - радиочастота;2. to rely on - полагаться; 3. radio beacon – радиомаяк;4. to align – выравнивать;5. remote – отдаленный;6. yoke – хомут;7. satellite – спутник;8. primary – основной, первостепенный;9. application – применение;10. secondary – вторичный;11. to transmit – передать;12. beam – луч;13. to pick up – взять;14. aid – помощь, поддержка;15. mode – способ;16. valuable – ценный;17. to identify – определить, опознать, выявлять;20. blip – вспышка;21. slash- разрез;22. to distinguish - различать, отличаться;23. cathode ray tube - электронно-лучевая трубка;24. SSR (Secondary Surveillance Radar) - вторичный радар

наблюдения;25. track – трасса, путь, дорожка;26. to measure – измерять, измерить.

Guess the meaning of the following words: radio navigation, radiolocation, visual landmarks , navigation maps, autopilot, to be ideal for, the

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principles of radar, early experiments, German engineer, phrase, air traffic control system, display of a radar, civil aviation, military, special position.

A. Radio Navigation

Radio navigation is the application of radio frequencies to determine a position on the Earth. Like radiolocation, it is a type of radiodetermination.

Instead of relying on visual landmarks (roads, rivers, churches, towns), radio navigation relies on radio beacons. Radio beacons can be seen with the right equipment, from far away and independent of the weather. The position of radio beacons is clearly marked on navigation maps. Radio beacons are placed near airports, they can be aligned with runways and can be placed in remote areas so to mark a route over them.

The time that a pilot had to fly with the yoke in their hands all the time has long been passed. Our aircraft have an autopilot and radio beacons are ideal for automated flight.

Satellite navigation (GPS) is taking over parts of radio navigation but each pilot will base their primary course on radio beacons and then use the GPS. If the GPS fails the course is back on radio beacons. For approach and landing there is no replacement for radio beacons.

B. Radar

The principles of radar are not new: in fact, some early experiments were made back in 1880s. In 1904 a German engineer had invented, as he explained, a “radio-echo collision prevention device.”

The word “radar” was originally derived from the descriptive phrase “Radio Detection and Ranging”.

The application of radar in the air traffic control system consists of two basic designs. The initial type of radar, called primary radar, began to be used for advanced air traffic control. When the word “radar” is used alone it usually includes both primary and secondary radar.

There are three additional forms associated with primary and secondary radar:

- Radar Echo – the visual indication on display of a radar signal transmitted from an object.

- Radar Response – the visual indication on display of a radar signal transmitted from an object in reply to an interrogation.

- Radar Blip – the collective term meaning either echo or response. In primary radar a beam of individual pulses of energy is transmitted

from the ground equipment. These pulses hit the aircraft from 16 to 34 times

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each scan. An aircraft in the path of this radar beam will reflect back some of the pulses which are picked up by a receiver. This reflected energy produces a bright “echo” or “target” on a cathode ray tube.

The SSR system provides for six modes; only two modes are used in civil aviation:

- Mode A for civil and military identification.- Mode C for automatic pressure altitude information.

The SSR is a valuable tool for automatically identifying aircraft. Identification is achieved by providing the controller with a specific radar beacon target identity of aircraft. A total of 4096 discrete reply codes are available for special position identification to be transmitted on request of a controller.

With SSR display, the controller sees aircraft returns on his PPI (plan position indicator) as two slashes, clearly distinguishing them from primary targets which are single blips.

A. Comprehension

1. Read texts A and B and answer the following questions:1) What is radio navigation?2) What does it rely on?3) Where are radio beacons placed?4) What happens if the GPS fails?5) When was radar invented?6) What does the application of radar consist of?7) How many forms associated with radar do you know? What are they?8) Where does reflected energy produce an “echo”?9) What modes are used in civil aviation?10) What is a tool for automatically identifying aircraft?11) Where does the controller see aircraft returns?

2. Read text B. Choose the sentences which contain information about:1) PPI (plan position indicator);2) “Radio Detection and Ranging”;3) cathode ray tube;4) primary radar;5) Mode C;6) Radar Blip.

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Give Russian equivalents for:1) application of radio frequencies;

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2) independent of the weather;3) to be ideal for automated flight;4) to base primary course;5) “radio-echo collision prevention device”;6) two basic designs;7) advanced air traffic control;8) visual indication on display;9) in reply to an interrogation;10) a beam of individual pulses of energy;11) an aircraft in the path of this radar beam;12) automatic pressure altitude information;13) automatically identifying aircraft.

2. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once. Valuable, primary, radio, pulses, remote, to see, to mark, visual, to determine, radar.1)……….beacons; 6)…….on navigation maps;2)…………areas; 7)…….radar;3)…………of energy; 8)…... indication;4) ………..on PPI; 9)……tool;5)……… a position; 10)……signal.

3. Choose the correct translation of the verbs. Explain your choice.1) Radio navigation relies on radio beacons.a) полагается; b) полагалась; c) будет полагаться.2) Two modes are used in civil aviation.a) использовались; b) используются; c) используют.3) A pilot will base their primary course on radio beacons.a) основывается; b) будет основываться; c) будет основывать.4) Radio beacons can be seen with the right equipment.a) можно увидеть; b) можно видеть; c) нужно увидеть.5) The initial type of radar began to be used for advanced air traffic control.a) начнет использоваться; b) начал использоваться; c) начинает использовать.6) An aircraft is moving relative to the body of air.a) движется (сейчас); b) движется (обычно); c) двигался.

4. Give English equivalents for:Применение радиочастот, визуальные ориентиры, независимо от погоды, положение радиомаяков, навигационные карты, взлетно-посадочные полосы, иметь автопилот, автоматизированный полет, использовать спутниковую навигацию, система авиадиспетчерской службы,

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собирательный термин, высота давления, запрос диспетчера, отраженная энергия.

5. Fill in the following table:

Verb Noun Adjectiveexplain

useprevention

descriptiveinform

dependentaddition

collectinterrogation

vary

6. Read the text. Fill in the gaps with words from the list.Maximum, measure, number, navigate, transmitted, exact, station, track, aircraft, types.

Radio Navigation Aids – VOR/DME

Navigation is the directing of …from one place to another along a particular line of travel. To … a pilot uses radio navigation aids. There are a variety of different … of radio navigation aids. Here are some of them.

VOR (omnidirectional radio range) and DME (distance measuring equipment) are often located at the same site. They operate on VHF (very high frequency) and UHF (ultra high frequency) respectively and are not affected by static or other interferences. The … range of VOR is about 200 nautical miles. By flying VOR the pilot ensures he is flying directly to the …. Also by measuring radials from more than one VOR station, a pilot can check his position.

The function of DME is to … distance. The DME measures, electronically, the time it takes for a signal … from an aircraft interrogator, to reach the ground base station transponder, and return. This elapsed time is converted to miles and appears on a digital indicator on the flight deck. The indicator actually seems to rapidly count the … of miles between the aircraft and the station giving the pilot a continuous digital reading of how far he is from or to a station.

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With the many VOR/DME stations along the route, a pilot can make good his desired …; is constantly aware of his distance to or from a DME station; or, by using two VOR radials, establish his …position.

7. Match the numbers to the letters:1. navigation; a) miles;2. high; b) distance;3. nautical; c) frequency;4. to measure; d) aids;5. digital; e) time;6. elapsed; f) indicator;7. to establish. g) position.

8. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) There are two different types of radio navigation aids.2) The maximum range of DME is about 200 nautical miles.3) By measuring radials a pilot can check his position.4) The indicator actually seems to rapidly write the number of miles.5) A pilot is constantly aware of his distance to or from a DME station.

9. Fill in the correct preposition then make sentences using the completed phrases:1) …. one place to another;2) a variety … different types;3) to be located … the same site;4) to operate … VHF;5) the time it takes … a signal;6) to be converted … miles;7) to appear … a digital indicator;8) to be aware … distance;9) to be affected … static;10) miles … the aircraft and the station.

10. Make these sentences passive:1) Satellite navigation is taking over parts of radio navigation.2) Pilots clearly mark the position of radio beacons on navigation maps.3) People used the primary radar for advanced air traffic control.4) An aircraft in the path of this radar beam will reflect back some of the pulses.5) A pilot can make good his desired track.

11. Translate the following sentences into English: Радио навигация полагается не на визуальные ориентиры, а на

радиомаяки. Расположение радиомаяков ясно отмечено на навигационных

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картах. В основном они размещаются возле аэропортов или в отдаленных районах, так чтобы по ним наметить маршрут. У самолета есть автопилот, и радиомаяки необходимы для автоматизированного полета.

В 1904 немецкий инженер изобрел первый радар. Существует два базовых радара – основной и вторичный. В основном радаре луч отдельного импульса энергии передается с наземного оборудования.

Вторичный радар наблюдения является ценным инструментом для того, чтобы автоматически идентифицировать самолет. Диспетчер видит самолет на своем PPI (индикатор положения плана) как два разреза, ясно отличая их от основных целей, которые являются единичными вспышками.

Навигация - направление самолета от одного места до другого. Чтобы управлять самолетом, пилот использует радионавигационные приборы.

Они воздействуют на УКВ (очень высокая частота) и УВЧ (крайне высокая частота) соответственно. Максимальный диапазон VOR составляет приблизительно 200 морских миль. Управляя VOR, пилот гарантирует, что летит непосредственно на станцию. Функция DME - измерение расстояния.

С. Discussion

1. Using the information from the text “Radar”, speak on the possibilities of radars in civil aviation.2. Make a project on “Radio Navigation” and present it in the class.

Unit 6. Visual Navigation

Active vocabulary

1. marking – разметка;2. to comprise –включать в себя, состоять из;3. threshold- порог;4. visibility – видимость;5. intensity – интенсивность;6. to warn- предупреждать; 7. obstacle – препятствие;8. slope – склон, уклон, наклон;9. wand – палочка, жезл;

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10.unloading – разгрузка;11. approach – заход на посадку, приближение;12. alignment – согласование, выравнивание;13. descent – спуск;14. glide path transmitter –передатчик пути скольжения;15. localizer transmitter – передатчик радиомаяка;16. to radiate – излучать;17. inner – внутренний;18. appropriate – подходящий, уместный, целесообразный;19. to intercept - перехватить, перехватывать;20. to generate – создавать, генерировать, получать;21. concerning – относительно, касательно;22. destination – пункт назначения, направление.

Guess the meaning of the following words : lines, centre, lights, effective, adequate, controller, distance, signal, hangars, electronically, colour, aircraft, position, finally, systems, marker, functionally, channels, final, location, normally, zone, international civil aviation, regularity, meteorological information, Convention, territory, airspace.

A. Visual Aids for Navigation

Additional visual aids to navigation consist of markings on the aerodromes. These markings comprise single lines or rows of lines which, for the pilot, are very important for holding positions, runway thresholds, the runway centre lines, the sides of the runways, etc.

However, at night or during poor visibility by day, lights are required. To be effective lights must be of adequate intensity. At certain aerodromes the controller can vary the intensity of some of the lights so that they can be reduced not to blind the pilot and strong enough so that he can see them in bad weather.

The first light a pilot sees on approach is generally the aerodrome beacon. It may rotate and can be seen at a great distance. There might be an identification beacon which shows green flashes of light. Red lights, the usual danger signal, warn pilots of the obstacles such as hangars and other high buildings, telephone poles, etc. Runway edge lights identify the runway and approach lights assist the pilot to align himself with the runway.

Lights may also be used to provide a glide path similar to what an ILS provide electronically. The Visual Approach Slope Indicator System (VASIS) is a beam of light having a white colour in its upper part and a red colour in its lower part. A pilot of an aeroplane during an approach will:

a) when above the approach slope, see the lights to be white in colour;b) when on the approach slope, see the lights to be pink in colour; andc) when below the approach slope, see the lights to be red in colour.

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By reference to VASIS, combined with ILS, the pilot can bring an aircraft down safely almost to touchdown by day or night.

After landing, he follows the blue taxi lights along the taxiway to the apron and the service areas.

At the service area a marshaller, with illuminated wands, directs the aircraft with signals to its proper position for unloading and, finally, signals pilot to cut the engines.

B. ILS (Instrument Landing System)

The ILS is designed to provide an approach path for exact alignment and descent of an aircraft on final approach to a runway.

The ground equipment consists of two highly directional transmitting systems along with three (or fewer) marker beacons. The directional transmitters are known as the localizer and glide path transmitters.

The system may be divided functionally into three parts: guidance information – localizer, glide path Range information – marker beacons, Visual information – approach lights, touchdown and centerline lights, runway lights.

1. The localizer transmitter, operating on one of the twenty ILS channels emits signals which provide the pilot with course guidance to the runway centerline.

2. The UHF (ultra high frequency) glide path transmitter, operating on one of the twenty ILS channels radiates the signals principally in the direction of the final approach.

3. Ordinarily, there are two marker beacons associated with an ILS; the outer marker and middle marker. However, some locations may employ a third beacon – the inner marker.

The outer marker normally indicates a position at which an aircraft at the appropriate altitude on the localizer course will intercept the ILS glide path.

The middle marker indicates a position at which an aircraft is approximately 3500 feet from the landing threshold. This will also be the position at which an aircraft on the glide path will be at an altitude of approximately 200 feet above the elevation of the touchdown zone.

The inner marker, where installed, will indicate a point at which an aircraft is at a designated decision height on the glide path between the middle marker and landing threshold.

A. Comprehension

1. Read texts A and B and answer the following questions:1) What does visual aids of navigation consist of?2) When are lights required?3) What are the first lights a pilot sees on approach?

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4) What is the purpose of red lights?5) What colours does the Visual Approach Slope Indicator System have?6) What lights does the pilot follow after landing?7) Who directs the aircraft with signals to its proper position?8) Why is the ILS designed?9) What parts may the system be divided into?10) What does the UHF glide path transmitter radiate?11) What position does the middle marker indicate?

2. Read text B. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text.1) There are two marker beacons associated with an ILS.2) The ground equipment consists of two transmitting systems.3) The inner marker will indicate a point at which an aircraft is at a designated decision height on the glide path.4) Some locations may employ a third beacon – the inner marker.5) The localizer transmitter emits signals which provide the pilot with course guidance to the runway centerline.

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) To be effective lights must be of adequate intensity.2) The aerodrome beacon can be seen at a small distance.3) Green lights warn pilots of the obstacles.4) Lights may also be used to provide a glide path.5) A pilot will see the red lights when below the approach slope.6) The directional transmitters are known as the controller and glide path transmitters.7) The outer marker indicates a position at which an aircraft will intercept the ILS glide path.

2. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once. Provide, approach, cut, transmitting, runway, aerodrome, outer, indicate, touchdown, coarse.1)………. thresholds; 6) to…….the engines;2) to.……a glide path; 7)……guidance;3)…………beacon; 8)…... marker;4) ………..slope; 9) to……a position;5)……… systems; 10)……zone.

3. Give Russian equivalents for:1) markings on the aerodromes;

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2) rows of lines;3) sides of the runways;4) usual danger signal;5) telephone poles;6) to align with the runway;7) by reference to VASIS;8) proper position for unloading;9) exact alignment;10) glide path transmitters;11) to emit signals;12) final approach;13) appropriate altitude.

4. Match the words in the left column to the opposites in the right one:1. upper; a) to open;2. above; b) to divide;3. outer; c) inner;4. to approach; d) lower; 5. to close; e) to move away;6. landing; f) below;7. to combine. g) taking off.

5. Fill in the correct preposition then make sentences using the completed phrases:1) consist…. markings … the aerodromes;2) during poor visibility… day;3) flashes of light;4) to warn pilots … the obstacles;5) lights to be white … colour;6) to bring an aircraft …. safely;7) to be divided … three parts;8) to operate … twenty ILS channel;9) beacons associated …. an ILS;10) 500 feet … the landing threshold;11) … the appropriate altitude;12) … the direction … the final approach;13) … the middle marker and landing threshold.

6. Find modal verbs in the given sentences and choose their translation: 1) To be effective lights must be of adequate intensity.a) должны; b) могут; c) нужны.2) The controller can vary the intensity of the lights.a) должен; b) обязан; c) может.

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3) The aerodrome beacon may rotate.a) может; b) следует; c) должен.4) There might be an identification beacon.a) должен; b) может; c) нужен.5) The pilot could bring an aircraft down safely.a) мог; b) должен был; c) сумел.6) An aircraft should be 3500 feet from the landing threshold.a) нужно; b) следует; c) может.

7. Give English equivalents for:Разметка на аэродромах, стороны взлетно-посадочной полосы, плохая видимость днем, соответствующая интенсивность, вращаться, на большом расстоянии, зеленые вспышки света, телефонные столбы, сигнал опасности, путь скольжения, безопасно снизить самолет, точное выравнивание, передающие системы, визуальная информация, приблизительно, излучать сигналы, показывать положение.

8. Read the text and put the verbs in brackets into the correct passive tense.

Aeronautical Information Service

One of the least known and most vital roles in support of international civil aviation … (to fill) by the Aeronautical Information Service (AIS). The objective of the Aeronautical Information Service is to ensure the flow of information necessary for the safety, regularity and efficiency of international air navigation.

Standards and Recommended Practices For AIS …first (to adopt) by the Council on 15 May, 1953, and … (to designate) as Annex 15 to the ICAO Convention.

Each country provides AI concerning its own territory. It … (to publish) in the Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) and in Notices to Airmen (NOTAM).

Information generated by AIS and AIP system … (to direct) to pilots before taking off. NOTAM information might include advice that certain airspace … temporarily (to close), because of rocket launching, for example, or that a non-directional radio navigation beacon at a particular location is inoperative.

In addition to NOTAM a SNOWTAM … (to adopt), a special series of NOTAM informing about the presence or removal of hazardous conditions at airport due to snow, ice, slush or standing water on the aircraft movement areas of airports.

A pilot planning a flight will prepare his flight plan according to the NOTAM information. What information … (to need) for the pilot? This

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information is quite varied. First of all he wants to know which airway to follow to the aerodrome of his destination. Further information needed by the pilot is that about facilities available en route and at the point of destination, the length of the runways, the communication frequencies, meteorological information, etc. He fills out a flight plan giving the route he is to follow and the description of the route, the name of the aerodrome of his destination and also the name of the alternate aerodrome and other information.

Having the information received from the pilot Air Traffic Control can control the flight.

9. Read the text again. Choose the sentences which contain information about:1) SNOWTAM;2) flight plan;3) NOTAM information;4) Aeronautical Information Publication;5) The objective of the AIS.

10. Match the numbers to the letters.1. information; a) conditions; 2. hazardous; b) frequencies;3. rocket; c) service;4. communication; d) rules;5. flight; e) flight;6. alternate; f) launching; 7. to control. g) aerodrome.

11. Fill in the following table as in the example:

know knew known adopt

stood closed

follow seen

identified cut

bring install

chose broken

began

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12. Form the verbs from the following nouns and give Russian equivalents.Information, navigation, publication, presence, removal, movement, description, combination, flight, regularity.

13. Make up some questions to the underlined words.1) Standards and Recommended Practices were first adopted by the Council on 15 May, 1953.2) ICAO adopted a SNOWTAM, a special series of NOTAM.3) A pilot will prepare his flight plan according to the NOTAM information.4) He wants to know which airway to follow.5) Having the information received Air Traffic Control can control the flight.6) Information is directed to pilots before taking off.

14. Translate the following sentences into English: Разметка на аэродромах состоит из одиночных линий или рядов

линий.Ночью или во время плохой видимости днем, требуются огни.

Диспетчер может менять интенсивность огней. Красный свет является обычным сигналом опасности и предупреждает пилотов о препятствиях. Огни края взлетно-посадочной полосы идентифицируют взлетно-посадочную полосу.

Маяк аэродрома может вращаться и виден с большого расстояния. Существует два маяка маркера, связанных с системой приземления - внешний маркер и средний маркер. Средний маркер указывает на положение, в котором самолет находится в 3500 футах от порога приземления.

Пилот может безопасно снизить самолет почти до приземления днем или ночью. Пилот, планирующий полет, подготовит свой план полета согласно информации NOTAM.

Система приземления разработана, чтобы обеспечить путь подхода для спуска самолета на заключительном подходе к взлетно-посадочной полосе. Система может быть функционально разделена на три части.

Цель Аэронавигационной Информационной службы состоит в том, чтобы гарантировать поток информации, необходимый для безопасности международной воздушной навигации. Стандарты и Рекомендуемые Методы АИС были определены в качестве Приложения 15 к Соглашению ИКАО.

NOTAM принял SNOWTAM, которые информируют о наличии или отсутствии опасных условий в аэропорту.

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С. Discussion

1. Read text A again. Entitle each paragraph to make the plan. Write down some key words and useful expressions. Retell the text according to the plan and using key words.2. Work in pairs. Discuss the activities of the Aeronautical Information Service. Ask and answer questions about NOTAM. Use the following phrases to agree:Yes, I agree... Well, that's the thing..... Oh, I agree entirely.That's right/ true.... Yes. That's exactly my own view.I could not agree more. Dead right. I think I'd accept.I absolutely agree.... I'm with you there.

Part 3. Safety Problem in Aviation

Unit 7. Weather

Active vocabulary

1. achievement – достижение;2. collision – столкновение;3. regulation- регулирование, правило, регламентация;4. failure –отказ, провал, сбой, неудача;5. malfunction - неисправность, сбой;6.visibility – видимость;7. to revise – пересмотреть;8. provision – положения;9. sufficient – достаточный;10. proficiency – умение, знание, владение, мастерство;11.humidity – влажность;12. to equip – оснастить, оборудовать, обустроить;13. forecast – прогноз;14. to broadcast – транслировать, вещать;15. due to – из-за, благодаря, за счет;16. to affect – влиять, повлиять;17. dew point – точка росы;18. reliability – надежность, достоверность;19. to request – запрашивать;20. accurate – точный;21. annually – ежегодно.

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Guess the meaning of the following words : problem in aviation, aviation specialists, the result of progress, engineering, aerodynamics, meteorology, psychology, medicine, economics, high standards, aviation industry, aircraft structure, radiotelephony communications, standard phraseology, potential situations, standardization, all spheres of aviation, temperature, atmospheric pressure, special phenomena, meteorological service, zero visibility.

A. Safety

Safety is the most important problem in aviation. The prevention of collisions between aircraft in the air and on the ground is the main task of aviation specialists.

The achievement of aviation safety is the result of progress in many sciences and disciplines including engineering, aerodynamics, meteorology, psychology, medicine and economics.

Safety is ensured by thousands of ICAO and governmental regulations, by high standards in the design and manufacture of an aircraft and by strict procedures of airline safety practices.

The aviation industry is constantly taking steps to prevent accidents but the crashes do occur time after time. They result from different causes: failure in the aircraft structure, human errors, navigational failures, malfunctioning of airborne and ground aids, hazardous weather conditions and so on.

Poor knowledge of English can also contribute to or result in an accident or incident. Therefore ICAO revised the provisions related to the use of the language for radiotelephony communications and demands good discipline to follow more closely to standard phraseology in all air-ground exchanges.

Experience has shown that phraseology alone is not sufficient to cover all of the potential situations, particularly in critical or emergency situations. That’s why proficiency in common or plain language is also of great importance.

One of ICAO’s chief activities is standardization in all spheres of aviation operations. The main ICAO document is SARPS (International Standards and Recommended Practices). Its main task is to provide the necessary level of standardization for safe and regular air operations.

B. Weather

Weather is composed of a number of elements such as the temperature and humidity of the air, atmospheric pressure, the speed and direction of the wind, air visibility and of special phenomena such as fog, storms and others.

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Pilots need the information about weather conditions along the route of flight and at the destination aerodrome. The object of the meteorological service is to contribute to safety, efficiency and regularity of air traffic.

There exist some sources of aviation weather information: surface observation, radar observation, automatic meteorological observation, pilot reports and others.

At every airport there is a meteorological station which is equipped with special instruments recording all changes in the atmosphere. They indicate air pressure and temperature, record wind speed and direction as well as the movements of clouds. All the observations are summed up on special weather charts. The observations at the airports are made every 30 minutes and every 15 minutes if the weather suddenly gets worse or better.

Preparing for the flight the pilot is to get the latest weather information and weather forecasts along the planned route and at the point of destination and the alternates.

At a great number of met. stations situated along the airways complete weather observations are made and then transmitted to weather forecast centres by telephone, telegraph, radio and thousands of miles of teletype circuits. Thus, the pilot has a complete picture of the weather.

20-30 minutes before entering the aerodrome area the controller gives the pilot full information about the terminal weather. At many airports the information helpful for landing and taking off is continuously broadcast on a navigational aid frequency. Prior to descent the pilot requests the actual weather and aerodrome conditions for the airport he is going to land.

It is considered that landing of an aircraft is probably the most difficult operation which a pilot has to perform and the standards of visibility required are higher than for any other phase of flight.

Met. services for aviation require much work to collect data and prepare weather charts. This work is especially difficult for long-distance flights over vast areas with different climatic conditions.

