Impact of climate change –Specific examples

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I. Purpose of using these specific examples in this module

A number of specific examples are suggested for teachers to strengthen students’ global perspective and their spatial sense. These examples are to be used by the teacher to give a brief introduction of the impact of climate change and how people at different places respond to it.

II. Curriculum tailoring for students of different abilities

1. It is essential for teachers to ensure that every student can get hold of a global picture of the impact of climate change and how people at different places respond to it.

2. If students’ ability and interest allow, teachers can add a brief introduction of how climate change affects China on the whole, with particular emphasis on the increasing magnitude and frequency of extreme weather events.

3. For the more able students, teachers can further extend the lesson to include a more detailed study of the impact of climate change on the Tuvalu and the Poles.

III. How to make use of the information provided in this folder?

1. There is a description on the changing climatic conditions and the local impacts brought by these changes in the specific examples. Actions done to alleviate such impacts by China and Tuvalu have been discussed so that students can understand what have been done locally by individual countries.

2. Teachers need not cover all the information provided in this folder. Instead it is advisable for them to select appropriate example(s) and refine the materials based on the ability and interest of their students.

3. Teachers can make use of the materials as: Background information for students to understand the impacts of climate change in

different places and resulting human responses to it; Materials for self-study to arouse their interest in this topic.

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I. Climate change in China

According to scientific assessments of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), global temperature may increase by 1.4 – 5.8oC at the end of the 21st Century. In 2011, it was reported that temperatures in China were rising