A. Comprehension

1. Read texts A and B and answer the following questions:1) What is the most important problem in aviation?2) What is the main task of aviation specialists?3) By what means is safety ensured?4) What factors may cause accidents?5) What can you say about the role of language in the problem of safety?6) What is the main ICAO document?7) What elements are included in weather report?8) What is the object of meteorological service?9) How often is weather observation made at the airport?

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10) What weather information does the pilot get before the flight?11) Do the pilots obtain weather information while in flight?12) When does the controller give the pilot full information about the terminal weather?13) What phase of flight does especially depend on weather conditions?

2. Read text B. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text.1) There exist some sources of aviation weather information.2) Weather is composed of a number of elements.3) Complete weather observations are transmitted to weather forecast centres.4) Special instruments indicate air pressure and temperature, record wind speed and direction.5) The standards of visibility required are higher during landing.6) The controller gives the pilot full information about the terminal weather.

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) The achievement of aviation safety is the result of progress in many sciences and disciplines.2) Accidents result from two causes: failure in the aircraft structure and human errors.3) Poor knowledge of English can never contribute to an accident.4) The main ICAO document is SARPS (International Standards and Recommended Practices).5) Meteorological station is equipped with special instruments recording all changes in the atmosphere.6) The observations are made every 30 minutes if the weather is bad.7) Weather observations are transmitted to pilots by telephone.

2. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once. Governmental, take, poor, chief, atmospheric, meteorological, request, standards, collect, long-distance.1)……….steps; 6) …….flights;2) to.……weather conditions; 7)……regulations;3)…………activity; 8)…... pressure;4) ………..knowledge; 9) to……data;5) …… observations; 10)……of visibility.

3. Give Russian equivalents for:1) strict procedures;2) navigational failures;

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3) hazardous weather conditions;4) to revise the provisions;5) all air-ground exchanges;6) regular air operations;7) destination aerodrome;8) movements of clouds;9) complete weather observations;10) prior to descent;11) to indicate air pressure.

4. Underline the correct word (s) in bold. 1) The prevention of collisions is the main task/ work of aviation specialists.2) Phraseology alone is not sufficient/ efficient to cover all of the emergency situations.3) One of ICAO’s activities is standardization in all spheres/ parts of aviation operations.4) Landing of an aircraft is probably the most difficult operation/ action.5) Such work/ job is especially difficult for long-distance flights.6) Prior to descent the pilot requests/ gives the actual weather and aerodrome conditions.7) Crashes can often result from failure in the aircraft structure/ design.

5. Fill in the correct preposition then make sentences using the completed phrases:1) the prevention … collisions…. aircraft … the air;2) to occur time …. time;3) to result … an accident;4) related … the use … the language;5) to be … great importance;6) standardization … safe air operations;7) to contribute … safety;8) to be equipped …. special instruments;9) to be summed … …. special weather charts.

6. Give English equivalents for:Безопасность, самая важная проблема, предотвращение столкновений, высокие стандарты, предпринимать шаги, слабое знание языка, пересмотреть положения, основная деятельность, обеспечить необходимый уровень, сводки погоды, погодные условия, давление воздуха, скорость ветра, направление ветра, нижняя граница облачности, прогноз погоды, центр прогнозирования погоды, прогностические карты, станция обеспечения полета, погода аэродрома посадки.

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7. Fill in the following table:

Verb Noun Adjectiverely

specialitygovernmental

differnavigator

communicativecriticize

----------- proficient----------- visibilitycollide -------------

8. Choose the correct word:1) The aviation industry is taking steps to prevent accidents but/when the crashes occur time after time.2) Experience has shown that/ and phraseology is not sufficient to cover all emergency situations. 3) When/ because the pilot prepares for the flight, he is to get the latest weather information.4) There are many meteorological stations where/ that special instruments record all changes in the atmosphere.5) Landing of an aircraft is the most difficult operation therefore/ when the standards of visibility are higher.6) For many decades attempts were made to make flying independent of weather conditions because/ that fog, rain often affect the aircraft operation.7) When/ although pilots land under low visibility conditions, they are given all the necessary information.

9. Read the text. Fill in the gaps with words from the list.Pressure, low, accuracy, installed, rain, quicker, increased, information, space, flights.

Nowadays meteorological services for aviation are almost fully automated. Automated Surface Weather Systems are … at the airports of many countries. The System provides for the measurements, processing and display of the following meteorological parameters: wind direction and speed, air temperature and dew point t°, runway visual range, minimum cloud height, barometric …..

It is known that fog, and clouds often affect the aircraft operation. For many decades attempts were made to make flying independent of weather conditions or, in other words, to allow an aircraft to land under very… or zero visibility.

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The use of lasers makes it possible to give pilots all the necessary … when they land under low visibility conditions. The introduction of these systems has greatly … the reliability and safety of ….

Satellite meteorology has become an independent area of science. Weather forecasts based on information from outer … make forecasts more accurate and help to save a great sum of money annually.

At present the work of meteorologist becomes easier thanks to computers which make calculations … and due to them the weather forecast service is becoming more reliable. The use of satellites and computers greatly increases the … of weather forecasts.

10. Match the numbers to the letters:1. meteorological; a) pressure; 2. barometric; b) calculations;3. to make; c) visibility;4. zero; d) meteorology;5. satellite; e) space;6. outer; f) launching; 7. to save. g) money.

11. Form the nouns from the following verbs and give Russian equivalents:To direct, to observe, to equip, to provide, to achieve, to ensure, to fail, to provide, to relate, to criticize.

12. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense:1) If computers … (to make) calculations, the weather forecast service will become more reliable.2) If ICAO provided the necessary level of standardization, air operations … (to be) safe and regular. 3) If I … (to be) a pilot, I would request the actual weather and aerodrome conditions.4) The observations are made every 15 minutes if the weather suddenly… (to get) worse or better.5) Poor knowledge of English … (to result) in an incident if the pilot had known English well.6) If the controller … (to give) the pilot full information about the terminal weather, he would have avoided an emergency situation.

13. Form the opposites with a help of prefixes – un, -in, -ir:Reliable, accurate, regular, safe, known, sufficient, necessary, critical.

14. Translate the following sentences into English:

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Самая важная проблема в авиации – безопасность. Для обеспечения безопасности полетов ИКАО установила специальные правила и процедуры. Все государства – члены ИКАО должны строго соблюдать все правила. Одна из самых важных задач авиационных специалистов – предотвращать столкновение самолетов в воздухе и на земле. Достижения в технике, аэродинамике и других науках повышают авиационную безопасность. Еще одним условием, обеспечивающим авиационную безопасность, является стандартизация во всех авиационных операциях. Хорошее знание английского языка необходимо для обеспечения безопасности полетов.

Погода состоит из таких элементов как температура и влажность воздуха, атмосферное давление, скорость и направление ветра. Дождь, гроза, туман, и другие явления опасны для полета. В каждом аэропорту есть метеостанция со специальными приборами, регистрирующими все изменения в атмосфере. Имея все данные о погоде, синоптики составляют погодную карту. Во многих аэропортах информация о погоде непрерывно транслируется на определенной частоте. Посадка самолета – самая трудная операция.

Сейчас большинство метеостанций почти полностью автоматизировано. Использование спутников и компьютеров повышает точность прогноза погоды.

С. Discussion

1. Using the information given in the text “Weather”, make up the weather forecast for tomorrow. Discuss the following meteorological parameters as wind direction and speed, air temperature and barometric pressure.

2. Speak on the modern methods of accurate forecasting of weather conditions. Use the following words to express reality: in fact, actually, as a matter of fact, in practice etc.

Unit 8. Human Factor

Active vocabulary

1. to address – адресовать, обратиться;2. conviction – убеждение;3. turning point – поворотный момент;4. to encourage – поощрять;5. challenge – вызов, проблема;

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6. to pursue – преследовать;7. concern – беспокойство, забота;8. awareness – осведомленность, осознание;9. ultimate – окончательный, конечный;10. relevant – актуальный, относящийся к; 11. to anticipate – ожидать, предвидеть;12. consequence – последствие;13. to approve – одобрить, утвердить;14. extent – степень;15. enhancing – усиление, повышение;16. flow – поток, течение;17. current – текущий, современный;18. to carry out – выполнять;19. simulator – тренажер;20. simplicity – простота;21. flexibility – гибкость;22. urgent – срочный;23. concern – озабоченность, обеспокоенность;24. Amendment – поправка;25. Annex – приложение;26. sufficient – достаточный.

Guess the meaning of the following words : human factor, critical aspect, decade, symposia- symposium, New Zealand, Chile, regional seminars , transportation of passengers, program, individual, to coordinate, to dominate, medical examination, periodic intervals, absolutely, emotional balance, instinct, personnel.

A. Human Factor in Aviation

Human factor is a critical aspect of aviation safety, one that ICAO began to address more than a decade ago.

a……………………………. ICAO organized the first in a series of global symposia on flight

safety and human factors in 1990. From the beginning, when the first event was held in a city known then as Leningrad, there was a conviction that international aviation could make enormous progress in improving safety through the application of human factors knowledge. The first symposium was a turning point and the stage for following meetings in the United States in 1993, in New Zealand in 1996 and, finally in Chile in 1999. There have been encouraging developments since 1990, but we still have challenges to pursue: after the Leningrad symposium, human error remains a significant safety concern.

b…………………………….

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The purpose of the worldwide symposia and 10 regional seminars which were held in the past decade was to increase the awareness of States regional seminars, industry and organizations in all ICAO regions about the importance of human factors. The reason the community must respond to is, of course, to ensure that civil aviation continues to achieve its ultimate goal: the safe and efficient transportation of passengers and goods.

c…………………………… The ICAO flight safety and human factors program is safety–oriented

and operationally relevant. Moreover, it is practical since it must deal with real problems in a real world. Through the program, ICAO has provided the aviation community with the means and tools to anticipate human error and contain its negative consequences in the operational environment. Furthermore, ICAO’s efforts are aimed at the system – not the individual.

d…………………………… The global aviation safety plan (GASP) was developed by the ICAO

Air Navigation Commission in 1997 and subsequently approved by the ICAO Council. GASP was designed to coordinate and provide a common direction to the efforts of States and the aviation industry to the extent possible in safety matters. It is a tool that allows ICAO to focus resources and set priorities giving emphasis to those activities that will contribute the most to enhancing safety. Therefore the flight safety and human factors program is among the six major activities that comprise the plan.

B. Air Traffic Control

The ATC’s first concern is safety, the prevention of collision between aircraft in the air and orderly flow of traffic.

To perform their exacting duties air traffic controllers need adequate facilities. The introduction of radars greatly assists in expediting the flow of traffic reducing the separation minima. Computers are also a powerful tool. They give assistance by taking over routine tasks but they must not dominate the system. The human controller is much more efficient than any current system because it is he who takes responsibility for controlling aircraft and it is he who takes final decisions in all situations including conflicting and emergency.

During periods of heavy traffic, controllers work under high stress. They may control several aircraft simultaneously, their number sometimes exceeding 15 and even more. Controllers’ slightest error may cause loss of human lives and property.

Top physical and mental condition is a vital requirement for ATC controllers. Therefore they undergo strict medical examinations which are repeated at periodic intervals.

The problem of the selection and training of ATC personnel is extremely important. The controllers should possess a number of qualities which

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are absolutely necessary for them: a high degree of morality, a very good nervous and emotional balance, a sound critical judgment, a readiness for decisions and an instinct for team work. To become a highly professional controller one must be proficient not only in specialized aviation English but also in plain language because aviation safety depends on accurate pilot – controller communications.

The training of ATC personnel is carried out by different methods using various teaching aids, systems and simulators. Modern simulators can reproduce the whole ATC task from take-off to landing including all maneuvers even the dangerous ones.

A. Comprehension

1. Read text A and fill in the headings.1) The Flight Safety and Human Factors Program.2) The First Symposium.3) The Global Aviation Safety Plan.4) The Purpose of the Symposia. 2. Read text B. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text.1) Traffic controllers may control several aircraft simultaneously.2) Computers give assistance by taking over routine tasks.3) Modern simulators can reproduce the whole ATC task.4) Traffic controllers undergo strict medical examination.5) A highly professional controller must be proficient in English.

3. Answer the following questions:1) When and where was the first symposium on flight safety held?2) How many symposia on flight safety were held by ICAO?3) What was the purpose of the symposia and seminars?4) Where is the knowledge of human factors applied?5) What is the ultimate goal of civil aviation?6) What is the ICAO flight safety and human factors program?7) What for was the global aviation safety plan developed?8) Why is the flight safety and human factors program so important?9) What is the main task of ATC activity?10) What systems do controller use to control air traffic?11) What are the working conditions of controllers?12) What is one of the vital requirements for ATC controllers?13) How often do they undergo medical examinations?14) What qualities should a person possess to become a controller?15) How are controllers trained?

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B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) The first symposium was held in Leningrad in 1990.2) The purpose of the worldwide meetings was to increase the awareness about the importance of human factors. 3) Computers take final decisions in all situations including conflicting and emergency.4) Traffic controllers mustn’t control several aircraft simultaneously.5) Aviation safety depends on accurate pilot – controller communications. 6) The human controller is less efficient than any current system.

2. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once. Enormous, turning, significant, increase, achieve, powerful, vital, plain, critical, anticipate.1)……….point; 6) …….progress;2) to.……awareness; 7)……requirement;3)…………tool; 8)…... language;4) ………..concern; 9) to……goal;5) to……..human error; 10)……judgment.

3. Give Russian equivalents for:1) encouraging developments;2) challenges to pursue;3) ultimate goal;4) operationally relevant;5) negative consequences;6) operational environment;7) to provide a common direction;8) to focus resources;9) give emphasis;10) adequate facilities;11) heavy traffic;12) to cause loss of human lives;13) top physical and mental condition;14) a high degree of morality;15) to reproduce the whole ATC task.

4. Underline the correct word (s) in bold. 1) ICAO organized the first global symposium on human errors/ factors in 1990.2) The global aviation safety plan was developed/ held by the ICAO Air Navigation Commission.

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3) The flight safety and human factors program/ plan is among the six major activities.4) During/ Among periods of heavy traffic controllers work under high stress.5) The problem of the selection and training/ teaching of ATC personnel is extremely important.6) A controller must be proficient not only in special/ specialized aviation English.7) The controllers should possess a high/ tall degree of morality. 5. Fill in the correct preposition then make sentences using the completed phrases:1) the first … a series … global symposia;2) the stage … following meetings;3) to deal … real problems … a real world;4) to be aimed … the system;5) the introduction … radars;6) to take responsibility … controlling aircraft;7) to work… high stress;8) to repeat … periodic intervals;9) instinct for team work;10) to be proficient … language;11) to depend… accurate communications;12) to be carried … … different methods.

6. Give English equivalents for:Знание человеческого фактора; важное дело для безопасности; идея систем связи, навигации, обзора и управления воздушным пространством и воздушным движением; программа ИКАО по безопасности полетов и человеческому фактору; план по авиационной безопасности в мировом масштабе; комиссия ИКАО по воздушной навигации; вопросы безопасности; поток движения самолетов; принимать последнее решение; контролировать одновременно; малейшая ошибка; проходить медицинскую комиссию; отбор и обучение; высокопрофессиональный; командная работа.

7. Which word is the odd one out in each group and why?1. series, factors, facilities, radars;2. strict, mental, control, possible;3. personnel, controller, elevator, passenger;4. heavy, property, community, safety.

8. Choose the correct verb form:1) I’d rather … a very good nervous and emotional balance.

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a) possess; b) to possess; c) possessing.2) I’d rather you … strict medical examination.a) to undergo; b) undergo; c) underwent.3) I wish I … a highly professional controller.a) am; b) were; c) been.4) You’d better … proficient not only in specialized aviation English.a) be; b) to be; c) being.5) It’s time … several aircraft simultaneously.a) control; b) controlling; c) to control.6) I wish ICAO … the first global symposium on flight safety in New York.a) organize; b) organized; c) had organized.7) I wish ICAO … the most to enhancing safety.a) contribute; b) would contribute; c) to contribute.

9. Translate the following words into Russian paying attention to the means of word formation (prefixes and suffixes):1) order – orderly;2) exact – exactly – exactness;3) reduce – reduction;4) power – powerful – powerless; 5) responsible – responsibility – response – respond;6) strict – strictly – strictness;7) train – trainer – trainee – training; 8) simulate – simulator – simulation;9) operate – operation – operative – operator – operational – operationally;10) communicate – communication – communicative – communicable ;11) improve – improvement – improvable – improver.

10. Read the text. Fill in the gaps with appropriate forms of the verb (infinitive, participle, gerund).

English as a World Language and an International Aviation Language

English has become a world language because of its establishment as a mother tongue outside England, almost in all the continents of the world. This … (export) of English began in the XVII century, with the first settlements in North America. Above all, the great growth of population in the United States together with massive immigration in the nineteenth and twentieth century has given the English language its present … (stand) in the world. Besides, basic characteristics of English can also … (contribute) to the situation that nowadays it is the most spread language on Earth. These characteristics are: simplicity of forms (very few endings); flexibility (the same word can … (operate) as some

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different parts of speech); openness of vocabulary (English words are frequently admitted by other languages). At present English is the language of business, technology, sport and aviation.

There are four … (work) languages in ICAO – English, French, Spanish and Russian. But all meetings, conferences and assemblies are conducted in English and then all materials are translated into other languages.

The most urgent problem in aviation is safety. The progress in safety is achieved by intensive efforts in various spheres – engineering sciences, meteorology, psychology, medicine, economics and “last but not least” the English language. Insufficient English language proficiency often results in accidents and incidents.

Concern over the role of language in airline accidents brought real actions. So in March 2003 ICAO adopted Amendments to ICAO Annexes 1, 6, 10 and 11. These Amendments make clear and extend language requirements. In addition, they contain new more strict requirements for language … (test).

Additional standards in Annex 10 demand to … (follow) more closely to standard phraseology in all air-ground exchanges and to use plain language when phraseology is not sufficient. Phraseology alone is unable to …(cover) all of the potential situations, particularly in critical or emergency situations. Therefore the PELA (Proficiency in English Language) test examines use of both ATC phraseology and plain English.

11. Match the numbers to the letters:1. urgent; a) tongue; 2. mother; b) proficiency;3. language; c) Amendments;4. to adopt; d) efforts;5. intensive; e) language;6. working; f) requirements;7. strict. g) problem.

12. Distribute the words below according to the parts of speech. Underline suffixes and prefixes. Translate the words. Verb Noun Adverb Adjective Establishment, century, settlements, growth, massive, basic, contribute, simplicity, operate, openness, frequently, conduct, urgent, intensive, various, proficiency, brought, Amendments, clear, addition, contain, strict, additional, closely, phraseology, plain, sufficient, cover, particularly.

13. Change these sentences to indirect speech (reported some time later).1) Human error remains a significant safety concern. (He said)2) Civil aviation has partly achieved its ultimate goal. (She said)3) Safety program must deal with real problems. (He thought)

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4) The global aviation safety plan will contribute the most to enhancing safety. (She thought)5) Controllers’ slightest error may cause loss of human lives. (He proved)6) Do they undergo strict medical examination at periodic intervals? (I asked)7) What qualities are absolutely necessary for controllers? (I wondered)8) When did English become a world language? (I asked)9) You should follow standard phraseology in all air-ground exchanges. (I advised him)10) Use plain language when phraseology is not sufficient. (I told her)11) The worst disaster in aviation history occurred in 1977. (I knew)

14. Translate the following sentences into English: Человеческий фактор является одним из важнейших аспектов

авиационной безопасности. В течение последнего десятилетия ИКАО провела несколько симпозиумов и семинаров, связанных с человеческим фактором в авиации. Знание человеческого фактора может значительно повысить безопасность полетов. Программа по безопасности полетов и человеческому фактору является инструментом, который позволяет предупреждать человеческие ошибки при выполнении полетов.

Существует много технических средств, помогающих диспетчерам в их работе. Главным элементом в системе является диспетчер, т.к. он принимает окончательное решение в любой ситуации. Необходим строгий отбор и подготовка персонала. Диспетчер должен иметь хорошее физическое здоровье, умение работать в команде. Современные тренажеры позволяют имитировать все этапы полета, включая аварийные ситуации.

Электронные средства не могут заменить диспетчера. Они могут только помогать ему. Диспетчер не должен допускать ошибок, так как это может привести к потере человеческих жизней.

С. Discussion

1. Speak on the language problems in aviation. Here are some expressions used for giving yourself time to think: Let me see... It's on the tip of my tongue... May I think about it for a moment?Just a moment ... Hang on a sec. How can I best say this?2. Look at the Internet and find some information about the latest disasters in aviation. Discuss them with your classmates.

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Unit 9. Security

Active vocabulary

1. to initiate – инициировать, начать;2. to reinforce – усилить, укрепить;3. to eradicate – искоренить;4. Annex – приложение;5. audit – аудит;6. proposal – предложение;7. unanimously – единогласно, единодушно;8. applicability – применимость;9. domestic – внутренний, отечественный;10. access – доступ;11. interference – помеха, вмешательство;12. to endorse – одобрить, поддержать, утвердить;13. mandatory – обязательный;14. restricted – ограниченный, узкий, для служебного пользования;15. to enable – делать возможным, давать возможность, разрешать;16. confused – беспорядочный, спутанный, сбивчивый;17. to divert – отвлекать, отклонить;18. solely – исключительно, только, единственно;19. explosive – взрывной, взрывоопасный, взрывчатое вещество;20. sample – образец, пример;21. target – целевой, цель;22. inquiry - запрос, расследование;23. confusion – путаница, замешательство;24. comprehension – понимание;25. to review – пересмотреть, рассмотреть;26. requirement – требование, условие.

Guess the meaning of the following words : international security standards, Assembly, terrorist attack, future acts of terror, сertification, airport personnel, aviation security strategy, central element, primitive, new technology, walk-through metal detector, X-ray machine, automatically, to analyze, extremely effective, biometric identification, absolute security.

A. ICAO’s Global Aviation Security Strategy

Since the events of 11 September 2001, the world aviation community has initiated a wide range of measures to increase security. New international security standards and a program of aviation security audits were adopted by all 188 Contracting States of ICAO.

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The 33rd Session of its Assembly, which was opened after the September 2001 terrorist attack, initiated immediate action aimed at preventing, combating and eradicating future acts of terror against civil aviation. Annex 17 to the Convention on civil aviation was strengthened and many new standards adopted. In November 2001, The Council convened to consider specific proposals for inclusion in Amendment 10 to Annex 17. These proposals were unanimously agreed and the following issues were adopted in December 2001:

— Applicability of Annex 17 to domestic operations.— Certification of screeners.— Access control relating to air crew and airport personnel.— In-flight security personnel and protection of the cockpit.— Joint response to acts of unlawful interference.— Definition of aircraft security check and security restricted area. The long term component of ICAO’s global aviation security strategy

is focused on three critical areas. One is to assess new and emerging threats to aviation security so as to develop an ability to initiate pre-emptive action.

The second is to continually monitor and upgrade existing security process.

And the third is to expedite the clearance of passengers whilst maintaining the highest level of security.

A central element of the ICAO strategy is the Aviation Security Plan of Action which includes regular, mandatory and systematic audits to enable evaluation of aviation security in all 187 Member States.

B. Aviation Security Equipment

Airport screening was established in the USA in January 1973. The equipment was primitive in comparison with today’s screening tools. Since then the equipment was improved and new technology was developed.

Introduced in 1972 the walk-through metal detector has become a standard screening tool at airports. This equipment has provided high quality detection but it has some disadvantages. The alarm system remains unchanged. Security agent must constantly watch and listen for an alarm to ensure detection. At busy airports there are multiple units resulting in multiple alarms and it is easy for a screener to become confused as to which unit has sounded an alarm. It is not only confusing for the operator but also noisy and confusing for passengers.

Later other equipment was offered by manufactures, that is a gate system. If no metal is detected the gate remains open. But if metal is detected the gate operates to divert the passenger to a secondary screening point.

The primary tool for searching hand luggage is the X-ray machine. The system operator must be well-trained to identify not only guns and knives, but improvised explosive devices. Many dangerous items cannot be identified with

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X-ray technology. This is because basic X-ray images only show shadows. Many dangerous items cannot be identified solely with X-ray equipment. If an operator clearly sees and identifies dangerous item the only way is to open the bags and to conduct a hand search.

Other security equipment, called Explosives Trace Detector (ETD) was installed at some airports. ETD is easier to use than any other screening equipment because all that is required of the operator is to take a sample. The equipment automatically analyzes this sample and notifies the operator when explosive item is detected.

The equipment for screening checked baggage was installed at many airports. It is the Explosives Detection System (EDS). EDS technology is extremely effective in the detection of the presence of explosives.

The latest security systems such as Machine Readable Travel Documents and biometric identification are being introduced at many airports to prevent civil aviation from becoming a terrorist target and to provide absolute security for air passengers.

A. Comprehension

1. Read text A. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text.1) The world aviation community has initiated a wide range of measures to increase security.2) A central element of the ICAO strategy is the Aviation Security Plan of Action.3) The Council convened to consider specific proposals for inclusion in Amendment 10.4) One critical area is to assess new and emerging threats to aviation security.5) Certification of screeners was adopted in December 2001.

2. Read text B. Choose the sentences which contain information about:1) The walk-through metal detector;2) The gate system;3) The X-ray machine;4) Explosives Trace Detector;5) The Explosives Detection System;6) Machine Readable Travel Documents.

3. Answer the following questions:1) Why has the world aviation community initiated a wide range of measures to increase security?2) When were specific proposals adopted?3) What is the long term component of ICAO’s security strategy focused on?

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4) What is the central element of the ICAO strategy?5) Where was airport screening established?6) What has become a standard screening tool at airports?7) What disadvantages does the walk-through metal detector have?8) Why can’t many dangerous items be identified with X-ray technology?9) What security equipment is easier to use than any other screening equipment?10) Where is EDS technology extremely effective?11) Why is biometric identification being introduced at many airports?

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) The 33rd Session initiated immediate action aimed at preventing future acts of terror against civil aviation.2) The second critical area is to continually monitor and upgrade existing security process.3) A central element of the ICAO strategy is the Aviation Security Program.4) The walk-through metal detector has provided low quality detection.5) If no metal is detected the gate remains open.6) The primary tool for searching hand luggage is the Explosives Detection System.7) The equipment notifies the operator when explosive item is detected.8) The latest security systems are Machine Readable Travel Documents and biometric identification.

2. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once. Aviation, terrorist, unlawful, existing, enable, screening, become, explosive, take, biometric.1)……….process; 6) ……. identification;2) to.……evaluation; 7) to……a sample;3)…………tool; 8)…... attack;4) ………..interference; 9) to……confused;5)……..devices; 10)……community.

3. Give Russian equivalents for:1) to increase security;2) immediate action;3) to consider specific proposals;4) protection of the cockpit;5) unlawful interference;6) to assess emerging threats;7) to initiate pre-emptive action;8) the clearance of passengers;

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9) mandatory and systematic audits;10) standard screening tool;11) to ensure detection;12) to divert the passenger;13) improvised explosive devices;14) to conduct a hand search;15) Machine Readable Travel Documents.

4. Match the words in the left column to the synonyms in the right one:1) restricted; a) instrument;2) enable; b) limited;3) proposal; c) allow;4) tool; d) staff;5) personnel; e) safety;6) baggage; f) luggage;7) sample; g) suggestion; 8) security; h) example;9) detect; i) instant;10) immediate. j) find.

5. Underline the correct word (s) in bold. 1) New international security standards were adopted / developed by Contracting States of ICAO.2) Aviation Security Plan of Action includes regular audits/ standards to enable evaluation of aviation security.3) The equipment was simple/ primitive in comparison with today’s screening tools.4) The system operator must be well-trained/ educated to identify improvised explosive devices.5) Basic X-ray lights/images only show shadows.6) If an operator identifies dangerous item the only way is to make/conduct a hand search.7) The latest/ last security systems are being introduced at many airports to provide absolute security for air passengers.

6. Fill in the correct preposition then make sentences using the completed phrases:1) a wide range … measures;2) Annex 17 … the Convention … civil aviation;3) to be focused … three critical areas;4) primitive … comparison … screening tools;5) … busy airports;6) confusing … the operator;

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7) to be identified … X-ray technology;8) equipment … screening;9) to prevent … becoming a terrorist target;10) effective … the detection … of explosives.

7. Give English equivalents for:Мировое сообщество, широкий спектр мер, международные стандарты безопасности, предотвращение будущих актов террора, для включения в поправку, сертификация досмотра, защита кабины экипажа, незаконное вмешательство, глобальная стратегия, упреждающие меры, высокий уровень безопасности, регулярные аудиты, примитивны, стандартный инструмент скрининга, высокое качество, недостатки, сигнал тревоги, ручная кладь, самодельные взрывные устройства, взять образец, обнаружение, новейшие системы безопасности.

8. Put in the right kind of infinitive:1) Security agent must constantly (listen) for an alarm.2) It is easy for a screener (become) confused.3) Many dangerous items cannot (identify) with X-ray technology.4) Biometric identification is being introduced at many airports (provide) absolute security for air passengers.5) One is (assess) new and emerging threats to aviation security.6) An operator should (identify) dangerous items.7) New provisions would address standardized English language.8) All that is required of the operator is (take) a sample.

9. Read the text and put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense.

Language and Aviation Safety

In December 1995 a Boeing 757 … (to fly) into a mountainside near Cali, Columbia, killing 160 people. The inquiry … (to reveal) that the pilots were confused about their location, a situation that resulted from their misinterpretation of the air traffic controller clearance to Cali. Less than one year after this accident, in November 1996, a Boeing 747 … (to collide) with an Ilyushin Il-76 near Delhi, India, killing everyone on board aircraft. The inquiry into this accident revealed that there … (to be) some confusion among the IL-76 flight crew, most of whom were not proficient in English, concerning the level to which the aircraft had been cleared to descend.

These two accidents … (to illustrate) how the lack of proficiency in a common language and poor comprehension of appropriate phraseology by flight crews and air traffic controllers, can (to contribute) to or result in an accident.

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ICAO … (to involve) in language training for a good number of years. During the 1980s, ICAO prepared standardized training guideline entitled Aviation English for Air Traffic Controllers. A recent development in this area is ICAO’s decision to review radiotelephony phraseology. This process …(to involve) a comprehensive review of the existing provisions for air-ground and ground-ground voice communications in international civil aviation with the ultimate goal of developing enhanced communication procedures. New provisions would address both routine and non-routine communications, standardized English language testing requirement and procedures, and minimum skill-level requirements in the use of common English.

Safety may also … (to be) at risk when the language of the documentation on board cannot … (to understand) by the local inspection authorities. A proposal by the ICAO Air Navigation Commission to amend several annexes by introducing a requirement to translate on board documents into English … (to adopt) by the ICAO Council early 2001.

The same requirements … (to be) just essential for air-ground radio communications. The proper use of aeronautical phraseology … (to be) an important element in reducing the risk of misunderstandings. The lack of knowledge of the English language can be a burden to pilots and air traffic controllers, and … (to continue) to be a problem in international operations.

There is a need, therefore, to establish requirements enhancing the minimum performance standards for radiotelephony phraseology and use of the English language by air traffic controllers and pilots engaged in international operations.

10. Read text B. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text.1) The proper use of aeronautical phraseology is an important element in reducing the risk of misunderstandings.2) A Boeing 747 collided with an Ilyushin Il-76 near Delhi.3) There is a need to establish requirements enhancing the minimum performance standards for radiotelephony phraseology.4) The lack of proficiency in a common language can result in an accident.5) A recent development is ICAO’s decision to review radiotelephony phraseology.

11. Find in the text the examples of Participle 1 and Participle 2. Fill in the following table:

PARTICIPLE 1 PARTICIPLE 2

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12. Match the numbers to the letters:1. poor; a) training; 2. existing; b) provisions;3. language; c) goal;4. ultimate; d) requirements;5. to establish; e) phraseology;6. aeronautical; f) a burden;7. to be. g) comprehension.

13. Form the nouns from the following verbs and give Russian equivalents:To inquire, to locate, to interpret, to collide, to comprehend, to train, to provide, to communicate, to propose, to misunderstand, to perform.

14. Translate the following sentences into English: После событий 11 сентября 2001 года, мировое сообщество

авиации инициировало широкий спектр мер по повышению безопасности. Были приняты новые международные стандарты безопасности.

Долгосрочная составляющая глобальной стратегии по авиационной безопасности ИКАО сосредоточена на трех важнейших областях. Первая заключается в оценке возникающих угроз авиационной безопасности. Вторая заключается в непрерывном контроле и обновлении существующего процесса безопасности. Центральным элементом стратегии ИКАО является План авиационной безопасности.

Введенный в 1972 году детектор металла стал стандартным инструментом скрининга в аэропортах. Некоторое время спустя другое оборудование было предложено производителями - система ворот. Если металл не обнаружен, ворота остаются открытыми. Основным инструментом для осмотра ручной клади является рентгеновский аппарат. Системный оператор должен быть хорошо обучен, чтобы определить взрывные устройства. Многие опасные предметы не могут быть идентифицированы.

Новейшие системы безопасности внедряются во многих аэропортах, чтобы обеспечить абсолютную безопасность авиапассажиров.

С. Discussion

1. Using the information given in the text “Aviation Security Equipment” speak on the equipment installed at the airports to provide security for air passengers.

2. Make a project on the topic “International Cooperation in the Fight for Aviation Safety” and present it in the class.

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Part 4. Emergency

Unit 10. The Concept of Emergency

Active vocabulary

1) accident – авария, несчастный случай, катастрофа;2) incident – происшествие, эпизод, случайность;3) to define – определить, определять;4) occurrence – появление;5) intention – намерение;6) to disembark – высадиться, высадить;7) to sustain – поддерживать, выдержать;8) to affect – влиять, повлиять;9) hull – корпус;10) comprehensive – комплексный, всесторонний;11) similar – похожий, подобный, аналогичный;12) emergency procedures- порядок действий в аварийной обстановке;13) definition – определение;14) generic – общий;15) uncertainty - неопределенность;16) alert – предупреждение, уведомление, оповещение;17) distress – бедствие;18) apprehension – опасение, восприятие, предчувствие;19) to threaten- угрожать, грозить;20) imminent – неизбежный.

Guess the meaning of the following words: seriously, structural, immediate action, warning lights, two identical, instructions, phraseology, standard procedures, chaos, controller's work, occupants, phase, situation, information, safety, danger, assistance.

A. Aviation Accidents and Incidents

An aviation accident is defined in the Convention on International Civil Aviation Annex 13 as an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes place between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight and all such persons have disembarked, in which a person is fatally or seriously injured, the aircraft sustains damage or structural failure and/or the aircraft is missing or is completely inaccessible.

An aviation incident is also defined there as an occurrence other than an accident, associated with the operation of an aircraft, which affects or could affect the safety of operations.

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An accident in which the damage to the aircraft is such that it must be written off, or in which the plane is destroyed is called a hull loss accident.

B. Emergency Definitions

Emergency is a serious event that needs immediate action. Summarizing aeronautical experience a list of most common reasons

for the crew to declare an emergency can be made: mid-air explosion, serious fire in the cabin or engine, oil or door warning lights, loss of an engine, bird strikes, illness on board. However, this list will never be comprehensive and complete. Thus, each emergency must be treated as an event of its own. It may be similar to other emergencies, but there hardly could be two identical in every respect. That is why it is totally impossible to define instructions for all cases and write such a document as phraseology for emergencies. Nevertheless, there are some standard procedures which help to prevent chaos and make controller's work organized and regulated.

ICAO has some definitions concerning emergency procedures. Emergency phase is a generic term meaning, as the case may be,

uncertainty phase, alert phase or distress phase. Uncertainty phase is a situation wherein uncertainty exists as to the

safety of an aircraft and its occupants. Alerting phase is a situation wherein apprehension exists as to the

safety of an aircraft or its occupants. Distress phase is a situation wherein there is reasonable certainty that

an aircraft and its occupants are threatened by grave and imminent danger or require immediate assistance.

A. Comprehension

1. Read text A. Give the definitions of the following words:1) An aviation accident;2) An aviation incident;3) A hull loss accident.

2. Read text B. Point out its main ideas and write them out.

3. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text.1) ICAO has some definitions concerning emergency procedures. 2) Each emergency must be treated as an event of its own.3) There are some standard procedures which help to prevent chaos.4) The aircraft’s occupants are threatened by imminent danger or require immediate assistance.

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5) A situation wherein uncertainty exists as to the safety of an aircraft and its occupants.

4. Answer the following questions:1) What list of most common reasons for the crew to declare an emergency can be made?2) Why isn’t it complete?3) Is it possible to write phraseology for emergencies?4) What can help to prevent chaos and make controller's work organized?5) What is uncertainty phase?6) In what situation do aircraft’s occupants require immediate assistance?

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) The list of most common reasons for the crew to declare an emergency is always comprehensive and complete.2) There hardly could be two identical emergencies.3) There are some standard procedures which make controller's work organized.4) Emergency phase is a generic term meaning.5) Distress phase is a situation wherein apprehension exists as to the safety of an aircraft or its occupants. 2. Give definitions to:1) Aviation accident;2) Aviation incident’3) Hull loss accident;4) Emergency.

3. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once. Seriously, immediate, define, standard, alerting, generic, reasonable, require, imminent, prevent.1)……….certainty; 6) …….injured;2)……….phase; 7) to……instructions;3)…………procedures; 8)…... assessment; 4) ……….assistance; 9) to……chaos;5)…….. danger; 10)……term.

4. Give Russian equivalents for:1) with the intention of flight;2) completely inaccessible;3) summarizing aeronautical experience;4) mid-air explosion;

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5) phraseology for emergencies;6) to make controller's work regulated;7) concerning emergency procedures;8) uncertainty phase;9) reasonable certainty;10) to require immediate assistance;11) safety of an aircraft and its occupants;12) alerting phase;13) distress phase.

5. Underline the correct word (s) in bold. 1) An aviation incident is defined as an occurrence/ event associated with the operation of an aircraft, which affects the safety of operations.2) Emergency is a serious event that needs serious /immediate action.3) There is a list of most common reasons for the crew to define /declare an emergency.4) ICAO has some definitions according/concerning people safety.5) Each emergency must/ can be treated as an event of its own. 6) There is reasonable certainty/ apprehension that an aircraft is threatened by imminent danger.

6. Fill in the correct preposition then make sentences using the completed phrases:1) occurrence associated …. the operation … an aircraft;2) serious fire … the cabin;3) loss … an engine;4) illness … board;5) to be similar … other emergencies;6) an aircraft … emergency;7) the safety … an aircraft and its occupants;8) to be threatened … grave;9) instructions … some cases;10) … every respect.

7. Give English equivalents for:Авиационное происшествие, событие, связанное с использованием воздушного судна ,с намерением совершить полет, смертельно или тяжело ранен , несчастный случай, безопасность полетов, немедленное действие, список наиболее распространенных причин, взрыв в воздухе , болезнь на борту, во всех отношениях, стандартные процедуры , общий термин, в зависимости от обстоятельств, неопределенность, безопасность воздушного судна, бедствие, обоснованная уверенность, под угрозой серьезной опасности, немедленная помощь.

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8. Read the sentences and write P for the Subjective Participial Complex, I for the Subjective Infinitive Complex and A for the Absolute Participial Construction.1) An aviation incident is defined to be an occurrence other than an accident.2) A plane was heard flying high in the sky.3) The pilot having informed a supervisor, he was able to do most of the liaison.4) The English is considered to be confusing in emergency.5) An aircraft having some difficulties, the pilot can inform about it by flashing its navigation lights.6) Two unusual situations are likely to overlap.7) The controller is needed to make a reasonable assessment of the situation.8) The pilot was seen transmitting radiotelegraphy signal.9) A new technique having been worked out, radio silence may be imposed on all traffic.

9. Read the text. Fill in the gaps with words from the list.Disaster, lower, opposite, involving, among, struck, arriving, aboard, exploded, uncontrollable.

Major Disasters

The crash of Japan Airlines Flight 123 in 1985 is the single-aircraft 1)… with the highest number of fatalities. In this crash, 520 died on board a Boeing 747. The aircraft suffered an explosive decompression from a failed pressure bulkhead repair, which destroyed its vertical stabilizer and severed hydraulic lines, making the 747 virtually 2)…

The world's deadliest mid-air collision was the 1996 Charkhi Dadri collision involving Saudia Flight 763 and Air Kazakhstan Flight 1907 over Haryana, India. The crash was mainly the result of the Kazakh pilot flying 3) … than the altitude for which his aircraft was given clearance. Three hundred and forty-nine passengers and crew died from both aircraft. The Chandra Commission, empowered to study the causes, also recommended the creation of "air corridors" to prevent planes from flying in 4) … directions at the same altitude.

On June 23, 1985 , Air India Flight 182 crashed off the southwest coast of Ireland when a bomb 5) …in the cargo hold. On board the Boeing 747-237B were 307 passengers and 22 crew members, all of whom were killed when the plane disintegrated. One passenger checked in as "M. Singh". He didn't board the flight but his suitcase that contained the bomb was loaded onto the plane. Mr. Singh was never identified and captured. This was, at the time, the deadliest terrorist attack 6) … an airplane.

Iran Air Flight 655 was a civilian airliner shot down by US missiles on Sunday 3 July 1988, over the Strait of Hormuz killing all 290 passengers and

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crew 7) … , including 66 children, ranking it seventh 8) … the deadliest airline disasters.

In August of 1985 Delta Airlines flight 191 was brought down by a microburst in Dallas Texas. Flight 191 was 9) … at DFW around 6 o'clock and entered a thunderstorm just north of DFW. The plane struck the ground the first time in a field just north of the airfield. The plane then bounced back in the air and came down a final time on highway 114. It 10) … a car killing its driver then went on to smash head on into two huge water tanks.

10. Make up some questions to the underlined words.

11. Match the numbers to the letters:1. mid-air; a) causes; 2. crew; b) collision;3. civilian; c) corridor;4. air; d) members;5. to study; e) airliner;6. to strike; f) ground;7. to board. g) flight.

12. Distribute the words below according to the parts of speech. Underline suffixes and prefixes. Translate the words. Verb Noun Adverb Adjective Flight, fatality, suffer, explosive , pressure, vertical, virtually, collision, mainly, clearance, empower, recommend, creation, direction, altitude, coast, deadliest, civilian, brought, final, highway, went, huge, tank.

13. Fill in the following table as in the example:

make made made struck

givenfly shot

beenbrought

costthrow fell

risen

14. Translate the following sentences find the gerunds and define their functions.

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1) The proper use of aeronautical phraseology is an important element in reducing the risk of misunderstandings.2) A proposal to amend several annexes by introducing a requirement to translate on board documents into English was adopted in 2001.3) There is the ultimate goal of developing enhanced communication procedures.4) Flight 191 was arriving at the airport around 6 o'clock.5) ICAO is involved in language training for a good number of years.6) The necessity of transferring all the rest traffic to another frequency may arise.7) Airport screening was established in the USA in January 1973.

15. Translate the following sentences into English: Авиационное происшествие определяется в Конвенции о

международной гражданской авиации в качестве события, связанного с использованием воздушного судна, в котором человек смертельно или тяжело ранен, а воздушное судно получает повреждение или разрушение конструкции.

Авария является серьезным событием, которое требует немедленного действия. Список наиболее распространенных причин, чтобы объявить чрезвычайное положение, никогда не будет всеобъемлющим и полным. Именно поэтому совершенно невозможно определить инструкции для всех случаев. Тем не менее, есть некоторые стандартные процедуры, которые помогают предотвратить хаос.

ИКАО имеет некоторые определения, касающиеся чрезвычайных ситуаций. Фаза неопределенности – это ситуация, когда существует неопределенность в отношении безопасности воздушного судна и его обитателей. Фаза бедствия – это ситуация, при которой имеется обоснованная уверенность в том, что воздушное судно и его обитатели находятся под угрозой серьезной и непосредственной опасности.

С. Discussion

1. Using the information given in the text “Emergency Definitions” analyze and supplement the list of most common reasons for the crew to declare an emergency.2. Find the information about one of the major disasters in the Internet, describe the accident and its consequences, define the reasons. Use the following words to note consequences: so, therefore, as a result, consequently, despite the fact that, since.

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Unit 11. Emergency Solution

Active vocabulary

1) priority – приоритет, очередь;2) to impose – налагать, ввести, наложить;3) urgent – срочный;4) to transmit – передать, передавать;5) handling – обращение, обработка;6) value – значение, ценность;7) supervisor – руководитель;8) liaison- связь;9) to transfer – передавать, передать;11) expertise – экспертиза, советы;12) to portray – изображать, представить, изобразить;13) unease – беспокойство, неловкость;14) precise – точный;15) proficient – опытный;16) laid down phraseology – установленная фразеология;17) clarification – уточнение;18) to overlap – перекрывать.

Guess the meaning of the following words: serious, action, type, official documents, classification, identical, radar controllers, instructions, standard procedures, chaos, specific, special radiotelephony signals, landing lights, navigation lights, practical, service, nervousness, nature of the problem, aviation magazines.

Emergency Procedures

Emergency is a serious event that needs immediate action. The type of emergency that may occur is completely unpredictable. No official documents examine the classification of emergencies. Each of them is an event on its own. It may be similar to other emergencies, but it is rare to have two which are identical in every respect. The exception to this for working radar controllers is a mid-air explosion, and although the actual cause of the explosion might well differ, its effect on the controller will be the same.

It is impossible to define instructions for all cases and write such a document as phraseology for emergencies. Nevertheless there are some standard procedures which help to prevent chaos and make controller’s work organized and regulated. Some types of emergencies have specific instructions as to the actions which the pilot and ATC controller must make.

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An aircraft under emergency gets priority over other aircraft. There exist instructions concerning using special radiotelephony signals. Pilots must inform ATC by sending established signals (May Day, PAN) and the controller must impose silence. The aircraft in distress sets its transponder mode A code 7700.

An aircraft having some difficulties but which does not need immediate assistance can inform about it switching on and off its landing lights or flashing its navigation lights in a way different from the normal one.

An aircraft which has an urgent message concerning people safety, other aircraft or vehicle transmits radiotelegraphy signal XXX or radiotelephony signal PAN.

There are certain actions which are common to a controller handling of all occurrences.

1. Don’t keep it to yourself. 2. Get help. And get it early enough to be of practical value. 3. Inform your supervisor. In most cases he will be able to do most of

the liaison which will be needed. 4. Do not forget your other traffic. It may become necessary to transfer

all traffic except the emergency flight to another frequency. The whole of the air traffic team on duty will be very busy to provide the best possible service to the flight in the difficulty. Emergencies are where all of the controllers training and expertise are vital.

5. Keep calm. Never let your voice portray nervousness or unease. Sometimes the controller does not fully understand what the precise

problem is. And the pilot may not be proficient in the use of English outside the standard laid down phraseology. And there are no laid down phraseologies for emergencies. If in doubt as to exact nature of the problem, then ask for clarification. Never forget that one unusual situation can lead to another, and they can overlap.

That’s why a controller (as well as a pilot) must know not only radiotelephony phraseology but also possess knowledge of the general English. Reading aviation magazines and accident reports can greatly help to understand problems which may occur.

A. Comprehension

1. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text.1) An aircraft under emergency gets priority over other aircraft.2) Never let your voice portray nervousness or unease. 3) The type of emergency that may occur is completely unpredictable.4) An aircraft which has an urgent message concerning people safety transmits radiotelegraphy signal XXX.5) Reading aviation magazines can greatly help to understand problems.

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6) There are no laid down phraseologies for emergencies.

2. Choose the sentences which contain information about:1) classification of emergencies;2) knowledge of the general English;3) special radiotelephony signals;4) standard laid down phraseology;5) mid-air explosion.

3. Answer the following questions:1) What examines the classification of emergencies?2) Is it possible to define instructions for all cases?3) When does an aircraft get priority over other aircraft?4) How must pilots inform ATC?5) How can an aircraft having some difficulties inform about it?6) Who will be able to do most of the liaison which will be needed?7) Are there any laid down phraseologies for emergencies?8) What should pilots do if they don’t know the exact nature of the problem?9) What can greatly help to understand problems which may occur?10) What is emergency?

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) The type of emergency that may occur is completely predictable.2) All emergencies are identical in every respect.3) It is impossible to write phraseology for emergencies.4) An aircraft having some difficulties can inform about it switching on and off its landing lights.5) It isn’t necessary to transfer all traffic to another frequency.6) One unusual situation can lead to another, and they can overlap.7) Both a controller and a pilot must know the general English.

2. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once. Get, radiotelephony, impose, urgent, practical, transfer, portray, exact, accident, laid down.1)……….message; 6) to……. priority;2)……….signal; 7) to……silence;3)…………value; 8)…... report; 4) to…….unease; 9) to……traffic;5)…….. nature; 10)…… phraseology.

3. Give Russian equivalents for:

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1) completely unpredictable;2) the classification of emergencies;3) working radar controllers;4) to define instructions;5) established signals;6) concerning people safety;7) to do most of the liaison;8) to provide the best possible service;9) to be proficient in the use of English;10) to ask for clarification.

4. Underline the correct word (s) in bold. 1) Pilots must inform/ transmit ATC by sending established signals.2) There are certain situations /actions which are common to a controller handling of all occurrences.3) Emergencies are when/where all of the controllers training and expertise are vital.4) One unusual/unpredictable situation can lead to another.5) Reading/using aviation magazines can greatly help to understand problems which may occur.6) The aircraft in difficulty/distress sets its transponder mode A.

5. Fill in the correct preposition then make sentences using the completed phrases:1) an event … its own;2) effect … the controller;3) an aircraft … emergency;4) the aircraft … distress;5) … a way different … the normal one;6) to be … practical value;7) to transfer all traffic … another frequency;8) the air traffic team … duty;9) to be proficient … the use of English;10) laid down phraseologies … emergencies.

6. Give English equivalents for:Немедленное действие, тип чрезвычайной ситуации, классификация, одинаковы во всех отношениях, взрыв в воздухе, определить инструкции для всех случаев, стандартные процедуры, получать приоритет над другими воздушными судами, радиотелефонные сигналы, включение и выключение посадочных огней, срочное сообщение о безопасности людей, практическое значение, другую частота, обеспечить наилучший сервис, имеют жизненно важное значение, сохранять спокойствие,

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нервозность или беспокойство, за пределами уровня, предписанного фразеологией, обладать знаниями, чтение отчетов об авариях.

7. Fill in the following table:

Verb Noun Adjectiveoccur ------------

explosioneffective

understanddefine -----------

practicalcorporate----------- proficientassociate

8. Read the text. Fill in the gaps with Present Participle or Past Participle.

Rescue and Fire Fighting Services

The prime responsibility of airport rescue and fire fighting personnel is to save lives. Property … (endanger) by aircraft incidents and accidents … (occur) on or near the airport should be preserved as far as practicable. To achieve this objective, fire should be suppressed. There are aircraft accidents, however, where fire may not occur, or where the fire may be rapidly extinguished. In every case, the procedures should provide for the most rapid evacuation possible of survivors of the accident.

Unless seriously … (injure) casualties are stabilized rapidly, they may become fatalities. Airport rescue and fire fighting personnel should receive training to satisfy locally acceptable, emergency medical standards. They may be the only rescue personnel on the scene during the critical period immediately … (follow) an accident and possibly for … (extend) period of time.

Only fire fighting and rescue personnel … (wear) approved protective fire fighting clothing and equipment should be allowed in close proximity to an aircraft accident site.

9. Find in the text above the use of modal verbs and their equivalents. Translate the sentences. What other modal verbs do you know?

10. Match the numbers to the letters:1. rapid; a) injured; 2. extended; b) objective;3. seriously; c) evacuation;

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4. medical; d) training;5. to become; e) period;6. to receive; f) standards;7. to achieve. g) fatalities.

11. Translate the sentences, find any gerund constructions. 1) They succeeded in getting reliable information on dealing with this type of error. 2) In spite of having met with failure they continued experimenting. 3) Metals cannot be dissolved without being changed into new substances.4) They insisted on the sample being tested repeatedly. 5) All aspects of life depend on our understanding the properties of matter. 6) A comparatively simple act of driving a car requires a vast number of scientific principles. 7) Ancient people lived for ages on the earth without knowing anything about electricity.

12. Read the text. Fill in the gaps with words from the list.Danger, proper, carried out, site, integral, rescue, possible, aid, essential, organized.

Medical Services

The purpose of medical services is to provide first 1)… and medical care in order to:

a) save as many lives as 2) … by locating and stabilizing the most seriously injured, whose lives may be in 3) … without immediate treatment;

b) provide comfort to the less seriously injured and to administer first aid; and

c) transport casualties to the 4) … medical facility. It is 5) … that provision of medical services such as stabilization, first

aid, medical care, and the transporting of the injured to hospital(s) be 6) … in the most expeditious manner possible. To this end, well 7) … medical resources (personnel, equipment and medical supplies) should be available at the accident 8) … in the shortest time possible.

Medical and ambulance services may be an 9) … part of the airport services, particularly whenever an ambulance service is a part of the airport 10) … and fire fighting service.

13. Make up some questions to the underlined words.

14. Match the words in the left column to the synonyms in the right one:1. purpose; a) ensure;2. provide; b) objective;

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3. possible; c) means;4. facility; d) place; 5. site; e) especially;6. service; f) probable;7. particularly. g) maintenance.

15. Translate the following sentences into English: Воздушное судно при возникновении чрезвычайной ситуации

получает приоритет над другими воздушными судами. Существуют инструкции, касающиеся использования специальных радиотелефонных сигналов. Пилоты должны информировать УВД, отправив установленные сигналы, и диспетчер должен наложить молчание. Самолет в бедственном положении устанавливает свой режим кода.

Самолет, имеющий некоторые трудности, которые не требуют немедленной помощи, может сообщить об этом включением и выключением посадочных огней.

Во время чрезвычайных ситуаций обучение и опыт диспетчеров имеют жизненно важное значение.

Сохраняйте спокойствие. Никогда не позволяйте, чтобы ваш голос отображал нервозность или беспокойство.

Иногда диспетчер не может в полной мере понять, в чем состоит точная проблема. Или пилот не может быть опытным в использовании английского языка за пределами уровня, предписанного фразеологией радиообмена. Поэтому и диспетчер, и пилот должны владеть общими знаниями английского языка.

Если у вас возникли сомнения относительно точного характера проблемы, то просите разъяснений. Никогда не забывайте, что одна необычная ситуация может привести к другой.

С. Discussion

1. Using the information given in the text “Emergency Procedures” discuss in the class the primary actions of pilots and controllers when the aircraft is under emergency.2. Work in pairs. Roleplay the situation: student A is a representative of one of the airport services (fire fighting or medical one). Student B is a passenger who criticizes the activity of airport services in the case of emergency. Both express their opinions. Use the following phrases to disagree:I don't ( entirely ) agree.... (Oh), surely not! I'm afraid I disagree (with)....I' m not sure, in fact.... I don't see why.... I'm afraid I can't accept......Not really.... Rubbish! I take your point but.....I disagree( I'm afraid)... Never! In spite of what you say, I think......

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Unit 12. Emergency Prevention

Active vocabulary

1) falcon – сокол;2) to guard – защищать, охранять;3) seagull – чайка;4) to counter – противостоять, противодействовать;5) starling – скворец;6) to suck – сосать, всосать;7) to chase – преследовать, гоняться, гнаться;8) prey – добыча, жертва;9) hawk – ястреб;10) to quote – цитировать, процитировать;11) to surpass – превзойти, превосходить, превысить;12) insurance – страхование;13) to mount – установить, смонтировать;14) empennage – хвостовая часть. Guess the meaning of the following words: fatal, mechanism, effect,

airport operator, airfield, ornithology service, little result, instinct, air travel, form of transportation, statistics, number, bicycles, motorcycles, billion kilometers, automobiles, car transportation.

A. Falcons Help Pulkovo Stay Free of Bird Strikes

Mid-air collisions of planes with birds often have fatal consequences. A bird hitting the engine or other important mechanism can have a serious effect on a plane’s ability to fly. But some birds can be friends.

At St. Petersburg's Pulkovo airport those friends are the four falcons "hired" by the airport operator this summer to guard the runways from other birds.

When the falcons rise into the sky over the airport, they act as red traffic lights to all those seagulls, crows and ducks that dare to fly near the landing and take-off routes.

“Every year Pulkovo airport has incidents in which planes landing or taking off ran into birds flying above the airfield," said Andrei Sokolov, head of Pulkovo's ornithology service. "Everything we tried previously to counter this produced little result."

The airplane industry estimates at least 350 people have been killed as a result of bird strikes since the dawn of aviation. The problem is growing worse because of increasing numbers of birds and planes.

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The deadliest bird-plane collision was in 1960, when an Eastern Airlines jet struck a flock of starlings and crashed into Boston Harbor, killing 62 people.

In 1995, an Air Force plane crashed in Alaska, killing 24 crewmen, after geese were sucked into one of the plane's engines.

Most bird strikes occur at low altitude during the most dangerous time of any flight, the take-off or landing.

When the falcons arrived at Pulkovo from a nursery in the city of Voronezh in early July there was a noticeable difference.

The falcons don't chase birds that approach the airport; they simply frighten other birds off with their presence because all other birds are by instinct afraid of the birds of prey.

Similar falcon or hawk services operate at airports in other countries, including the U.S., Germany, Britain and Poland.

Falcons are being introduced to quite a few other Russian airports.

B. Safety Analysis of Transportation

When measured on a passenger-distance calculation, air travel is the safest form of transportation available: these figures are the ones mentioned by the air industry when quoting statistics on air safety. A typical statement is this one by the BBC: "UK airline operations are among the safest anywhere. When compared against all other modes of transport on a fatality per mile basis air transport is the safest - six times safer than traveling by car and twice as safe as rail."

However, when measured by fatalities per person transported, buses are the safest form of transportation and the number of air travel fatalities per person is surpassed only by bicycles and motorcycles. This statistic is the one used by the insurance industry when calculating insurance rates for air travel.

For every billion kilometers traveled, trains have a fatality rate 12 times larger than air travel, while automobiles have a fatality rate 62 times larger. On the other hand, for every billion journeys, buses are the safest form of transportation. By the last measure air transportation is three times more dangerous than car transportation and almost 30 times more dangerous than bus.

A 2007 study by Popular Mechanics found that passengers sitting at the back of a plane are 40% more likely to survive a crash than those sitting in the front, although this article also quotes Boeing, the FAA and a website on aircraft safety, all claiming that there is no safest seat. The article studied 20 crashes, not taking in account the developments in safety after those accidents. However, a flight data recorder is usually mounted in the aircraft's empennage (tail section), where it is more likely to survive a severe crash.

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A. Comprehension

1. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in text A.1) Most bird strikes occur at low altitude.2) A bird hitting the engine can have a serious effect on a plane’s ability to fly. 3) Similar falcon services operate at airports in other countries.4) The falcons act as red traffic lights.5) 350 people have been killed as a result of bird strikes since the dawn of aviation.6) An Eastern Airlines jet struck a flock of starlings and crashed into Boston Harbor.

2. Read text B. Choose the sentences which contain information about:1) study by Popular Mechanics;2) passenger-distance calculation;3) fatality rate;4) flight data recorder;5) UK airline operations.

3. Answer the following questions:1) What can have a serious effect on a plane’s ability to fly?2) Where are the four falcons "hired" to guard the runways?3) How many people have been killed as a result of bird strikes?4) Why is the problem growing worse?5) What was the deadliest bird-plane collision?6) When do most bird strikes occur?7) Where did the falcons arrive from?8) What services operate at airports in other countries?9) What is the safest form of transportation when measured on a passenger-distance calculation?10) What is the safest form of transportation when measured by fatalities per person transported?11) What passengers are 40% more likely to survive a crash?12) Where is a flight data recorder mounted?

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) Mid-air collisions of planes with birds never have fatal consequences.2) Six falcons are "hired" to guard the runways from other birds at Pulkovo airport.3) An Air Force plane crashed in Alaska in1995 because geese were sucked into the plane's engines.

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4) Most bird strikes occur during the most dangerous time of any flight.5) The falcons chase birds that approach the airport.6) When compared on a fatality per mile basis buses are the safest form of transportation.7) It is claimed that there is no safest seat in a plane.

2. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once. Fatal, guard, ornithology, bird, noticeable, insurance, car, survive, calculate, quote.1)……….strikes; 6) to……. a crash; 2)……….industry; 7) to……rates;3)…………difference; 8)…... consequences; 4) to…….runways; 9) to……a website;5)…….. transportation; 10)…… service.

3. Give Russian equivalents for:1) plane’s ability to fly;2) to act as red traffic lights;3) dare to fly;4) result of bird strikes;5) increasing numbers of birds;6) to approach the airport;7) similar services;8) passenger-distance calculation;9) six times safer;10) air travel fatalities per person;11) to be more likely to survive;12) developments in safety.

4. Underline the correct word (s) in bold. 1) A bird hitting / guarding the engine or other important mechanism can have a serious effect.2) The seagulls, crows and ducks dare/ ought to fly near the landing and take-off routes. 3) The falcons simply frighten other birds off with their presence/ number.4) The number of air travel fatalities per person is increased /surpassed only by bicycles.5) After/ when measured by fatalities per person transported, buses are the safest form of transportation.6) This article also quotes/ studies Boeing, the FAA and a website on aircraft safety.7) Air transportation is three times more expensive /dangerous than car transportation.

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5. Fill in the correct preposition then make sentences using the completed phrases:1) to guard the runways … other birds;2) to rise … the sky… the airport;3) … the dawn … aviation;4) crashed … Boston Harbor;5) to occur … low altitude;6) to arrive … Pulkovo … a nursery … the city of Voronezh;7) to be … instinct afraid … the birds;8) measured … a passenger-distance calculation;9) statistics … air safety;10) compared … all other modes of transport;11) used by the insurance industry;12) … every billion journeys;13) passengers sitting … the back;14) taking … account;15) the developments … safety … the accidents.

6. Which word is the odd one out in each group and why?1. falcons, seagulls, ducks, radars;2. rise, fly, grow, occur;3. runways, collisions, estimates, birds;4. safest, larger, worse, more dangerous.

7. Give English equivalents for:Фатальные последствия, способность самолета летать, "нанятые" оператором аэропорта, охранять взлетно-посадочные полосы, осмеливаются летать, глава службы орнитологии, авиационная промышленность, растущее число птиц и самолетов, стая скворцов, на малой высоте, инстинктивно, самый безопасный вид транспорта, статистические данные о безопасности полетов, в шесть раз безопаснее, при расчете страховых тарифов, уровень смертности, задняя часть самолета.

8. Make these sentences negative:1) Some birds can be friends.2) Every year Pulkovo airport has incidents with birds.3) Everything we tried previously to counter this produced little result.4) The problem is growing worse.5) An Eastern Airlines jet struck a flock of starlings and crashed into Boston Harbor.6) All other birds are by instinct afraid of the birds of prey.

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7) This article also quotes a website on aircraft safety.8) Geese were sucked into the plane's engines.

9. Read the text. Fill in the gaps with words from the list.Medical, pain, deliver, feet, beginning, immediate, tablets, travel, liquid, ground, silly.

Be Prepared for an In-Flight Medical Emergency

Carine Desir died on American Airlines Flight 896 from Haiti to New York on February 22, 2007. Nine months earlier, two doctors worked together to 1) … a baby on a Delta Air Lines flight from Germany to Atlanta. Both of these examples – the 2)… and the end of life -- are often considered 3)… emergencies, and medical emergencies are not something you want to have on an airplane at umpteen-thousand 4)…. Flying is inherently safe, but you can have a medical emergency in the air just like you can on the 5)…. Here's how to be prepared.

Always 6) … with your medications and if traveling includes a flight, put all your drugs in your carry-on. You'll especially want those drugs you need for 7)… treatment: inhalers for shortness of breath; nitroglycerin for chest 8) …; Epi-pen and Benedryl for anaphylaxis; antiarrhythmia medications for rapid heart rates; glucagon or glucose 9)… for hypoglycemia.

You may need permission to carry 10)… medicines onto the aircraft, which is why I recommend anyone prone to low blood sugar carry glucose tablets instead of gel. It may seem 11) … to carry glucose since there is food available on the plane, but flight attendants aren't always allowed to come to your assistance. If it works for you, a candy bar may also work.

10. Make up some questions to the underlined words.

11. Match the words in the left column to the synonyms in the right one:1. purpose; a) ensure;2. provide; b) objective;3. possible; c) means;4. facility; d) place; 5. site; e) especially;6. service; f) probable;7. particularly. g) maintenance.

12. Distribute the words below according to the parts of speech. Underline suffixes and prefixes. Translate the words. Verb Noun Adverb Adjective

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Medical, inherently, suffer, medication, treatment, rapid, carry, available, allow, assistance, recommend, permission, simply, survive, compare, rate, fatal, guard, previously, flock, occur, chase, engine, travelling.

13. Form the nouns from the following verbs:To collide, to estimate, to occur, to differ, to calculate, to quote, to state, to insure.

14. Translate the following sentences into English: Столкновения самолетов с птицами в воздухе часто имеют

фатальные последствия. Но некоторые птицы могут быть друзьями. В аэропорту Пулково в Санкт-Петербурге четыре сокола охраняют взлетно-посадочные полосы от других птиц. Когда соколы поднимаются в небо над аэропортом, они действуют как красный сигнал светофора для всех других птиц, которые осмеливаются летать рядом с взлетно-посадочной полосой.

По крайней мере 350 человек погибли в результате столкновений с птицами. Проблема ухудшается из-за растущего числа птиц и самолетов.

Воздушный транспорт является самым безопасным видом транспорта по статистическим данным о безопасности полетов. Тем не менее, при подсчете погибших, самым безопасным видом транспорта являются автобусы. Эта статистика используется при расчете страховых тарифов на авиаперевозки.

На каждый млрд. пройденных километров, поезда имеют уровень смертности в 12 раз больше, чем воздушный транспорт, в то время как автомобили имеют летальность 62 раз больше.

Установлено, что у пассажиров, сидящих в задней части самолета на 40% больше шансов выжить при аварии, чем у тех, кто сидит в передней. Другие источники утверждают, что безопасных сидений не существует.

С. Discussion

1. Work in pairs. Using the information given in the text and your personal experience, make up a dialogue between a passenger and a doctor giving advice before a flight. 2. Organize a “round table” discussion “Emergency in Aviation”.Internal goals: to exchange viewpoints, formulate and give opinion on the topic.Problems to be raised at the “round table”:1. Aviation accidents and incidents. 2. Emergency procedures. Certain actions which are common to a controller or a pilot handling of all occurrences.3. Airport services. Rescue, fire fighting and medical personnel. Their purposes, duties and activity in the case of emergency.

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4. Safety analysis of transportation. The safest form of transportation. Where is the safest seat of an airplane located?Cast:1. a pilot;2. a controller;3. a representative of airport services;4. a doctor;5. a professional fire-fighter;6. a journalist;7. a representative of the Ministry of Transport;8. passengers.

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APPENDIX

Reading material related to the themes of the units:

Some Words about Early Flying

It is known that the desire to fly is as old as humanity. Observations for flying birds gave man the idea of human flight. Every nation has many legends and tales about birdmen and magic carpets. The earliest of these legends comes from China.

One of the most famous Greek legends is the legend of Daedalus and Icarus who made wings and fastened them on with wax. Daedalus landed in safety. Icarus was not so careful as his father and he flew closer and closer to the sun. The closer he was the hotter it became. The wax melted, his wings came off and he fell into the sea.

It is clear that in those old days people knew little about nature. They could not understand much about the air and its nature and were unable to explain most of the phenomena of nature.

As time went on there came a stage when people no longer regarded flight as a supernatural phenomenon. The desire to fly was the desire to control nature. People imitated birds when they used wings. They had to fight against many prejudices because there was common belief that man could not fly.

The first scientific principles of human flight appeared in the 14th century. The great scientist Leonardo de Vinci recorded a few of them. He found that knowledge of the air and its currents helped to understand the phenomenon of flight.

Daedalaus was a Greek; Garuda was Indian; Leonardo de Vinci Italian; Lilienthal was German; Montgolfier and Bleriot were French; Hargrake was Australian; Captain Mozhaiski was a Russian; the Wright brothers were American. They were the pioneers. Nor is this the end of this truly international story. The air captured the imagination of all. It was the efforts of men of many countries who pioneered civil aviation, who brought it to the art that we know today, and who now help its rapidly developing growth. The aeroplane is a creature of no one country's knowledge and effort. So it became clear from the very start that without international agreement the development of aviation would be greatly limited. The most successful attempt came in 1944 at a Conference of 52 nations held in Chicago, at the invitation of the United States. It was at this conference that the International Civil Aviation Organization was created.

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Some Civil Aviation Organizations

1. IATA - International Air Transport Association is the second in its importance organization after ICAO for international civil aviation. It was founded in 1945 and is uniting world airlines. The main objective of this organization is to provide safe and regular development of civil aviation and cooperation of world airlines. The IATA Technical Committee deals with the problem of safety, standardization of aviation equipment, training of flying personnel, communications, meteorology, aerodromes, navigational aids, etc.

2. International Civil Airports Association (ICAA) is the major international airports association. It is an organization permitting a constant exchange of experience, information and documentation among airports as well as contacts between airport managements. Founded in 1962 ICAA is doing much to help countries in developing both domestic and international airports providing specialists and equipment.

3. International Federation of Air Traffic Controllers' Associations (IFATCA) was founded in 1963 with the purpose to enable the national associations to study and solve the problems for the development of air traffic control art and to create a better understanding among the controllers serving the international aviation.

4. Eurocontrol is the European organization working for air navigation safety. It was created in 1963 for better service of European airspace. The increase of fast flying civil transport aircraft brought a number of difficulties and resulted in the necessity of new operating methods and use of advanced technology. Some European countries signed an agreement to organize common air traffic control in the upper airspace.

How Aircraft Fly

The word “aircraft” means any kind of aircraft or vehicle which air can support. Airplanes, helicopters and gliders are heavier–than-air craft. They are supported by the dynamic action of the air upon their aerodynamic surfaces. Free and captive balloons and airship are supported by their own buoyancy*. They are called lighter–than–air craft. Rockets do not need air for support. They use the power of their reaction engine to propel them through space, and are called “spacecraft”.

All heavier-than-air craft use aerodynamic surfaces or airfoils to develop the necessary supporting force. These airfoils* are usually in the form of fixed or rotary wings. In order to develop the required lift, the airfoils must move through the air with sufficiently high speed. This speed is imparted to the aircraft by the thrust of its power plant. The thrust may be developed by rotating the pulling or pushing propellers, or by throwing back masses of air by means of gas turbine engines.

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To change the attitude and direction of flight aircraft use control surfaces or controls. These comprise the rudder, the elevator, and ailerons. The rudder is used to deflect the movement of the aircraft to the left or to the right. The elevator makes the aircraft climb or dive. The ailerons produce rolling movement.

The aircraft must also be able to see and hear. Aircraft sensors are those devices, such as radars, direction finders and position plotters*, communication equipment, attitude gyros, air speed indicators and others, which enable the crew to know position, orientation and speed of aircraft.

* buoyancy – аэростатическая подъемная сила* airfoil – аэродинамическая поверхность* position plotter – прокладчик пути

Aircraft Instruments

Aircraft instruments are basically devices for obtaining information about the aircraft and its environment and for presenting that information to the pilot. Their purpose is to detect, measure, record, process and analyze the variables encountered in flying an aircraft. They are mainly electrical, electronic or gyroscopic. Modern aircraft have a computer on board. They are concerned with the behavior of the engines, the speed, height and attitude of the aircraft and its whereabouts. Instruments concerned with the whereabouts of an aircraft are navigation instruments.

An aircraft usually takes the name of the designer or manufacturer. Here are some of the Russian designers: Tupolev, Ilyushin, Antonov, Yakovlev. Manufacturer's names are represented by Boeing, Douglas, Lockheed and others. The name of the designer or manufacturer is followed by a type code, known in some airlines as a class. For example: Ilyushin-96 (designer's name and type code), Boeing-747 (manufacturer's name and type code).

Weather Forecasting

There are very many meteorological stations all over the country. They are of great help for aviation. There is a met. ground at every airport too, which is equipped with special instruments. These grounds have to be located not far from the landing and taking off areas at a distance of about 300 m. from the end of the runway. At the airports which have no landing systems these met. stations are situated not far from the dispatch office. But if it is difficult to watch the horizontal visibility from this point, then the observations must be made from another place which is the most suitable one for observations. These met. observations are made every 30 minutes at the airports; but sometimes when the

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weather is dangerous for safe flights the observers give met. information every 15 minutes. All flights must be provided with met. information about the actual weather and weather forecast.

The chief pilot studies the data obtained during preflight preparation. Besides, the pilot receives met. report while in flight. 20-30 minutes before entering the aerodrome area the controller gives full information about the weather for the aerodrome to the plane. For the planes approaching for landing met. report is constantly given with the help of a tape-recorder or by a controller.

Short-flight forecasts are provided by continuous Transcribed Weather Broadcasts and the Pilot's Automatic Telephone Weather Answering Service.

For longer flights a telephone call or visit to the nearest Flight Service Station or Weather Bureau Airport is necessary.

After receiving weather information either for short or long-range flights the pilot considers carefully if weather conditions are suitable for his flight. If not, it is better to delay the flight.

At many terminals information helpful to landing and taking off is continuously broadcast on a navigational aid frequency. Prior to descent the pilot requests current weather for terminal area as well as field conditions at destination.

The Effects of the Weather on Aviation

Except perhaps for local or very short flights, a pilot, before taking off, obtains a weather forecast giving him the weather conditions which are expected along the route of his flight and at his destination. Because weather conditions affect aircraft in flight, to a considerable extent, special aviation forecasts are provided by meteorologists at weather offices all over the world.

The meteorologist, or forecaster, prepares a weather chart which shows the current weather conditions over the whole country. The current weather chart is called a synoptic chart. This synoptic chart shows the areas of low pressure, the areas of high pressure, where precipitation is falling, and all other weather conditions across the country.

From this weather map, the forecaster can inform pilots of the weather conditions they can expect to encounter during their flights. A high pressure area, for instance, usually means good weather while a low pressure area usually involves one or more fronts producing clouds and precipitation over many hundreds of miles.

A pilot needs to know the wind direction and speed. A headwind will obviously delay the arrival of flights and is to be avoided if at all possible. A tailwind on the other hand, can be of great advantage as it increases the ground speed and results in a reduction in fuel consumption. Winds vary with altitude, and also from one place to another, so information on winds is very important.

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Pilots will pay particular attention to a low pressure which lies en route, and the weather conditions associated with that low pressure area. The associated cold or warm fronts could involve clouds, thunderstorm, snow, rain, and turbulence. From his charts, the meteorologist can forecast where this weather will be at a certain time in the future, and with the help of these predictions, the pilot will decide which route to fly and when and he will know what weather conditions to expect. Should the forecast be very bad, for example, dense fog or poor visibility due to snow, the pilot may decide to postpone his flight. A pilot flying VFR would also cancel his flight because of low ceiling or low overcast conditions on route.

Freezing Rain

Precipitation that exists in supercooled liquid form below temperatures of 0°C and freezes on contact with surfaces of a temperature less than 0°C.Freezing Rain occurs when precipitation, in the form of rain, passes from a warm air mass into a relative cold air mass of an air temperature less than 0°C. The rain maintaining its liquid state in sub-zero temperatures renders it super-cooled. These super-cooled rain droplets freeze when they come into contact with the ground or other exposed surface, if the surface temperature is below 0°C. By definition, freezing rain has either droplets of a diameter greater than 0.5 mm (0.02 inch) or, if droplets have less than this diameter, they must be, in contrast to (freezing) drizzle, widely separated.

The winter storms which give rise to the phenomenon of freezing rain are often referred in North America as Ice Storms. The cloud type generally associated with freezing rain is Nimbostratus.

EffectsFreezing Rain can cause significant accumulations of Clear ice on upper

surfaces which the aircraft anti/de-icing systems, being primarily designed to deal with ice accumulation caused by horizontal movement of the airframe, may not be able to cope with. Aircraft on the ground during freezing rain may become covered in thick layers of ice which will be difficult to remove; airfield operating surfaces and runways will also be affected, and all aircraft movement on the ground may be severely disrupted.

SolutionsIn Flight The best response is avoidance : aircraft should be routed away

from forecast/reported freezing rain horizontally and/or vertically. When in the vicinity of a warm front in winter, if performance, ATC, and regulations allow, consider flying above the freezing level, where the ice crystal precipitation will not have a chance to melt.On the Ground Check information on runway braking action before taxying for take off or attempting a take off or landing. Generally airline and passenger/freight carrying operations are suspended during periods of freezing

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rain, as defined in operations manuals, particularly Part A. Even without being prohibited by an operators manual restriction, operations in freezing rain are difficult as the applicable Hold-Over Time from such an anti-icing treatment is very limiting in freezing rain, specifically as the ice accretion rates can be much greater than other forms of freezing conditions. A typical hold over time can be as less as 15 minutes in light freezing rain, which can practically mean its not possible to receive treatment and then take off within the time frame. It should be noted that Holdover Time (HOT) Tables are not provided for operations in conditions of moderate or heavy freezing rain. Ice pellets falling may indicate freezing rain aloft.

Co-Pilot’s Duties

Co-pilot should:1. Master piloting technique and aero navigation to ensure safe flying. 2. Observe pre-flight rest.3. Be able to analyze and correctly assess meteorological and aeronautical

environment situation.4. Get ready for the flight to the full extent.5. Control the condition and readiness of the aircraft and its proper

loading.6. Know radiotelephone phraseology and the rules of communication.7. Inform the captain about all malfunctions of aircraft systems and

instruments and make suggestions of their removal.8. Make decisions and act according to the situation if the captain cannot

perform his duties due to various reasons.9. Inspect the aircraft after landing and taxing to the stand. Co-pilot has the right:1. To pilot the aircraft at all stages of the flight with the captain’s

permission.2. To fulfill the captain’s instructions when the captain cannot perform his

duties.Co-pilot is responsible for:1. Meeting the requirements of all regulation documents of Civil Aviation.2. Discretion while taxying and in flight.3. Timely and correct actions at the decision height together with the

captain.4. Maintaining flight parameters given by the captain.5. Safe completion of the flight while piloting when the captain cannot

fulfil his duties.

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Some Words about Pilot Training

The professional training system must be based on the criteria of the reliable flight deck activity in piloting and operating the airborne systems.

The main criteria of basic pilot training are timely and faultless procedure execution in anticipated flight conditions and in abnormal situations.

Professional training of flight personnel faces the problem to organize the instruction process so as to provide acquisition of the necessary knowledge only and enable logical execution of a great number of procedures.

The formation of professional intellect is a complex process. The creation of professional intellect cannot be achieved as a result of observations of some phenomena without serious thinking over them. One of the peculiarities of professional intellect acquisition is that the trainee should individually study the correlated functioning of aircraft systems in case of failures, the instruments readings and position of the controls.

Special-purpose simulators used at the stage of simulator training contribute to more extensive acquisition and strengthening abilities and skills both as crew members and in teamwork. The phase of so called “pre-simulator” phase starts with the study of airport systems functioning principles and specific nature of their operation in anticipated conditions and abnormal situations. The necessity of special technical aids of instruction for “pre-simulator” training is due to the existing time gap between the process of studying various airborne systems interaction in anticipated and abnormal situations and the process of developing skills required for operating these systems. In the instruction devices at the phase of “pre-simulator” training similarity is not considered to be obligatory. It is considered that instruction effectiveness to a great extent is the function of the action image which the trainee uses rather than similarity of an instruction device. Graphic displays of up-to-date universal computers are widely used in the process of basic (theoretical) training of aviation specialists.

Air Traffic Simulator

The increase in air traffic has resulted in the installation of a vast number of radar control systems. Technical progress not only has improved the performance of these systems but also has made them more complex. This has required to train new controllers and to provide continuous refresher training for operational controllers.

The use of simulators provides a solution of safety and efficiency problems. The simulators can be used to train future controllers in the civil aviation educational establishments and to prepare experienced controllers.

A simulator can be used to establish new flight procedures and controls in complete safety.

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Nowadays airways are continuously congested, aircraft attain higher speeds and air traffic is characterized by growing complexity. This results in a steadily increasing workload on ATC controllers. They have to be provided with highly sophisticated technical aids and must be trained so perfectly that they can cope with any traffic situation.

Therefore training should be carried out under very realistic conditions.

Simulators are the ideal solution to this problem, since they allow trainees to meet any traffic situation without interference with actual operations. They can realistically simulate the flight of aircraft over any specified area. The trainee controllers are presented with primary and secondary video outputs representing the aircraft as seen from independent radar sites. Over the radiotelephony they talk to “pilots” who have the facility change position, height and speed in accordance with instructions from a trainee or as dictated by the exercise programme.

Language Problems in Aviation

Nowadays many people of different tongues are using aeroplanes everywhere. And this is the language problem for an airport, airspace user and navigation personnel.

It is known that the working languages of ICAO are those of English, French, Spanish and Russian. But it is known as well that many aviation specialists in the world are very limited in the knowledge of one of these languages or even do not undergo sufficient training in English to master radio communication. It results in some problems facing both pilots and controllers, namely: accent, mispronunciation, inaccurate grammar, speed of delivery, the persistent use of non-standard radio-telephony (RT) phraseology and some others.

A prerequisite to becoming a controller or a pilot should be a high standard of spoken English. A non-native speaker monitoring another person speaking English over the RT may be confused by inaccurate grammar or pronunciation.

Speed of delivery is another frequently head complaint, especially about aerodrome terminal information services (ATIS) and meteorological broadcasts to aircraft in flight (VOLMET).

It is not less important to speak without pauses and stumbles over words. The best recommendation is the rate of 100-120 words per minute.

Another difficulty is that of accent which is not easily rectified. This problem is connected with the peculiarities of pronunciation. For example, there exist peculiarities in pronunciation inherent in certain geographical regions in the South Pacific.

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The ICAO RT phraseology has been designed to limit each instruction to the minimum number of words. It is for this reason that a controller does not want to waste time listening to extraneous language, particularly at busy times when the traffic flow is heavy.

It sometimes happens that the user may be able to speak the limited number of phrases quite well and may react to them correctly. But it does not mean that he is really speaking the language. He is treating it as a code without being aware of adequate meaning of the words spoken. This will do in a standard situation, but in an emergency communication is absolutely impossible. It follows that any course of teaching RT phraseology by rote without language teaching is dangerous as the student is unable to cope with emergencies.

These are several recommendations to improve the situation:1. A high standard of English is essential as a precondition for

qualification either a controller or a pilot. Proficiency is required both in speaking and comprehension.

2. In service tuition in English should be mandatory for both controllers and pilots with stress on pronunciation.

3. Radio traffic should be monitored, either regularly or from time to time by a qualified assessor.

4. English speakers should abstain non-standardized chat and especially from developing regional jargon.

5. Language training should take place in the area in which the trainee will be operating, i.e. teachers should go where the trainees will work.

6. ATISs and VOLMETs should be subject to specified word flow rates.7. On purely logic grounds and without any nationalistic bias English

should be made the primary official language for all RT communications relating to air traffic control. This would greatly enhance flight safety.

Barriers to Effective Communication: Implications for the Cockpit

Effective communication is an important process in everyday life. People must be able to communicate effectively with each other on both a personal as well as business level. Breakdowns in the communication processes can lead to begin misunderstandings, or worse, a major disaster.

Nowhere else is the communication process more important than in the cockpit of an aircraft. As history has repeatedly shown, a breakdown in the communication process often leads to less than desirable events that can be illustrated as follows:

In 1977, at Tenerife in the Canary Islands, heavy accents and improper terminology among a Dutch KLM crew, an American Pan Am crew and a Spanish air traffic controller led to the worst aviation disaster in history, in which 583 passengers perished.

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In 1980, another Spanish air traffic controller at Tenerife gave a holding pattern clearance to a Dan Air flight by saying "turn to the left" when he should have said "turns to the left" - resulting in the aircraft making a single left turn rather than making circles using left turns. The jet hit a mountain killing 146 people.

In 1990, Colombian Avianca pilots in a holding pattern over Kennedy Airport told controllers that their 707 was low on fuel. The crew should have stated they had a "fuel emergency," which would have given them immediate clearance to land. Instead, the crew declared a "minimum fuel" condition and the plane ran out of fuel, crashing and killing 72 people.

In 1993, Chinese pilots flying a U.S.-made MD-80 were attempting to land in northwest China. The pilots were baffled by an audio alarm from the plane's ground proximity warning system. A cockpit recorder picked up the pilot's last words: "What does 'pull up' mean?"

In 1995, an American Airlines jet crashed into a mountain in Colombia after the captain instructed the autopilot to steer towards the wrong beacon. A controller later stated that he suspected from the pilot's communications that the jet was in trouble, but that the controller's English was not sufficient for him to understand and articulate the problem.

On November 13, 1996, a Saudi Arabian airliner and a Kazakhstan plane collided in mid-air near New Delhi, India. While an investigation is still pending, early indications are that the Kazak pilot may not have been sufficiently fluent in English and was consequently unable to understand an Indian controller giving instructions in English.

All of the above examples are the result of "language barriers." But, barriers to effective communication can come in other forms as well, including noise, vibration, radio clutter, distractions, and even cultural differences between crew members. This list is not all-inclusive, but does depict some of the more common problems in today's cockpits.

Pilotage

Pilotage is navigation by reference to landmarks or checkpoints. It is a method of navigation that can be used on any course that has adequate checkpoints, but it is more commonly used in conjunction with dead reckoning and VFR radio navigation.

The checkpoints selected should be prominent features common to the area of the flight. Choose checkpoints that can be readily identified by other features such as roads, rivers, railroad tracks, lakes, and power lines. If possible, select features that make useful boundaries or brackets on each side of the course, such as highways, rivers, railroads, and mountains. A pilot can keep from drifting too far off course by referring to and not crossing the selected

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brackets. Never place complete reliance on any single checkpoint. Choose ample checkpoints. If one is missed, look for the next one while maintaining the heading.

Roads shown on the chart are primarily the well-traveled roads or those most apparent when viewed from the air. New roads and structures are constantly being built, and may not be shown on the chart until the next chart is issued. Some structures, such as antennas may be difficult to see. Sometimes TV antennas are grouped together in an area near a town. They are supported by almost invisible guy wires. Never approach an area of antennas less than 500 feet above the tallest one. Most of the taller structures are marked with strobe lights to make them more visible to a pilot. However, some weather conditions or background lighting may make them difficult to see. Aeronautical charts display the best information available at the time of printing, but a pilot should be cautious for new structures or changes that have occurred since the chart was printed.

Specific Procedures for the North Atlantic Airspace

If the pilot is unsure of the vertical or lateral position of the aircraft or the aircraft deviates from its assigned altitude or track without prior clearance, then the pilot must take action to minimize the potential for collision with aircraft on adjacent routes or flight levels.

In this situation the pilot must alert adjacent aircraft by making maximum use of aircraft lights and broadcasting position, flight level and intentions on 121.5 MHz.

The pilot should advise ATC as soon as possible of a situation and if possible request an ATC clearance before deviating from assigned route of the flight or flight level.

If a revised ATC clearance cannot be obtained timely and action is required to avoid potential conflict with other aircraft, then the aircraft should fly at an altitude or on a track where other aircraft are least likely to be encountered.

Why Aircraft Maintenance is Important

Aircraft maintenance is important for every company in the airline industry. It is even considered the most critical part when owning an aircraft or a plane that is for service. The aircraft or plane that is used for several hours should be highly maintained to ensure that it is still in good condition and can still perform well in the air. Air companies have to consider many things when it comes to maintenance, such as the, maintenance process, people to do it, and the cost. These things are essential to this type of business.

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Making sure that the aircraft is highly maintained can mean a lot of things to do. Maintenance of the aircraft includes the installation of a component and the removal. These things can be done effectively with the help of highly skilled people. The installation of the engine should be done by these people to avoid mistakes that can eventually lead to crashes. It is a good thing that there are suppliers who offer this service to their customers. They can also do the removal of an aircraft component that can make the everyday air operation dangerous.

Aircraft owners are being assisted by some companies when it comes to maintenance. There are authorized agencies that monitor the maintenance practice of the owners so it is important that these should be done carefully. The operational needs of the air companies will be the bases of the maintenance level and kind which they are required to have.

Checkups are required for planes and aircraft that are used for a several hours and for a period of time. For example, planes that have been in service for 100 hours already need to be checked if they are still in good condition. Military aircraft has different checkup needs compared to commercial planes. It is because of their different usage each day. Also, the checkup method of the commercial planes is different from the military aircraft. Failure to follow this method can lead to business failure.

The aircraft or plane will determined as safe to use for business by these authorized bodies. Hence, it is important that aircraft will be maintained so that owners can continue doing business. Suppliers who give maintenance service to their customers and highly skilled people can help achieve this goal. Personal planes need to be maintained as well to keep their owners safe always.

Approach and Terminal Control

Many airports have a radar control facility that is associated with the airport. In most countries, this is referred to as Approach or Terminal Control. While every airport varies, terminal controllers usually handle traffic in a 30 to 50 nautical mile (56 to 93 km) radius from the airport. Where there are many busy airports in close proximity, one single terminal control may service all the airports. The actual airspace boundaries and altitudes assigned to a terminal control are based on factors such as traffic flows, neighboring airports and terrain, and vary widely from airport to airport.

Terminal controllers are responsible for providing all ATC services within their airspace. Traffic flow is broadly divided into departures, arrivals, over flights, and clearance delivery. As aircraft move in and out of the terminal airspace, they are handed off to the next appropriate control facility. Terminal control is responsible for ensuring that aircraft are at an appropriate altitude when they are handed off, and that aircraft arrive at a suitable rate for landing.

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Ground Control

Ground Control is responsible for the airport "maneuvering" areas, or areas not released to the airlines or other users. This generally includes all taxiways, inactive runways, holding areas, and some transitional aprons or intersections where aircraft arrive having vacated the runway and departure gates. Any aircraft, vehicle, or person walking or working in these areas is required to have clearance from the ground controller. This is normally done via radio.

Airport Control

The primary means of controlling is by visual observation from the control tower. The tower is a tall, windowed structure located on the airport grounds. Aerodrome, or Tower, controllers are responsible for the separation and efficient movement of aircraft and vehicles operating on the taxiways and runways of the airport itself, and aircraft in the air near the airport, generally 2 to 5 nautical miles (3.7 to 9.2 km) depending on the airport procedures. The air traffic control in the tower clears aircraft for taking off or landing and ensures the runway is clear for these aircraft. Tower controllers typically only control airborne traffic when it is VMC weather conditions, or in other words when the controllers can see the aircraft in the air and their vision is not obstructed by clouds.

Radar displays are also available to controllers at some airports. Controllers may use a radar system called Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) for airborne traffic approaching and departing. These displays include a map of the area, the position of various aircraft, and data tags that include aircraft identification, speed, heading, and other information described in local procedures. This is usually used by IFR controllers. IFR controllers control aircraft that can't be seen due to clouds. The radar provides the controller with "eyes in the sky" so that safe control of aircraft can be maintained.

X-Ray System

While you are stepping through the metal detector, your carry-on items are going through the X-ray system. A conveyor belt carries each item past an X-ray machine. X-rays are like light in that they are electromagnetic waves, but they are more energetic, so they can penetrate many materials. The machine used in airports usually is based on a dual-energy X-ray system. This system has a single X-ray source sending out X-rays, typically in the range of 140 to 160 kilovolt peak (KVP). KVP refers to the amount of penetration an X-ray makes. The higher the KVP, the further the X-ray penetrates.

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In a dual-energy X-ray system, the X-rays pass through a detector, a filter and then another detector.

After the X-rays pass through the item, they are picked up by a detector. This detector then passes the X-rays on to a filter, which blocks out the lower-energy X-rays. The remaining high-energy X-rays hit a second detector. A computer circuit compares the pick-ups of the two detectors to better represent low-energy objects, such as most organic materials.

Since different materials absorb X-rays at different levels, the image on the monitor lets the machine operator see distinct items inside your bag. Items are typically colored on the display monitor, based on the range of energy that passes through the object, to represent one of three main categories: organic, inorganic, metal.

While the colors used to signify "inorganic" and "metal" may vary between manufacturers, all X-ray systems use shades of orange to represent "organic." This is because most explosives are organic. Machine operators are trained to look for suspicious items — and not just obviously suspicious items like guns or knives, but also anything that could be a component of an improvised explosive device (IED). Since there is no such thing as a commercially available bomb, IEDs are the way most terrorists and hijackers gain control. An IED can be made in an astounding variety of ways, from basic pipe bombs to sophisticated, electronically-controlled component bombs.

An X-ray of a bag Notice that all organic items are a shade of orange. A common misconception is that the X-ray machine used to check

carry-on items will damage film and electronic media. In actuality, all modern carry-on X-ray systems are considered film-safe. This means that the amount of X-ray radiation is not high enough to damage photographic film. Since electronic media can withstand much more radiation than film can, it is also safe from damage. However, the CT scanner and many of the high-energy X-ray systems used to examine checked baggage can damage film (electronic media is still safe), so you should always carry film with you on the plane.

Electronic items, such as laptop computers, have so many different items packed into a relatively small area that it can be difficult to determine if a bomb is hidden within the device. That's why you may be asked to turn your laptop or PDA on. But even this is not sufficient evidence since a skilled criminal could hide a bomb within a working electronic device. For that reason, many airports also have a chemical sniffer. This is essentially an automated chemistry lab in a box. At random intervals, or if there is reason to suspect the electronic device that someone is carrying, the security attendant quickly swipes a cloth over the device and places the cloth on the sniffer. The sniffer analyzes the cloth for any trace residue of the types of chemicals used to make bombs. If there is any residue, the sniffer warns the security attendant of a potential bomb. In addition to desktop sniffers like this, there are handheld versions, that can be used to "sniff" lockers and other enclosed spaces and unattended luggage. Walk-

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through models, such as GE's Entry Scan 3, are also available. These sniffers can be used to detect explosives and narcotics.

Metal Detector

All public access to an airport is channeled through the terminal, where every person must walk through a metal detector and all items must go through an X-ray machine.

Almost all airport metal detectors are based on pulse induction (PI). Typical PI systems use a coil of wire on one side of the arch as the transmitter and receiver. This technology sends powerful, short bursts (pulses) of current through the coil of wire. Each pulse generates a brief magnetic field. When the pulse ends, the magnetic field reverses polarity and collapses very suddenly, resulting in a sharp electrical spike. This spike lasts a few microseconds (millionths of a second) and causes another current to run through the coil. This subsequent current is called the reflected pulse and lasts only about 30 microseconds. Another pulse is then sent and the process repeats. A typical PI-based metal detector sends about 100 pulses per second, but the number can vary greatly based on the manufacturer and model, ranging from about 25 pulses per second to over 1,000.

If a metal object passes through the metal detector, the pulse creates an opposite magnetic field in the object. When the pulse's magnetic field collapses, causing the reflected pulse, the magnetic field of the object makes it take longer for the reflected pulse to completely disappear. This process works something like echoes: If you yell in a room with only a few hard surfaces, you probably hear only a very brief echo, or you may not hear one at all. But if you yell into a room with a lot of hard surfaces, the echo lasts longer. In a PI metal detector, the magnetic fields from target objects add their "echo" to the reflected pulse, making it last a fraction longer than it would without them.

A sampling circuit in the metal detector is set to monitor the length of the reflected pulse. By comparing it to the expected length, the circuit can determine if another magnetic field has caused the reflected pulse to take longer to decay. If the decay of the reflected pulse takes more than a few microseconds longer than normal, there is probably a metal object interfering with it.

Crew Resource Management

Crew Resource Management (CRM) is efficient and effective communication, cooperation and coordination. Its objective is to:

Promote and maintain a safe operation at all times Promote effective and efficient decision making

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Mitigate and capture human error Increase the chance of survival in an incident or accident Manage effectively and efficiently all available resources (human or

physical) To promote CRM Crew members should understand each other’s roles

and responsibilities possess an excellent understanding of their Airline’s safety and security policies and procedures, effectively communicate with each other, cooperate and coordinate their efforts and resolve or work through any differences or conflicts.

CRM is a system of applying human factors concepts to improve Crew performance, and, subsequently, improve safety. Effective CRM results in all Crew members functioning as a team, rather than a collection of technically competent individuals. High technical proficiency does not guarantee safe aircraft operation in the absence of effective Crew coordination.

Operators aim to encourage appropriate contributions from all Crew members to ensure a consistently high level of safe and efficient procedures, together with service excellence. Training or development may not cover every possible scenario which Crew may face.

Crew Resource Management (CRM) is an essential component of safety training. It allows airlines to influence the way that Cabin Crew and Flight Crew can work more effectively together, by providing the necessary technical and behavioral skills necessary for each to know what to expect from their fellow Crew members in any given situation. It is recommended that CRM form an integral part of initial and recurrent/refresher Cabin Crew training programs.

The following best practices should be taken into consideration when formulating effective CRM programs:

• Standards for Human Factors and CRM for Cabin Crew to be combined with Flight Crew

• Specialist trainers should be used and these trainers should undergo specific training on CRM

• Check flights/audits to be set to measure whether training methods are carried out in flight

• Guidelines on all training to be designed with the specific needs of the carrier being taken into consideration (i.e. cultural training)

• When an incident occurs on board, Airlines should consider using these as case studies in future CRM training

• Encourage Crews to talk about incidents and share views at Cabin Crew pre-flight briefings

• Build a trust between Crew and management where people feel comfortable to “open up”

• Role play simulated flights where everyone has a role to play • Passengers on such flights to be given card with scenarios to enact

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• Conduct a full debriefing to be used as a learning exercise and not as criticism of what could have been done better

• List all key topics from the debriefing to be included in future case studies.

Which are the Safest Seats on a Plane?

What’s the safest seat to be in should the plane you’re travelling on be struck by disaster? The answer – one nearest the emergency exit – might seem obvious to any passenger.

And now a comprehensive study of air accidents has come up with the statistics to prove that it’s true.

A seat up to five rows from an exit offers a better than even chance of escaping if there’s a fire, according to researchers from the University of Greenwich commissioned by the Civil Aviation Authority.

When seated six or more rows from an exit, however, ‘the chances of perishing far outweigh those of surviving’.

Whether the seat is on the aisle or not only makes a ‘marginal’ amount of difference, the study shows.

The scientists checked the accounts of 2,000 survivors in 105 air accidents around the world.

When it comes to surviving a fire, those seated in an aisle had a ‘marginally’ higher chance of surviving – at 65 per cent – than those seated by a window (58 per cent).

Passengers at the front of the aircraft had a 65 per cent chance of escape, while those at the rear had only a 53 per cent chance.

The findings have prompted concern about the trend for airlines to charge extra for exit seats – which offer more leg room – or giving passengers the opportunity to choose their seats online.

Robert Gifford, director of the Parliamentary Advisory Council for Transport Safety, said: ‘Your chance of survival should not be based on your ability to pay for an emergency exit seat or to reserve your seat online.’

The study looked at a variety of air accidents including fires on board and crashes.

One was the 1985 Manchester airport fire which claimed 55 lives on a British Airtours 737, caused by an exploding engine.

The resulting fire blazed on one side of the aircraft, blocking several exits. The study found that the passengers who died were on average sitting more than double the distance from a usable exit as those who survived…..

Why You Shouldn’t Panic During an In-Flight Medical Emergency

It’s like something you’d see in a movie: A pilot suffers a heart attack mid-flight, and is saved by his passengers—two nurses, who just so happened to

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be on board. But that was exactly the story on a recent United Airlines flight from Iowa to Colorado, when Linda Alweiss and Amy Sorenson administered cardiac life support to a United Airlines pilot.

The two nurses, who were traveling separately, learned of the problem when a crew member asked via the intercom whether there was anyone on the plane with medical experience. Alweiss and Sorenson attended to the pilot while the co-pilot diverted the flight to the nearest airfield at Omaha, where paramedics were waiting.

The situation raises concerns from travelers about what might have happened had there been no medical professionals aboard that flight. What—if any—procedures would come into play during such in-flight medical emergencies?

To begin with, you should feel better knowing that you’re less likely to board a flight these days without at least one medical professional on board. It's important to note, however, that all medical professionals are protected from liability under a 1998 Good Samaritan law covering air travel. On the rare chance there is no medic on board, most U.S. airlines will radio in the MedLink service, which gives in-flight treatment advice until the passenger is safely on the ground. It's used by more than 60 airlines, and handled more than 22,000 calls for help in 2011.

Secondly, crews are generally very well trained to deal with such emergencies; they're given recurring training in first aid and strict protocols to follow in such situations (Sully Sullenberger told us about a particularly harrowing experience he had with a sick passenger). Some airlines have also acquired new technology that enables them to transmit data about a passenger’s vital signs to the ground for further analysis—which can help guide decisions on whether to divert the flight to save the passenger's life. In any case, you shouldn't worry—technically speaking, nobody can die on an airplane, anyway.

Computers in Aviation

Just as computers have affected every aspect of modern life, from medicine to education, they have also had a major impact on aviation. Computers are now used in all parts of aviation. They are used to design airplanes, to control them in flight, and to ensure that they reach their destinations safely and (more or less) on time.

Calculating machines were first used in the 1930s to aid researchers in their work, sometimes to perform complicated calculations of airflow over airfoils. By the 1950s, as IBM developed better calculating and tabulating machines for office use, more and more powerful computers were used to assist in wind tunnel tests and in trying to predict some of the results before actual models were placed into wind tunnels. Computers and wind tunnels both had an impact on each other: More powerful computers allowed designers not only to

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process wind tunnel test results better and faster, but to determine some of those test results before a model was even built, and wind tunnel data allowed designers to develop better programs for their computers to predict airflow. In the 1970s, an hour of wind tunnel testing could cost thousands of dollars, so designers wanted to gain as much data about their aircraft as they could before they ever put a model in a wind tunnel. By the end of 1980s, computers had become so powerful that for some applications, they actually began replacing wind tunnels entirely. This saved tremendous amounts of money. Aeronautical engineers began developing advanced computer programs to conduct computational fluid dynamics (CFD) experiments. This demand played a major role in pushing the development of new, powerful, so-called "supercomputers" capable of conducting millions of calculations per second.

An important early computer, not only for aviation but for computers in general, was the Whirlwind computer started at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1944. Whirlwind was a flight simulator. It was the first computer to respond immediately to actions taken by its operator. Previous computers simply took inputs and then made calculations and eventually produced an output, sometimes hours later. But Whirlwind responded in "real time."

Aircraft during the 1950s and early 1960s carried analog computers as part of their radar equipment. These were used to provide targeting information for guns and missiles. The Heads Up Display (HUD) that projected information onto a piece of glass in front of the pilot relied upon computer input to help the pilot aim his guns or select his weapons.

Nowadays computers are used everywhere in aviation. Aircraft engines use them to control fuel flow to save money and make engines run efficiently. They are used for navigation in global positioning systems (GPS) and inertial navigation systems (INS). Autopilots use computers to fly a plane en route to the destination on the correct course and at the correct altitude. Automatic Landing Systems use computers that can fly an approach to an airport, land the plane, and taxi off the runway. Glass cockpits consist of computer monitors that have replaced most of the mechanical flight indicators used in earlier airlines. The monitors can display a wide range of information including engine performance, fuel levels in the various tanks, route to the destination. Fly-By-Wire aircraft control systems are now being used in Airbus Industries and Boeing planes. Three computers crosscheck each other. If one of the three is not in agreement with the other two computers, it is automatically removed from the control system. These systems take input from the pilot and copilot controls in the cockpit and send electrical signals to motors on the wings and in the tail to move the control surfaces. This eliminates the need to run hydraulic lines to the ailerons, rudder, and elevator. Air Traffic Control centers use computers to display aircraft paths across the country. Information boxes can be displayed beside the flight path of each airplane that shows the direction,

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flight number, and other data. Anti-Collision System Computers are installed in air traffic control centers and in most large airplanes. These systems warn if airplane paths are converging and could result in a midair collision or a near miss. Airline Reservation Systems use computers to issue seat reservations and keep track of them throughout each passenger’s trip. The Military now uses computer-controlled smart bombs, cruise missiles, and reconnaissance aircraft. It is experimenting with computer-controlled, unmanned fighter and bomber aircraft.

Boeing 787 Dreamliner

The 787 Dreamliner program began as a response to the enormous Airbus A380. While Airbus was developing its first "super jumbo jet," Boeing chose to focus its resources on the more lucrative midsize market by developing a replacement for the 767 and A300. Boeing first explored a revolutionary design dubbed the Sonic Cruiser hoping to attract customers with increased speed, but studies of a more conventional concept continued as well. While not as radical looking as the Sonic Cruiser, this conventional design's promise to significantly cut operating costs through the use of advanced fuel efficient technologies proved very attractive to the airline market.

Boeing has stated the 787 will be 15% to 20% more efficient and burn 17% less fuel than the 767 due to the innovative use of new technology. Perhaps the most challenging of these advances is the extensive use of lightweight composite materials that make up much of the wing and fuselage structures. While composites have been widely used in aviation since the 1980s, the 787 is the first commercial airliner to use the materials for the majority of its construction. The reduced weight of its structure coupled with aerodynamic improvements to reduce drag are said to account for about a third of the Dreamliner's fuel savings. Another third comes from improvements in engine technology while the remainder is due to advanced systems like its electrical architecture that doesn't require bleed air from the engines.

The program was officially launched in 2004 under the name 7E7, the "E" representing efficient, when All Nippon Airways of Japan placed an order for 50 of the airliners. The name was later changed to the more conventional 787 in 2005, and the type has since attracted orders faster than any other airliner in Boeing's history.

Unfortunately, its revolutionary technologies have come at the cost of significant development and production problems. The largest delays have resulted from Boeing's decision to make greater use of subcontractors in assembling the 787. Rather than building the entire aircraft at its factory near Seattle, Boeing chose to have complete subsystems built around the world and transported to Washington for final assembly. Major suppliers are located in Italy, Japan, Australia, Canada, as well as sites across the United States. Many

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of these subcontractors have had difficulties performing more complex subassembly tasks within Boeing's aggressive schedule. Part shortages, labor strikes, flight control software issues, and redesign efforts prompted by excess weight have also contributed to delays that have extended development by at least two years. Thanks to these problems, Boeing has been forced to pay compensation to many of its customers as well as offer steep discounts on replacement aircraft until the 787 is ready for service.

First flight had been planned for mid-2007 but did not finally occur until December 2009. Boeing must also maintain a very brisk flight test program in hope of meeting the first delivery date, currently scheduled for late 2010.

The first version to enter service will be the 787-8 base model. Boeing has also launched the lengthened 787-9 with higher passenger capacity and greater range. A high-density variant with reduced fuel capacity for shorter routes called the 787-3 is also under development, but this model will likely be delayed indefinitely due to weak demand. Boeing is planning a further stretched model called the 787-10 as well as a freighter version. Counting the three 787 variants currently in development, a record total of 851 firm orders had been placed by December 2009, even after 84 cancellations.

Boeing Dreamliner: Crazy about Composite Technology

Airplanes are traditionally constructed using mostly aluminum and steel, with composite materials limited to smaller portions of their structure. Boeing, however, opted to increase the use of composite materials, eliminating 1,500 aluminum sheets and 40,000-50,000 fasteners — just from the fuselage of the plane alone [source: Boeing].

Composites are materials that are made up of more than one element. For instance, a piñata is made from a composite of paper and paste. The Dreamliner uses composites that are called carbon reinforced plastics (CRFPs). You can think of those carbon fibers as the "paper," and those fibers are embedded in a plastic matrix ("paste"), such as an epoxy resin.

Manufacturing carbon composites is much more complicated than dipping paper in paste, but it follows the same general principle. The process begins by generating carbon fibers made from another polymer, called polyacrylonitrile (PAN). Processing PAN in a series of complicated heating and stretching steps purifies the carbon atoms, which rearrange themselves from ladder to ring like structures and take the form of long sheets of ribbon. Packing the ribbons together creates carbon fibers. Following further processing, the fibers are used to reinforce a plastic matrix, which is in a thick, gooey state. The resulting composite can then be molded before another heating process hardens it into an ultra strong material. In fact, CRFPs are so strong that, at one-quarter the density of steel, they are two to three times stronger than steel [source: Flight International]. Not only that, they're superlight as compared to metal.

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CRFPs have been around for more than 40 years. They have been used extensively to replace aluminum or steel in golf shafts, fishing rods, medical equipment and machine parts, or to repair bridges. Even some racing bicycles are made from CRFPs.

The use of composites in the Dreamliner isn't groundbreaking, but the extent to which they are used is. As much as 50 percent of the plane is composite material by weight, compared to, say, 12 percent in the Boeing 777 [source: Boeing]. In fact, the Dreamliner is the first aircraft in which the wing and fuselage are constructed from composite materials. And, as we'll see next, manufacturing a one-piece fuselage section out of composites isn't a piece of cake; however, by replacing so much metal with composites, the plane is not only much lighter but is also more aerodynamic. Features, such as sweptback wings, which aren't possible with metal, could be engineered into the plane because of the increased malleability of composites.

What's more, composites corrode less and are more robust than metal, which reduces the maintenance required for the plane. Composites have lower thermal and electrical conductivity than metals, however. This meant that Boeing had to develop entirely different approaches for managing the electrical and thermal systems on the plane to deal with shorts and the like.

An added benefit of a stronger composite fuselage structure is that higher pressurization in the passenger cabin is possible. This makes humidity, ventilation and temperature easier to control.

Malaysia Airlines Boeing 777 downed near Ukraine border(posted on July 17, 2014 by Aimee Turner)

All 280 passengers and 15 crew members on board a Boeing 777 aircraft have died in a Malaysia Airlines crash in Ukraine, authorities confirm.

Malaysia Airlines said it received notification from Ukrainian air traffic control that it had lost contact with flight MH17 at 1415 (GMT) at 30km from TAMAK waypoint, approximately 50km from the Russia-Ukraine border.

“Flight MH17 operated on a Boeing 777 departed Amsterdam at 12.15pm (Amsterdam local time) and was estimated to arrive at Kuala Lumpur International Airport at 6.10 am (Malaysia local time) the next day,” it said.

TAMAK is the waypoint where the air routes L980 and L69 converge over the boundary between Dnipropetrovsk airspace in Ukraine and Rostov-on-Don airspace in Russia.

News reports said the aircraft which had been at cruise flight at an altitude of about 10,000 metres (33,000 feet) came down at Torez, near Shakhtersk, some 40 km (25 miles) from the Russia border. The area has been the scene of fighting between Ukrainian troops and pro-Russian rebels.

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A tense stand-off has been underway in the war of the airways between Ukraine and the Russia Federation over who controls flights in and out of Crimea.

Earlier this year, UN aviation agency ICAO insisted that the right to provide air navigation services in international airspace over the Black Sea within Simferopol flight information region belonged exclusively to Ukraine.

On April 3 European Aviation Safety Agency issued a safety bulletin – accompanied by recommendations from both ICAO and Eurocontrol which oversees the regional aviation network – that airspace controlled by the Simferopol FIR should be avoided as more than one air traffic control agency controlling flights within the same airspace could have serious safety implications.

Ukrainian president Petro Poroshenko called the downing an act of terrorism and called for an international investigation into the crash.

Airline industry body IATA said that based on the information currently available it believed that the airspace that the aircraft was traversing was not subject to restrictions.

Nico Voorbach, president of the pilots organisation European Cockpit Association said: “The route flown by the lost Malaysian aircraft is the most common route for flights from Europe to South East Asia. ECA will follow the developments closely and calls upon European authorities to take immediate measures to secure all the flights overflying that region.”

German flag carrier Lufthansa has signalled its decision to divert all flights away from Ukrainian airspace while Air France and KLM said they would divert their aircraft around its eastern region. A whole raft of additional airlines is expected to follow suit. Russian flag carrier Aeroflot as well as the nation’s second largest airline Transaero also said flights would be bypassing Ukrainian airspace.

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Грамматический справочник

Синтаксис

Предложение – это сочетание слов, выражающее законченную мысль.

The sun rises in the east. Солнце всходит на востоке. Члены предложения делятся на главные и второстепенные.

Главные члены предложения – подлежащее и сказуемое. Второстепенные члены предложения – дополнение, определение, обстоятельство.

По составу предложения бывают простыми или сложными. Структура английского простого повествовательного

распространённого предложения следующая:

1. Подлежащее (Subject) является одним из главных членов предложения и обозначает предмет, о котором идёт речь. Подлежащее в английском отвечает на вопрос кто? что? и может быть выражено существительным, местоимением, герундием, числительным и даже инфинитивом. Рассмотрим на примерах:Parents always care about their children. - Родители всегда беспокоятся о своих детях. (существительное)You are an excellent architect. - Ты замечательный архитектор. (местоимение) Gardening is a popular hobby in England. - Садоводство - популярное хобби в Англии. (герундий) Ten is an even number. - Десять - чётное число. (числительное) To err is human. - Ошибаться свойственно человеку. (инфинитив)

2. Сказуемое (Predicate) также является главным членом предложения, обозначающим действие, которое совершает подлежащее. Сказуемое отвечает на вопрос что делает(ся)? и выражается личным глаголом в разных временах, залогах и наклонениях. The hunter walks towards the woods. – Охотник идёт в сторону леса. (настоящее время) The hunter walked towards the woods. – Охотник шёл в сторону леса. (прошедшее время) The hunter will walk towards the woods. – Охотник пойдёт в сторону леса. (будущее время)

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обстоятельствадополнениясказуемоеподлежащее

One famous architect built the city hall - Один известный архитектор построил мэрию города. (активный залог) The city hall was built by one famous architect. - Мэрия города была построена одним известным архитектором. (пассивный залог)

3. Дополнение (Object) - это второстепенный член предложения, следующий за сказуемым. Дополнение обозначает предмет, и отвечает на вопросы кого? что? кому? чему? кем? чем? Оно также может отвечать на вопросы с предлогами, например, про что? о ком? о чём? на чём? и т.д.

В английском существует два основных вида дополнений: прямые и косвенные. Прямые дополнения соответствуют русскому родительному падежу (кого? что?). А косвенные дополнения соответствуют остальным падежам: -дательному (кому? чему?)-винительному (кого? что?) -творительному (кем? чем?) -предложному (о ком? чём?) В свою очередь косвенные падежи бывают с предлогом и без предлога. He gave me his pen. – Он дал мне свою ручку. (косвенное дополнение, прямое дополнение) I've bought a present for my daughter. - Я купила подарок для моей дочки. (прямое дополнение, (косвенное дополнение с предлогом) Liz is looking for her phone. - Лиза ищет свой телефон. (прямое дополнение) We wrote a letter to our teacher. - Мы написали письмо нашему учителю. (прямое дополнение, косвенное дополнение с предлогом)

4. Обстоятельство (Adverbial modifier) - это второстепенные члены предложения, которые обозначают, как, когда, где, при каких обстоятельствах совершается действие. Они отвечают на вопросы где? когда? как? как часто? зачем? почему?

Обстоятельства относятся к глаголу и ставятся обычно в конце предложения. Однако обстоятельства могут употребляться и в начале предложения, а иногда и в середине, в виде наречий частоты: usually (обычно), always (всегда), sometimes (иногда), и т.д. Обстоятельства обычно относятся к глаголу и объясняют, как и когда совершалось действие. They arrived in the morning. – Они прибыли утром. (когда?)Yesterday I met my friends. - Вчера я встретился со своими друзьями. (когда?) We sometimes visit the theater. – Мы иногда ходим в театр. (как часто?) Ricardo speaks French fluently. - Рикардо говорит на французском бегло.

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(как?) We will meet at the river. – Мы встретимся у реки. (где?)

Наречия частоты обычно ставятся перед глаголами действия в предложении. Однако, если основной глагол to be, то перед ним.He is always late. – Он всегда опаздывает. (перед to be) I sometimes run in the morning. – Я иногда бегаю по утрам. (после глагола)

5. Определение (TheAttribute)-это второстепенный член предложения, который обозначает признак предмета и отвечает на вопросы: what? (какой?), whose? (чей?), which? (который?), how many? (сколько?).

Определения могут располагаться как перед, так и после подлежащего, дополнения, обстоятельства и даже именной части сказуемого, при этом не меняя изначальной схемы: Подлежащее - Сказуемое - Дополнение - Обстоятельство My sister sent a telegram yesterday. (Моя сестра послала телеграмму вчера)My elder sister sent a long telegram yesterday. (Моя старшая сестра послала длинную телеграмму вчера) 

Порядок слов в английском языке является основным средством различения членов предложения. Порядок слов английского повествовательного предложения – прямой, фиксированный: подлежащее, сказуемое, дополнение. I translated the text yesterday.Я перевела этот текст вчера.

Сложные предложения бывают сложносочинёнными и сложноподчинёнными.

Сложно-сочиненное предложение (The Compound Sentence)

В сложносочинённом предложении составляющие его простые предложения равноправны по смыслу и связаны сочинительными союзами: and – и; but – но; while, whereas – а, в то время как; or – или; otherwise – иначе; either … or – или … или. The weather was fine and there were lots of people on the beach. Погода была прекрасной, и на пляже было много народу.

Без союзовMason is not really talkative, he likes solitude. Мэйсон не очень разговорчивый, он любит уединение.

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Сложно-подчиненное предложение (The Complex Sentence)

Сложноподчинённое предложение состоит из главного и одного или нескольких придаточных предложений, поясняющих главное предложение. Придаточные предложения выполняют роль различных членов предложения: подлежащего, именной части сказуемого, дополнения, определения, обстоятельства.

 Придаточные предложения подлежащие. That he is a good friend is well known. То, что он хороший друг, хорошо известно.

Придаточные предложения предикативные, выполняющие функцию именной части сказуемого.

The weather is not what it was yesterday. Погода не такая, как была вчера.

Придаточные предложения дополнительные.I don't know where you live . Я не знаю, где вы живёте.

Придаточные предложения определительные.Here is the book (that / which) we have spoken about. Вот книга, о которой мы говорили.

Эти предложения могут соединяться с главным предложением безсоюзно. English is the subject I like best . Английский язык – это предмет, который я люблю больше всего.

Придаточные предложения обстоятельственные (времени, места, причины, образа действия, следствия, уступительные, цели, условия).

Уступительное придаточное предложение. Although the weather was bad, we went for a walk. Хотя погода была плохая , мы пошли на прогулку.

Придаточное предложение образа действия.She spoke as though nothing had happened. Она говорила так, как будто ничего не произошло.

Придаточное предложение времени.When the cat is away, the mice will play. Когда кот из дома, мыши – в пляс.

Условное придаточное предложение.If he has time, he will go there. Если у него будет время, он поедет туда.

В придаточных определительных предложениях в английском языке, вводимых союзными словами who, which, that (который), союзное слово может опускаться, если оно не является подлежащим придаточного

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предложения. При переводе этих предложений на русский язык следует восстановить пропущенное слово: This is the book (which) he is reading ‘Это книга, которую он читает’. Если союзное слово имеет перед собой предлог, то в случае бессоюзного подчинения предлог ставится в конце предложения:The problem at which we are working is very complicated. (The problem we are working at is very complicated) ‘Проблема, над которой мы работаем, очень сложная’.

Вопросительные предложения (Interrogative Sentence)

Общий вопрос ( General Question )

Альтернативный вопрос ( Alternative Question )

Вопрос к подлежащему ( Subject Question )

Специальный вопрос ( Special Question )

Разделительный вопрос (Disjunctive Question).

Согласно цели высказывания в английском языке можно выделить три основных типа предложений: повествовательные (declarative sentences), вопросительные (interrogative sentences) и повелительные (imperative sentences).

В данном случае нас интересуют вопросительные предложения. Типы вопросов в английском языке различают следующие: общий, альтернативный, вопрос к подлежащему, специальный и разделительный. Каждый тип имеет свои особенности, поэтому рассмотрим каждый из них отдельно.

Общий вопрос (General Question)

Общий вопрос задается ко всему предложению целиком. Ответить на него можно либо «да», либо «нет». Именно поэтому общие вопросы в английском языке встречаются еще под названием yes/no questions. Здесь используется обратный порядок слов. На первом месте должен находится вспомогательный глагол (Auxiliary Verb), затем - подлежащее (Subject), сказуемое (Predicate) и другие члены предложения.

Для грамматически правильной постановки вопроса во времени Present Simple требуется вспомогательный глагол do (does), в Past Simple - did. Если же в предложении в качестве сказуемого используется глагол to be или модальные глаголы (за исключением have to и need to), то они и будут выступать как вспомогательные.

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Does James smoke? — Джеймс курит?Are you living in London now? — Ты живешь в Лондоне сейчас?May I have a look at your photos? — Можно мне посмотреть твои фото?

Альтернативный вопрос (Alternative Question)

Альтернативный вопрос в английском языке предполагает выбор. В нем всегда присутствует союз or (или). Построение этого вопроса сходно с общим, но здесь еще добавляется предложение выбора.

Do you want to go to Warsaw by car or by train? – Ты хочешь поехать в Варшаву на машине или на поезде?

Вопрос к подлежащему (Subject Question)

При постановке вопроса к подлежащему прямой порядок слов в предложении не изменяется. Просто вместо подлежащего необходимо использовать подходящее вопросительное слово. Обычно употребляются Who (кто), What (что). Следует обратить внимание, что во времени Present Simple глагол будет употребляться в третьем лице, единственном числе. Who lives in that old house? — Кто живет в том старом доме?Who will post this letter? — Кто отправит это письмо?What caused the exlosion? — Что спровоцировало взрыв?

Специальный вопрос (Special Question)

Специальные вопросы в английском языке используют для запроса конкретной информации. Они начинаются с вопросительных слов Who (кто), What (что), Which (который), When (когда), Where (где, куда), Why (почему), How (как), How many/How much (сколько).

Порядок слов после вопросительного слова остается таким же, как и в общем вопросе, нужно только убрать тот член предложения, к которому задается вопрос.

What does Jane do on Sundays? — Что делает Джейн по воскресеньям?Why are you sitting at my desk? — Почему ты сидишь за моей партой?When did he borrow your car? — Когда он брал у тебя машину?

В английском языке часто встречаются фразовые глаголы, то есть в предложении присутствует предлог, тесно связанный с основным глаголом. При постановке специального вопроса этот предлог употребляется в самом конце предложения. What are you busy with? — Чем ты занят?

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Who was Jack waiting for? — Кого ждал Джек?

Разделительный вопрос (Disjunctive Question)

Разделительные вопросы в английском языке представляют собой утвердительное либо отрицательное повествовательное предложение, к которому присоединяется краткий общий вопрос, часто именуемый «хвостиком» (tag). Этот тип вопроса используется, чтобы выразить удивление, сомнение, подтверждение сказанного. Сам «хвостик» на русский язык переводится «не правда ли», «не так ли».

При постановке вопроса первая часть остается без изменений, во второй части в начале ставится вспомогательный глагол (зависит от сказуемого в первой части), а затем идет местоимение в именительном падеже. Если предложение утвердительное, то «хвостик» нужно сделать отрицательным и наоборот. You heard from him, didn’t you? — Ты получал от него весточку, не правда ли?Alex is a driver, isn’t he? — Алекс — водитель, не так ли?That isn’t Tom, is it? — Это Том, не так ли?

Рассматривая этот тип вопроса, необходимо отметить, что разделительные вопросы в английском языке имеют несколько нюансов, которые важно запомнить.1. I am в первой части требует вопрос aren’t I.I’m so exhausted, aren’t I? — Я так устала от всего, не правда ли?2. Если первая часть начинается с let’s, то во второй части используем вопрос shall we.Let’s visit our grandparents, shall we? — Давай навестим наших дедушку с бабушкой, хорошо?3. Если в качестве подлежащего в предложении использованы местоимения anyone, anybody, nobody, none, neither, everybody, everyone, somebody, someone, то во второй части ставится местоимение they. Neither of them prepared for the lesson, did they? — Никто из них не подготовился к уроку, не так ли?Someone had seen him, hadn’t they? — Кто-то видел его, не так ли?Everyone liked your story, didn’t they? — Всем понравилась твоя история, не так ли?

Словообразование в английском языке (Word Formation)

Очень часто в английском языке слова, относящиеся к одной части речи, образуют слова, относящиеся к другой части речи. Чаще его это происходит путем присоединения суффиксов: to work работать - a worker рабочий.

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Возможен и другой способ, получивший название конверсия, - переход слова из одной части речи в другую без изменения формы: to work работать - a work работа. Конверсия очень характерна для английского языка: ей способствуют отсутствие развитой системы окончаний и большое количество односложных слов. Наиболее часто конверсии подвергаются глаголы и существительные: a hand рука - to hand вручить. Как правило, слова, имеющие одинаковое написание, и произносятся одинаково, но есть и исключения: в основном, различия заключаются в произношении звуков [s] и [z] или в переносе ударения: close [-s] близкий - to close [-z] закрывать, conduct [‘kɔndΛkt]поведение - to conduct [kɔn'dΛkt] вести. Обычно в существительных ударение падает на 1-й слог, у глаголов - на последний. Иногда с переносом ударения не только меняется часть речи, но и теряется видимая связь значений: to refuse [ri’fu:z] отказываться - refuse [‘refju:s] мусор. Конверсия затрагивает и оппозицию «существительное -прилагательное»: прилагательные часто субстантивируются, т. е. становятся существительными: brave смелый - the brave смельчак.  То же можно наблюдать и в русском языке: больной (прил.) человек - больной (сущ.) выписан из больницы.

Словосложение — это способ словообразования путем соединения двух (или более) слов в одно, которое пишется слитно, или через дефис, а иногда раздельно: to pin - point уточнить, trailer - on - flat трейлер на платформе.

Сокращение — еще один способ образования новых слов: laser = light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation лазер (усиление света индуцированным испусканием излучения).

Путем использования префиксов: to do делать - to redo переделать.

НАИБОЛЕЕ УПОТРЕБИТЕЛЬНЫЕ СУФФИКСЫ ГЛАГОЛОВ

СУФФИКС ЗНАЧЕНИЕ ПРИМЕР

(сущ. +) -ize делать(ся) таким, как на то указывает основа

summarize суммировать

(прил. +) -en harden делать(ся) твердым

(сущ. +) -ify, -fy превращать в, делать то, на что указывает основа

gasify превращать(ся) в газ;

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(сущ. +) -ate подвергать воздействию, vaccinate делать прививку;

-er whisper шептать

-ish establish устанавливать

СУФФИКСЫ СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНЫХ

СУФФИКС ЗНАЧЕНИЕ ПРИМЕР

(гл. +) -er, -or обозначение деятеля worker рабочий

(гл. +) -ing действие в процессе boiling кипячение

(прил. +) -ness свойство, качество whiteness белизна

(прил. +) -ty, -ity состояние, условие, качество activity деятельность

(гл. +) -age акт или факт действия breakage поломка

(сущ. +) -ageсодержание чего-либо percentage процентное

содержание

(гл. +) -ment отвлеченные понятия (абстрактные существительные)

treatment лечение

(гл. +) -ance,

-enceresistance сопротивление

(гл. +) -ancy,

-encyexpectancy надежда

(прил. +/сущ. +) -dom

freedom свобода

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(гл. +)-ion, -tion,-sion,-ssion revision повторение

-ure pressure давление

-hood childhood детство

-ship friendship дружба

-th length длина

-an, -ian1) национальность;

2) профессия

Americ an  американец,

librarian библиотекарь

-ismкакое-либо течение

(например, политическое)

communism коммунизм

-ist

1) принадлежность к

какому-либо течению;

2) профессия

communist коммунист;

artist художник

СУФФИКСЫ НАРЕЧИЙ И ЧИСЛИТЕЛЬНЫХ

СУФФИКСЫ НАРЕЧИЙ СУФФИКСЫ ЧИСЛИТЕЛЬНЫХ

СУФФИКС ЗНАЧЕНИЕ ПРИМЕР СУФФИК

С ЗНАЧЕНИЕ ПРИМЕР

(прил. +)

-ly

таким образом,

entirely всецело teen количественное числительное от 13 до 19

fifteen пятнадцать

-ward(s) направление движения

backwards назад

-ty десятки seventy семьдесят

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-wise в таком направлении, таким способом

clockwise по часовой стрелке

-th порядковое числительное

fourth четвертый

НАИБОЛЕЕ УПОТРЕБИТЕЛЬНЫЕ СУФФИКСЫ ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНЫХ

СУФФИКС ЗНАЧЕНИЕ ПРИМЕР

(сущ. +) -al наличие признака, свойств и качеств, выраженных основой

central центральный

(сущ. +) -ic patriotic патриотический

(сущ. +) -ical geological геологический

(сущ. +) -ous famous известный

(сущ. +) -ful useful полезный

(гл. +) -able, -ible expressible выразительный

(гл. +) -ant, -ent dependent зависимый

(гл. +) -ive active активный

(сущ. +) -ly friendly дружелюбный

(сущ. +) -y grainy зернистый

(гл. +) -ite favourite любимый

-ary pecuniary денежный

-ate fortunate удачный

-ed cold-blooded хладнокровный

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-less отсутствие качества, useless бесполезный

-ish 1) наличие признака в слабой степени;

2) принадлежность к

национальности

reddish красноватый;

Pol ish   польский

-ese принадлежность к

национальности

Japan ese  японский

-ian, -an Egypt ian  египетский

-like сходство birdlike птицеподобный

-ern принадлежность к одной из сторон света northern северный

НАИБОЛЕЕ УПОТРЕБИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕФИКСЫ И ИХ ЗНАЧЕНИЯ

ОТРИЦАТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПРЕФИКСЫ ДРУГИЕ ПРЕФИКСЫ

ПРЕФИКС ПРИМЕР ПРЕФИКС ЗНАЧЕНИЕ ПРИМЕР

un- unable

неспособный

re- (+ гл.) вновь сделать то, на что указывает основа

remake переделывать

in- inactive

бездеятельный

im- impossible

невозможный

en-, em- (+ гл.) придавать

качество

embody воплощать

il- illegal

незаконный

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ir- ir regular

неправильный

over- (+ гл.) избыточная степень качества или выполнения действия

overproduce

перепроизводить

mis-

misunderstand

неправильно

понять

dis-

disapproval

неодобрение

under- (+ гл.) недостаточная степень качества или выполнения действия

underestimate

недооценивать

Служебные части речи в английском языке 

В этой группе мы назовем союзы (conjunctions), предлоги (prepositions), частицы (particles), междометия (interjections), модальные слова (modal words) и восклицания (exclamations): and (и), in (в), merely (просто), well (ну), perhaps (возможно), ah (ой).

С помощью этих частей речи в английском языке соединяются слова и предложения, констатируется или усиливается значение других слов, а также определяется отношение говорящего к содержанию высказывания. 

Благодаря служебным частям речи в английском языке соединяются слова и предложения, проясняется отношении говорящего к содержанию высказанного, определяется значение особых слов в предложении. Служебные слова в английской речи обладают специфическими признаками: они не обладают номинативной семантикой; неизменяемы; не являются компонентом высказывания.

Однако, служебные слова в английской речи достаточно часто употребляются и составляют 25% от общего числа слов в английской речи. 

Союз (The Conjunction)

Сочинительные: and — и, abut — ноaswellas — также какboth ... and — как ... так; и ... и

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or — или, иначеeither ... or — или ... или; либо… либо neither ... nor — ни ... ниПодчинительные: времениafter — после того какas — в то время как, когда, по мере того какaslongas — пока, до тех пор покаbefore — прежде чем, перед тем какassoonas — как толькоuntil, till — до тех пор покаwhile — в то время какпричиныas — так какbecause — потому что, так как since — так как, посколькуусловияif — еслиprovided — при условии если unless — если ... нецелиinorderthat — для того чтобы; чтобыобраза действия as — какasif — какбудтоso ... that — так ... что such ... that — такой ... что сравненияas ... as — такой же ... как; так ... как than — чемследствияsothat — так что уступительныеthough (although) — хотя

Глагол (The Verb)

Глагол – часть речи, которая обозначает действие или состояние лица или предмета. Глагол в английском языке обладает гораздо более сложной, чем в русском, системой видовременных форм. Эта система охватывает личные формы (Finite Forms) и неличные формы (Non-finite Forms).

Личные формы глагола выражают следующие категории: лицо, число, время, вид, залог, наклонение. Личная форма, как и в русском языке, в предложении всегда употребляется в функции сказуемого. We live in Russia. Мы живём в России.

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К неличным формам глагола относятся инфинитив (Infinitive), герундий (Gerund), причастие (Participle). Неличные формы глагола не имеют категорий лица, числа, времени и наклонения. Только некоторые из них выражают залог и вид.

Основные глагольные формыВ английском языке глаголы имеют четыре основные формы: 

1. Indefinite - неопределенная форма глагола. Признаком инфинитива в английском языке является частица "to", а в русском языке - окончание -ть, -чь: делать, работать, стричь, беречь.2. Past Indefinite - прошедшее неопределенное время. Эта форма глагола представляет собой готовое к употреблению сказуемое в прошедшем времени, выражающее обычную констатацию действия, факта, события в прошлом: читал, работал, знал и т.д. Признаком формы Past Indefinite правильных глаголов является суффикс-ed. Неправильные глаголы образуют форму Past Indefinite каждый по-своему 3. PastParticiple - причастие прошедшего времени. Признаком этой формы глагола является суффикс -ed у правильных глаголов, а неправильные глаголы имеют каждый свою форму. Форма Past Participle соответствует в русском языке причастию страдательного залога с суффиксами -анн, -янн, -енн, -им, -ем, -т: отправленный, рассеченный, взятый.4. Present Participle причастие настоящего времени действительного залога. Все глаголы в английском языке (правильные и неправильные) в этой форме имеют суффикс -ing, соответствующий в русском языке суффиксу -ущ, -ющ, -ащ, -ящ: бегущий, лежащий, читающий. Четыре основные формы глагола являются как бы строительным материалом для образования английского сказуемого. Знать их необходимо, поскольку они в сочетании с тем или иным вспомогательным глаголом образуют все многообразие английских глагольных форм.

Основные функции глагола

Смысловые глаголы (Main Verbs) – это глаголы, передающие значение и несущие смысловую нагрузку.He understands everything. Он все понимает. (Глагол understands является смысловым.)

Вспомогательные глаголы (Auxiliary Verbs) используются вместе со смысловыми глаголами и несут в себе грамматическую информацию (например, они указывают времена глаголов, период времени и т.п.), таким образом, добавляя некоторое дополнительное значение предложению, не указанное в смысловом глаголе.

Примерами вспомогательных глаголов являются to be, to do и to have в различных формах.

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глагол Present Past Future Participle II

to be am, is, are was, were will be been

to have have, has had will have had

to do do, does did will have done

Обратите внимание, что некоторые вспомогательные глаголы не имеют самостоятельной смысловой нагрузки, а некоторые могут быть как вспомогательными, так и смысловыми.What have you done? Что вы сделали?

(В данном случае глагол have выполняет роль вспомогательного, а глаголdone – смыслового.)

Глаголы-связки   ( Copula Verbs   или   Linking Verbs ) – это глаголы, которые соединяют подлежащее с именной частью сказуемого или дополнением.

Некоторые глаголы-связки могут быть только глаголами-связками, так как сами они не описывают действия, а некоторые из них могут быть как глаголами-связками в одних предложениях, так и глаголами, выражающими действие в других предложениях. Глаголы to be, to become и to seem и их формы могут быть только глаголами-связками.He became very popular among his readers. Он стал очень популярен среди своих читателей. (Глагол became связывает подлежащее с дополнением.)

Модальные глаголы (Modal Verbs)

Модальные глаголы - это глаголы, которые употребляются с инфинитивом смыслового глагола без частицы “to” и выражают возможность, необходимость, вероятность, желательность действия, обозначенною инфинитивом. Это глаголы can, may, must, ought to, need.

He can speak English. Он говорит по-английски (умеет говорить).She must do it at once. Она должна сделать это немедленно. Не may come in an hour. Он может прийти через час.You ought to come in time. Вы обязаны прийти вовремя.You needn't ask her. Вам не нужно просить (спрашивать) ее.

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Модальныеглаголы

Функции Примеры

Can, could Выражает возможность или способность совершить действие.

I can swim. Я могу (умею) плавать. |

Му grandmother couldn’t swim. Моя бабушка не могла (не умела) плавать.

Can, could Выражает возможность или способность совершить действие.

I can swim. Я могу (умею) плавать. |

Му grandmother couldn’t swim. Моя бабушка не могла (не умела) плавать.

May, might Выражают возможность совершить действие.

Не may (might) come to my place. Он может прийти ко мне.

May, can Выражают разрешение совершить действие.

You can (may) use my telephone if you want. Вы можете пользоваться моим телефоном, если хотите.

Must Выражает осознанную говорящим необходимость совершить действие.

I must visit my grandmother. I haven’t seen her for ages. Я должен побывать у бабушки. Я сто лет ее не видел.

Must not Выражает запрещение совершить действие.

I must not (mustn’t) tell anybody about it. Ты не должен никому об этом рассказывать.

Have to Выражает необходимость совершить действие в силу определенных обстоятельств.

I have so much to do. I have to work late every day. У меня так много работы. Мне приходится допоздна работать каждый день.

Should Выражает совет совершить действие.

I should not (shouldn’t) work so hard. Тебе не следует так усиленно работать.

Needn’t Выражает отсутствие необходимости совершать действие.

You needn’t apologize. Вам не надо извиняться.

Shall Выражает обязанность или обязательство совершать действие в силу установленных законов или договоренностей.

Every citizen shall have the right to: use his or her native language, (an article from a constitution). Каждый гражданин должен иметь право использовать свой родной язык, (статья из конституции).

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Система глагольных времен (действительный залог) (Tenses in Active Voice)

simple continuous perfect perfect continuous

PresentНастоящее

Настоящее неопределенное время.Действие обычное, регулярное.+ I write.He writes.? Do I write?Does he write?− I don’t write.He doesn’t write.

Настоящее длительное. Действие происходит в момент речи.+ I am writing.He is writing.? Am I writing?Is he writing?− I am not writing.He is not writing.

Настоящее совершенное время.Действие заканчивается к моменту речи.Правильный гл.+ ed (III форма).+ I have written.He has written.? Have I written?Has he written?− I have not written.He has not written.

Длительное действие, начавшееся в прошлом и длящееся в настоящем.+ I have been writing.He has been writing.? Have I been writing?Has he been writing?− I haven’t been writing.He hasn’t been writing.

PastПрошедшее

Обычное регулярное действие в прошлом, не имеющее связи с настоящим.Правильный гл. +ed worked. II форма.+ I wrote.He wrote.? Did I write?Did he write?− I didn’t write.He didn’t write.

Действие длилось в прошлом в определенный момент.+ I was writing.He was writing.? Was I writing?Was he writing?− I was not writing.He was not writing.

Действие закончилось к определенному моменту в прошлом.(III форма) правильный гл. + ed.+ I had written.He had written.? Had I written?Had he written?− I hadn’t written.He hadn’t written.

Длительное действие, начавшееся и длившееся в прошлом в определенный момент.+ I had been writing.He had been writing.? Had I been writing?Had he been writing?− I had not been writing.He had not been writing.

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FutureБудущее

Обычное, регулярное или однократное действие в будущем, не связанное с настоящим.+ I will (shall) write.He will write.? Will (shall) I write?Will he write?− I will not write.He will not write.

Действие продолжается, длится в будущем в определенный момент.+ I will be writing.He will be writing.? Will I be writing?Will he be writing?− I will not be writing.He will not be writing.

Действие закончиться к определенному моменту в будущем.+ I will have written.He will have written.? Will I have written?Will he have written?− I will not have written.He won’t have written.

Форма будущего времени не употребляется.

Страдательный (пассивный) залог английского глагола   (The Passive Voice)

Если подлежащее обозначает лицо или предмет, подвергающийся действию со стороны другого лица или предмета, то глагол употребляется в форме страдательного залога:

Времена страдательного залога образуются при помощи вспомогательного глагола to be в соответствующем времени и формы причастия прошедшего времени (Participle II) смыслового глагола. Таким образом, при спряжении глагола в страдательном залоге изменяется только глагол to be, смысловой же глагол имеет во всех временах одну и ту же форму— Participle II. Следовательно, время, в котором стоит глагол в страдательном залоге, определяется формой вспомогательного глагола to be:

SIMPLE (INDEFINITE)

CONTINUOUS (PROGRESSIVE)

PERFECT

PRESENT I am invited I am being invited I have been invitedPAST I was invited I was being invited I had been invitedFUTURE I will be invited не существует I will have

been invited

The planets are attracted by the sun. Планеты притягиваются Солнцем."Poltava" was written by Pushkin in 1828. «Полтава» была написана Пушкиным в 1828 году.

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Прямая и косвенная речь в английском языке (Direct and Indirect (Reported) Speech)

Содержание ранее высказанного сообщения можно передать прямой речью (от лица, говорящего) или косвенной речью (от лица, передающего). She said: "I can speak two foreign languages" (прямая речь). She said that she could speak two foreign languages (косвенная речь).

В косвенной речи также соблюдается правило согласования времен. При переводе утвердительных предложений из прямой речи в косвенную производятся следующие изменения:1) косвенная речь вводится союзом that, который часто опускается;2) глагол to say, после которого следует дополнение, заменяется глаголом to tell;3) личные и притяжательные местоимения заменяются по смыслу;4) времена глаголов в придаточном предложении изменяются согласно правилам согласования времен;5) указательные местоимения и наречия времени и места заменяются другими словами:

this these now today tomorrow here the day after tomorrow yesterday the day before yesterday ago next year tonight

- - - - - - - - - - - -

that those then that day the next day there two days later the day before two days before before the next year, the following year that night

Общие вопросы вводятся союзами if, whether, имеющими значение частицы ли. В придаточных предложениях соблюдается порядок слов утвердительного предложения.Не asked mе: “Do you play the piano?” Он спросил меня: «Вы играете на пианино?»Не asked me if I played the piano. Он спросил меня, играю ли я на пианино.

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Специальные вопросы вводятся тем же вопросительным словом, с которого начинается прямая речь. Соблюдается порядок слов утвердительного предложения.Не asked me: “When did you send the telegram?” Он спросил меня: «Когда ты отослал телеграмму?»Не asked mе when I had sent the telegram. Он спросил меня, когда я отослал телеграмму.

Для передачи побуждений в косвенной речи употребляются простые предложения с инфинитивом с частицей to. Если прямая речь выражает приказание, то глагол to say заменяется глаголом to tell велеть или to order приказывать. Если прямая речь выражает просьбу, глагол to say заменяется глаголом to ask просить:I said to her: “Please, give me that book”. Я сказал ей: «Дай мне, пожалуйста, эту книгу».I asked her to give me that book. Я попросил ее дать мне эту книгу.

Согласование времен в английском языке (Sequence of Tenses)

Правило согласования времен в английском языке представляет определенную зависимость времени глагола в придаточном предложении (главным образом дополнительном) от времени глагола в главном предложении. В русском языке такой зависимости не существует.

Основные положения согласования времен сводятся к следующему: если сказуемое главного предложения выражено глаголом в настоящем или будущем времени, то сказуемое придаточного предложения может стоять в любом времени, которое требуется по смыслу.

Не says (that)

he studies English

he will study English.

hе has studied English.

Он говорит, что

изучает английский язык.

будет изучать английский язык.

изучал английский язык.

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Если сказуемое главного предложения стоит в прошедшем времени, то сказуемое придаточного предложения должно стоять в одном из прошедших времен. Выбор конкретной видовременной формы определяется тем, происходит ли действие в придаточном предложении одновременно с главным, предшествует ему, либо будет происходить в будущем.

he worked(was working)

he had worked(had been working)

he would work(would be working)

Он сказал, что

работает.(одновременно)

работал.(предшествование)

будет работать.(будущее)

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ИСХОДНОЕ ВРЕМЯ МЕНЯЕТСЯ НА

PRESENT SIMPLE PAST SIMPLE

PRESENT CONTINUOUS PAST CONTINUOUS

PRESENT PERFECT PAST PERFECT

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

PAST SIMPLE PAST PERFECT

PAST CONTINUOUS PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

FUTURE SIMPLE FUTURE SIMPLE IN THE PAST

FUTURE CONTINUOUS FUTURE CONTINUOUS IN THE PAST

FUTURE PERFECT FUTURE PERFECT IN THE PAST

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS IN THE PAST

PAST PERFECT НЕ ИЗМЕНЯЕТСЯ

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS НЕ ИЗМЕНЯЕТСЯ

В ряде случаев правило согласования времен не соблюдается:

1. В придаточных дополнительных предложениях, которые выражают общеизвестный факт или истину.Не said that 22 December is the shortest day of the уеаг. Он сказал, что 22 декабря – самый короткий день года.2. В придаточных дополнительных предложениях, сказуемое которых выражено глаголом в сослагательном наклонении.It was demanded that the work be improved.Требовали улучшения работы.3. Модальные глаголы must, should и oughtупотребляются в придаточном предложении независимо от того, в каком времени стоит глагол-сказуемое главного предложения.

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I told her that she should consult а doctor. Я сказал, что ей следует обратиться к врачу.

Типы условных предложений

Типы условных предложений в английском языке строго разграничены. Обычно выделяют четыре типа, при этом, как правило, нумерацию начинают с нуля. 

Условные предложения нулевого типа используются для описания тех фактов, которые при определенном условии всегда остаются верными (например, научные факты, непреложные истины). Для образования условных предложений данного типа как в главной, так и в придаточной части употребляется время Present Simple (глагол в первой форме).If you multiply two negative numbers, you get positive one. - Если умножить два отрицательных числа, то получится положительное. When he lates, his father takes him to school. - Когда он опаздывает, его отец отвозит его в школу. If you respect other people, they respect you. – Когда уважаешь других людей, они уважают тебя.

Заметьте, что в русской речи такие предложения выражаются настоящим временем.

Условные предложения первого типа используются для описания событий, которые могут произойти при данном условии. При этом существует реальная возможность того, что событие произойдет. Для образования условных предложений первого типа в главной части предложения ставится Future Simple (will + глагол в первой форме), а в придаточной –Present Simple. Рассмотрим следующие примеры.If it is sunny, I’ll go to the embankment. – Если будет солнечно, я пойду на набережную. If he eats so much, he will feel sick. – Если он съест так много, ему будет плохо.

Следует обратить внимание на то, что в русской речи такие предложения выражаются будущим временем.

Условные предложения второго типа используются для описания нереальных (например, воображаемых) событий настоящего и будущего времени. В русском языке данный тип эквивалентен предложениям с частицей «бы». Для образования условных предложений второго типа в главной части ставится время Future Simple in the Past (образуется с помощью would + глагол в первой форме), в придаточной – Past Simple (глагол во второй форме).

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If we found the wallet, we would return it to its owner. - Если бы мы нашли кошелек, мы бы вернули его владельцу.

If he were a millionaire, he would be happy. - Если бы он был миллионером, он был бы счастлив.If I knew English well, I would fly to London. - Если бы я хорошо знал английский, я бы полетел в Лондон. If he was you, he wouldn’t do it. - На твоем месте он бы этого не делал.

Условные предложения третьего типа используются для описания событий, которые могли случиться в прошлом, но в силу каких-либо причин не произошли. В русском языке эти предложения также эквивалентны предложениям с частицей «бы». Для образования предложений третьего типа в главной части ставится время Future Perfect in the Past (образуется с помощью would have + глагол в третьей форме), а в придаточной – Past Perfect (had + глагол в третьей форме). If he had studied well at the college, he would have got a well-paid job. - Если бы он хорошо учился в колледже, он бы получил хорошо оплачиваемую работу. If we hadn’t had the some savings, we wouldn’t have taken the credit. - Если бы у нас не было сбережений, мы не взяли бы кредит.

Сослагательное наклонение (The Subjunctive Mood)

В русском языке сослагательное наклонение выражается сочетанием глагола в форме прошедшего времени с частицей "бы" и имеет только одну форму, которая может относиться к настоящему, прошедшему или будущему. Если бы я закончил работу. я смог бы проводить Вас на вокзал сегодня (завтра, вчера).

В английском языке имеются аналитические и синтетические формы сослагательного наклонения. Аналитическая форма – это сочетание глаголов should или would с инфинитивом (Indefinite Infinitive или Perfect Infinitive).He demanded that the car should be repaired. Он потребовал, чтобы машина была отремонтирована.He would come.Он бы пришёл . He would have come then.Он бы пришёл тогда.

Глагол to be имеет формы be и were для всех лиц при выражении предположения, желания или возможности, относящихся к настоящему и будущему временам. If I were …. . Если бы я был ….

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В современном английском языке имеются также синтетические формы сослагательного наклонения.

Для всех других глаголов в этом случае используются формы Past Indefinite. If you came earlier, you should speak to him.Если бы вы пришли раньше, вы бы поговорили с ним.

Неличные формы глагола (Verbals)

Неличные формы глагола, к которым относятся причастие, инфинитив и герундий отличаются от личных тем, что не имеют категории лица, числа, времени и наклонения и не употребляются в предложении в функции сказуемого, хотя могут быть его частью.

Инфинитив (The Infinitive)

Инфинитив – это неличная форма глагола, которая называет действие. Инфинитив является основной (или I) формой глагола и представляет глагол в словаре. Признаком инфинитива является частица to: to help – помогать, to read– читать.

Инфинитив употребляется без частицы to в следующих случаях: 1. После глаголов shall, will. He will write to his parents tomorrow. Завтра он напишет своим родителям.2. После модальных глаголов (кроме глагола ought). She can ski and skate. Она умеет кататься на коньках и на лыжах.3. После глаголов чувственного восприятия feel, see, hear, watch и др. We saw him enter. Мы видели, как он вышел.4. После глаголов let (разрешать), have, make (заставлять). What makes you think so? Что заставляет тебя так думать? Let me take this book, please. Пожалуйста, разрешите мне взять эту книгу.5. После выражений had better (лучше), would rather (лучше бы). You had better go now. Лучше уйди / иди сейчас. I must see you at once. Мне надо сейчас же встретиться с тобой.

В современном английском языке инфинитив имеет следующие формы.

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Indefinite Infinitive — показывает, что действие, выраженное им, одновременно действию, выраженному глаголом-сказуемым или следует за ним.

I want to work on a computer.Continuous Infinitive — выражает действие, длящееся в то

время, когда происходит действие глагола-сказуемого.It was pleasant to be working on a computer again.Perfect Infinitive — выражает действие, которое предшествует

действию, выраженному глаголом-сказуемым.I am glad to have solved this problem on the computer.

Passive Infinitive — называет действие, которое испытывает лицо или предмет.

I am glad to be visited by my friend every week.I am glad to have been visited by my friend last week.

Функции инфинитиваПодлежащее — переводится отглагольным существительным,

неопределенной формой глагола.To walk in the garden was very pleasant. Гулять в саду было очень приятно. To read a lot is to know much. Много читать – много знать.

Обстоятельство цели — переводится с союзом «чтобы».To read the book I went to the reading-hall. Чтобы прочитать эту книгу, я пошёл в читальный зал.

Определение — переводится обычно придаточным определи-тельным предложением с союзом «который», вводя модальность словами «надо», «нужно», «необходимо», «должны» или будущим временем (в основном это касается Indefinite Passive Инфинитив в функции определения переводится на русский язык тремя способами:

1. Придаточным определительным предложением с модальным сказуемым.

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Indefinite Continuous Perfect

Active to translate to write

to be translating to be writing

to have translated to have written

Passiveto be translated to be written — to have been translated

to have been written

He is going to take part in the conference to be held in Moscow. Он собирается принять участие в конференции, которая должна состояться в Москве.

2. Неопределённой формой глагола.I have nothing to sky. Мне нечего сказать.

3. Личной формой глагола, если определение относится к порядковому числительному. She was the first to come.Она пришла первой .

Дополнение — переводится неопределенной формой глагола.He was glad to have been given a new job. Он был рад, что ему дали новую работу. I decided to read this book. Я решил прочитать эту книгу.

Именная часть составного сказуемого — переводится неопределенной формой глагола (часто модального).

You may come in.Вы можете войти .We ought to leave early in the morning. Мы должны уехать рано утром.My wish is to read much. Моё желание – много читать.

Инфинитивные оборотыСложное дополнение (объектный инфинитивный оборот) The

Complex Object (Objective – with – the – Infinitive Construction)

Эта конструкция состоит из существительного в общем падеже или местоимения в объектном падеже и инфинитива.

Обычно переводится на русский язык придаточным дополнительным предложением. He wants the book to be returned tomorrow. Он хочет, чтобы книгу вернули завтра.

Сложное подлежащее (субъектный инфинитивный оборот) The Complex Subject (The Nominative – with – the – Infinitive

Construction)

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Подлежащее + сказуемое + существительное (местоимение) + инфинитив

Эта конструкция состоит из существительного или местоимения в именительном падеже и инфинитива. Переводится на русский язык придаточным предложением. She is expected to come any minute. Ожидается, что она приедет с минуты на минуту. The water seems to be boiling.Кажется, вода кипит. The Delegation is reported to have left London. Сообщается, что делегация покинула Лондон.He is likely to know her address. Он, вероятно, знает её адрес. He is sure to be asked about it. Его, наверняка, об этом спросят.

She is said to be very beautiful.Говорят. что она очень красива. The car was seen to disappear.Видели, как машина скрылась .

Эта конструкция употребляется:

1. С глаголами, обозначающими чувственное восприятие – to see, to hear, to notice и др. с глаголами, обозначающими умственную деятельность – to think, to consider, to expect и др. (в страдательном залоге);

с глаголами to say, to report, to ask, to order, to announce (в страдательном залоге).2. Со словосочетаниями to be likely (вероятно), to be unlikely (маловероятно), to be certain / to be sure (несомненно / обязательно).

3. С глаголами в действительном залоге to seem / to appear (казаться / по-видимому), to prove / to turn out (оказываться), to happen (случаться).

Инфинитивная конструкция с предлогом for (The For – to – Infinitive Construction)

В этой конструкции перед существительным или местоимением находится предлог for. При переводе на русский язык используется или придаточное предложение, или инфинитив.It's easy for me to answer this question. Мне легко ответить на этот вопрос. It will be very pleasant for us to spend a week in England. На будет очень приятно провести неделю в Англии. There was nothing else for me to say. Мне больше нечего было сказать.It is for you to decide.Вам решать. Here are some books for you to read. Вот несколько книг для вашего чтения (вам почитать).

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Причастие (The Participle)Причастие I (Participle I) – неличная форма глагола, обладающая

свойствами глагола, прилагательного и наречия. Соответствует формам причастия и деепричастия в русском языке.

Формы причастия

active passive

Indefinite

Perfect

asking

having asked

being asked

having been asked

Participle I Indefinite обозначает действие, одновременное с действием глагола-сказуемого.\While translating difficult texts we use a dictionary. Переводя трудные тексты, мы пользуемся словарём.

Participle I Perfect обозначает действие, предшествующее действию, выраженному глаголом-сказуемым. Having read the book I returned it to the library. Прочитав книгу, я вернул её в библиотеку.

Функции причастия I

В предложении причастие I (Participle I) может быть:

1. Определением. В этой функции употребляется только Participle I Indefinite, которое соответствует русскому причастию настоящего времени в той же функции.A smiling girl. Улыбающаяся девочка. A swimming man. Плывущий человек. The men building our house with me are my friends. Люди, строящие наш дом вместе со мной, -- мои друзья. The house being built in our street is a new building of school. Дом, строящийся на нашей улице -- это новое здание школы.

2. Обстоятельством. В этой функции Participle I Indefinite Active чаще всего стоит в начале предложения и переводится на русский язык деепричастием несовершенного вида. Translating the article he consulted the dictionary. Переводя статью, он пользовался словарём.

Перед таким причастием в функции обстоятельства часто стоят союзы when или while. Такие словосочетания переводятся либо деепричастным оборотом (или деепричастием) с опущением союза, либо

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придаточным предложением, которое начинается с союзов "когда", "в то время как".While translating the article the student consulted the dictionary. Переводя статью, студент пользовался словарём. / Когда студент переводил статью, он пользовался словарём.

Participle I Indefinite Passive переводится на русский язык обстоятельственным придаточным предложением. Being built of wood the bridge could not carry heavy loads. Так как мост был построен из дерева, он не мог выдержать больших нагрузок.

Participle I Perfect Active переводится деепричастием совершенного вида.

Having built a house he began building a greenhouse. Построив дом, он начал строить парник.

Participle I Indefinite Passive в функции обстоятельства (времени, причины) переводится обстоятельственным придаточным предложением. При этом в качестве подлежащего русского придаточного предложения употребляется подлежащее английского предложения. Having been built of concrete, the house was cold in winter. Так как дом был построен из бетона, зимой в нём было холодно.

Participle I Indefinite Active может быть частью сказуемого. They are playing chess. Они играют в шахматы.

Причастие II (Participle II) – неличная форма глагола (III основная форма глагола), имеет одну неизменяемую форму со страдательным значением и обозначает действие, которое испытывает на себе лицо или предмет. Оно соответствует в русском языке причастию страдательного залога.

Причастие II правильных глаголов имеет ту же форму, что и Past Indefinite, и образуется при помощи прибавления суффикса –ed к основе глагола to ask – asked, to help – helped.

Подобно причастию I, причастие II обладает свойствами глагола, прилагательного и наречия. Как и глагол, оно обозначает действие. Время действия, обозначаемое причастием II, определяется временем действия глагола-сказуемого или контекстом. The book discussed yesterday was interesting. Книга, обсуждавшаяся вчера, была интересной. The books discussed at the lessons are always interesting. Книги, обсуждаемые на уроках, всегда интересны.

Функции причастия II

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В предложении причастие II может быть:

а) Определением. Last time is never found again. Потерянное время никогда не вернёшь (дословно – не найти). A written letter lay on the table. Написанное письмо лежало на столе. They are reconstructing the house built in the 18th century. Они реставрируют здание, построенное в 18 веке.

б) Обстоятельством. Перед причастием II в функции обстоятельства могут стоять союзы if, unless, when. В таком случае английское причастие переводится обстоятельственным придаточным предложением, в котором подлежащее то же, что и в главном предложении.

If built of the local stone, the road will serve for years. Если построить дорогу (Если дорога построена) из местного камня, она будет служить долгие годы.

Объектный причастный оборот с Participle I

Существительное в общем падеже /личное местоимение объектном пад. (me, him, her, it, us, you, them) + Причастие I

Конструкция "Объектный причастный оборот" состоит из существительного в общем падеже или личного местоимения в объектном падеже и причастия, которое выражает действие, производимое субъектом (существительным или местоимением). В этой конструкции употребляется только одна форма причастия — Present Participle Simple. В предложении объектный причастный оборот выступает в функции сложного дополнения. Конструкция "Объектный причастный оборот" употребляется, когда говорящий хочет подчеркнуть, что действие, выраженное причастием, не завершено, находится в процессе и совершается в момент речи. Эта конструкция употребляется после глаголов, выражающих восприятие посредством органов чувств, таких как: to see видеть, to hear слышать, to find находить, to watch наблюдать, смотреть и т.п.:Не saw Tom coming to his house. Он увидел Тома, который подходил к его дому.She watched the snow falling. Она наблюдала, как падает снег.

Эта конструкция переводится на русский язык дополнительным придаточным предложением.

Объектный (дополнительный) оборот с причастием I – (the Objective – with – the – Participle I)

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Она состоит из личного местоимения в объектном падеже или существительного в общем падеже и причастия. I saw her crossing the street. Я видел, как она переходит улицу.

Эта конструкция "объектный падеж с причастием I" – the Objective –with – the – Participle I Construction -- употребляется тогда, когда говорящий хочет подчеркнуть, что действие, выраженное причастием, на завершено и протекает в момент речи. В этой конструкции употребляется только одна форма причастия I – Participle I Indefinite Active.

В этой конструкции местоимение в объектном падеже или существительное в общем падеже называют лицо или предмет, производящее действие. Она употребляется после глаголов чувственного восприятия to see, to hear, to watch, to feel и др. Переводится придаточным предложением.

They watched him entering the house. Они наблюдали за тем, как он входит в дом. I saw John passing our house. Я видел, как Джон проходил мимо нашего дома.

Объектный (дополнительный)оборот с причастием II –(the Objective – with – the –Participle II) отличается от аналогичной конструкции с причастием I, тем, что в ней причастие II называет действие, направленное на лицо или предмет, выраженные личным местоимением в объектном падеже или существительным в общем падеже. Эта конструкция переводится на русский язык в основном придаточным предложением. Она употребляется:

1) После глаголов чувственного восприятия to see, to hear, to feel, to watch и др.;

2) После глаголов, выражающих желание to want, to wish и др.;3) После глаголов to have, to get.

We head his name mentioned.Мы слышали, как упомянули его имя . I want the work done.Я хочу, чтобы работа была сделана . I have my photo taken. Я сфотографировался.

Такие предложения с данной конструкцией переводятся простым предложением.

Обстоятельственный причастный оборот

Обстоятельственные причастные обороты в английском языке бывают двух видов:

Зависимый причастный оборот, в котором действие, выражаемое причастием, относится к подлежащему данного предложения. Такие

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обороты выражают обстоятельства времени, причины или образа действия и обычно переводятся русскими деепричастными оборотамиApplying force, we produce motion.Прилагая силу, мы производим движение.The engineer testing the engine is a good specialist. Инженер, испытывающий двигатель, хороший специалист.

Независимый причастный оборот

В состав независимого причастного оборота, также называемого абсолютным причастным оборотом, (the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction) может входить как Participle I, так и Participle II.

Независимый причастный оборот с причастием I.

В этой конструкции причастие I выражает действие, не связанное с действием, обозначенным глаголом-сказуемым предложения. Сам оборот состоит из существительного в общем падеже (реже местоимения в именительном падеже) и причастия I. Действие, выраженное причастием, относится к этому существительному (или местоимению). Этот оборот характерен для письменной речи и почти не употребляется в разговорной. В предложении этот оборот выступает в роли различных обстоятельств и на письме всегда отделяется запятой от остального предложения. На русский язык переводится придаточным предложением.The weather permitting, we shall go to the country. Если погода позволит, мы поедем за город (обстоятельство условия).It being very cold, we could not go for a walk. Так как было холодно, мы не смогли пойти на прогулку (обстоятельство причины).The sun having risen, we continued our way. После того, как солнце взошло, мы продолжили свой путь (обстоятельство времени).The article having been translated, the student showed it to the teacher. После того как (когда) статья была переведена, студент показал её преподавателю (обстоятельство времени).

Независимый причастный оборот с причастием II. Этот оборот также состоит из двух частей: личного местоимения в именительном падеже или существительного в общем падеже, которые претерпевают действие, выраженное причастием II. Этот оборот употребляется в функции различных обстоятельств и переводится на русский язык соответствующим обстоятельственным предложением. His work finished, he went home. Когда его работа была закончена, он пошёл домой.

Герундий (The Gerund)

Герундий имеет свойства как глагола, так и существительного.

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Подобной неличной формы в русском языке нет. Как существительное он может выполнять в предложении функции подлежащего, дополнения, определения и обстоятельства с предлогом. Как глагол может иметь после себя прямое дополнение и определяться наречием, иметь перфектную форму, категорию залога, а также выражать действие как процесс.

Герундий образуется от основы глагола с помощью суффикса –ing. To translate– translating, to read – reading.

Формы герундия совпадают с формами Participle I и Perfect Participle. Однако, это разные формы глагола, отличающиеся и по значению, и по синтаксическим функциям. Формы Indefinite Gerund обозначают действия, одновременные с действием, выраженным глаголом-сказуемым. He likes inviting friends to his place. Он любит приглашать друзей к себе.He likes being invited to his friends. Он любит, когда его приглашают к себе его друзья.

Перфектные формы герундия (Perfect Gerund) обозначают действия, предшествующие действию, выраженному глаголом-сказуемым. He is proud of having invited this man to his place. Он гордится тем, что пригласил этого человека к себе. He was proud of having been invited to the party. Он гордился тем, что его пригласили на вечер.

Функции герундия

В предложении герундий может быть:а) Подлежащим.

Smoking is not allowed here. Курить (Курение) здесь не разрешается.

б) Определением. There are different ways of obtaining this substance. Существуют различные способы получения этого вещества.

в) Именной частью сказуемого.His hobby is driving a car. Его хобби – вождение (водить) машину (ы).

г) Прямым дополнением.

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active passive

Indefinite

Perfect

writing

having written

being written

having been written

The car needs repairing. Машина нуждается в ремонте (Машину нужно ремонтировать).

В вышеприведённых функциях герундий переводится существительным или инфинитивом.

д) Предложным дополнением. They spoke about their travelling. Они говорили о своём путешествии (том, как они путешествовали).

В данной функции герундий переводится существительным или придаточным предложением.

е) Обстоятельством.Learning rules without examples is of little use. Изучение правил (изучать правила) без примеров приносит мало пользы.

I like reading. Я люблю чтение (читать). Think before answering. Подумай прежде чем ответить. By doing that you'll save a lot of time. Делая это, ты сэкономишь много времени. I am tired of waiting. Я устал от ожидания (устал ждать). The floor of the room needs painting. Пол этой комнаты нуждается в покраске (нужно покрасить).Everybody laughed on hearing his answer. Все рассмеялись, услышав (когда услышали) его ответ. Thank you for coming . Спасибо за то, что вы пришли. He is proud of having won in the tournament. Он гордится тем, что победил в турнире. She is sorry for being late. Она сожалеет, что опоздала. He ran without stopping. Он бежал, не останавливаясь.Before going to bed, she locked the door. Прежде чем лечь спать, она заперла дверь.

В данной функции герундий переводится существительным с предлогом, деепричастием, придаточным предложением.

Герундиальный оборот

Герундий с относящимися к нему словами образует герундиальные обороты, которые обычно начинаются с предлога, притяжательного местоимения или существительного в притяжательном (иногда общем) падеже. Герундиальные обороты можно разделить на две группы: зависимые и независимые.

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Зависимые герундиальные обороты

Зависимые герундиальные обороты — это обороты, в которых перед герундием (после предлога) нет слова, обозначающего действующее лицо или предмет. При переводе таких оборотов придаточными предложениями обычно повторяется подлежащее английского предложения (используя, если нужно, соответствующее местоимение), а герундий становится сказуемым.

При этом следует помнить, что предлог, вводящий герундиальный оборот в английском предложении, при переводе на русский язык должен стать союзным словом, соединяющим главное предложение с придаточным. Поэтому в русском переводе главное и придаточное предложения соединяются словами то, что в том падеже, который определяется предлогом.This metal differs from that one by having a higher melting point.Этот металл отличается от того металла тем, что он имеет более высокую точку плавления.In addition to being very interesting this book is of great use.Кроме того, что эта книга интересная, она еще и очень полезная.In spite of being very complicated, the problem has been solved.Несмотря на то что эта проблема очень сложная, ее (все же) решили.

Независимые герундиальные обороты

Независимые герундиальные обороты - это такие обороты, в которых между предлогом и герундием имеется слово, выражающее лицо (или предмет), которое совершает действие, передаваемое герундием. Такое слово может быть притяжательным местоимением или суще-ствительным в общем или притяжательном падеже.

При переводе оборота придаточным предложением это местоимение или существительное становится подлежащим, а герундий - сказуемым придаточного предложения. Не забывайте, что перевод герундиального оборота придаточным предложением начинается с перевода предлога, стоящего перед герундием.The accuracy of the definition depends on the terms being carefully formulated.

Точность определения зависит от того, насколько тщательно сформулированы (все) члены.There is unmistakable proof of Pauling's having been wrong. Имеются несомненные доказательства того, что Полинг ошибался.

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Если герундиальный оборот играет роль подлежащего (перед герундием нет предлога), то перевод его придаточным предложением следует начинать со слов то, что (в именительном падеже).His having made this experiment is a known fact ‘ To, что он уже провел этот эксперимент, является известным фактом’.

При переводе независимых герундиальных оборотов, в которых перед герундием стоит притяжательное местоимение, это местоимение становится личным местоимением в именительном падеже, т. е. подлежащим, We know of their having been satisfied with Kelly's explanations of the discrepancies. Мы знаем, что они были удовлетворены объяснениями расхождений, предложенными Келли.There is no hope of our getting a complete analysis of the measurements within 10 days. Нет надежды, что мы получим полный анализ этих измерений в течение 10 дней.

Эмфатической конструкцией называют такую синтаксическую конструкцию, которая служит для выделения того или иного члена предложения.

Обратный порядок слов 

Обратный порядок слов широко используется в английском языке для выделения второстепенных членов предложения. Выделяемый член предложения выносится на первое место, причём это часто приводит к обратному порядку слов. Обратный порядок слов может быть вызван некоторыми наречиями и союзами. Perhaps no where have been achieved better results as in this field of science. – Может быть, нигде не были достигнуты лучшие результаты, чем в этой области науки.

Перевод таких предложений следует начинать с дополнения или обстоятельства, стоящих после выделенного слова: Confirming this possibility is another fact. – Эту возможность подтверждает ещё один факт.

Обратный порядок слов употребляется в эмфатических предложениях, вводимых союзами so, neither или nor. Не was late and so was his friend. – Он опоздал, так же, как и его друг.Nor should we forget the importance of this exam. –Мы не забудем важность этого экзамена.

В английском языке также широко используются такие эмфатические конструкции как It's time you did smth и It's him who,

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использующиеся для логического или эмоционального выделения части высказывания (кто-то критикует или жалуется на кого-либо, обвиняет кого-либо). It's time the children were in bed. It's long after their bed time. – Детям пора уже быть в кровати.It's he who had stolen my purse! – Это он украл мой кошелёк!

С данными эмфатическими конструкциями используется прямой порядок слов.

Основные эмфатические конструкции английского языка представлены следующими средствами.

1. Эмфаза с использованием предваряющего it, которая чаще всего передаётся на русский словосочетанием именно / никто (ничто) иной(е) + объект. It was Peter who told me about that. – Никто иной как Питер сказал мне об этом.2. Дублирование глагола-связки do / did перед смысловым глаголом, что переводится наречиями действительно, несомненно, безусловно. I do know the truth. – Я действительно знаю правду.

Предложения, в которых именная часть сказуемого выражена причастием или наречием as / though, что переводится на русский хотя ни, как ни. Silly though it may seem . – Каким бы глупым это ни показалось.

Сложные предложения с союзами not only but also / hardly when / no sooner + than, которые в английском предложении стоят раздельно: первая часть союза в придаточном предложении, вторая в главном, при этом порядок слов в придаточной части предложения неправильный. Варианты перевода данных конструкций – едва, как только. Hardly had I come, Jack entered the room. – Eдва я появился, как Джек вошёл в комнату.Эмфатическая модель с использованием not until, которая переводится на русский утвердительным (а не отрицательным, как в английском) предложением. Not until he came . – Только после того, как он пришёл.

Конструкции if any / if anything очень распространены в английском языке. На русский язык переводятся с помощью выражений в общем, вообще, во всяком случае, хотя. His answer, if strange . – Его ответ, хотя и был странным.

Эллиптические конструкции

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Эллиптическим (elliptical) называется предложение, в котором по крайней мере одно слово представлено нулевым вариантом.

Наличие эллиптических конструкций в структуре языка – естественный процесс развития синтаксиса, такие конструкции встречаются почти во всех языках.

Большинство таких конструкций – свернутые предложения, предназначенные для экономии речевых средств; в терминах традиционной грамматики эллипсис определяют, как предложение, в котором отсутствуют либо подлежащее, либо сказуемое.

Эллиптических предложений являются «непременным атрибутом» любого языка, где ежедневная коммуникативная единица – прежде всего диалогическое единство, в котором в свою очередь проявляется разговорная речь с ее свободной несвязанной синтаксической структурой, лаконичностью, динамичностью и информативностью, со всем многообразием использования эллиптических конструкций и идиоматических выражений.

При использовании эллипсиса в диалоге говорящий всегда осознает, что он хочет выразить с помощью этих слов, или подчеркивает, какую тему он не хочет затрагивать в разговоре. Эллиптические конструкции используются не потому, что говорящий не умеет правильно строить предложение, а лишь от того, что это экономит время. Часто подобного рода построения встречаются в деловом общении с целью экономии времени, когда как говорят «время - деньги».

В зависимости от вида речи различаются неполные диалогиче-ские и монологические предложения, которые могут быть как в устной, так и в письменной речи.

Кофейня была заполнена обычными посетителями. Я присел за столики повесил сетку на спинку стула.- Сладкий или средний? - спросил кофевар...- Средний, - Сказал я привычно.

All the tables were occupied. He joined his friends…- Tea, please. - he told the waitress, who had just arrived.- How d’you like your tea?- Not very strong …

He was at her place in an hour…- Some juice? (Would you like some juice?)- A cup of coffee, please. (I’d like a cup of coffee)- What else (would you like)?- A cake, perhaps…

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LITERATURE

1. Английский для бакалавров: Учебное пособие / Под редакцией Г.Д. Орловой; Тул. гос. ун-т.– Тула, 2006.– 299 с.

2. Беляева С.А., Паскевич Н.С., Попова Г. В. "Практикум по чтению текстов авиационной тематики": [Электронный ресурс]. URL: http://www.homeenglish.ru/Textavia.htm

3. Митрошкина Т.В. Справочник по грамматике английского языка в таблицах / Т.В. Митрошкина.- 2-е изд.–Минск: ТетраСистемс, 2011.– 96 с.

4. Полный курс английского языка: Учебник-самоучитель / М.Г. Рубцова. — 3-е изд.,– М.: ООО «Издательство Астрель»; ООО «Издательство АСТ», 2004. – 542 с.

5. Easy Aviation English: [Электронный ресурс]. URL: https://vk.com/englishmgtu

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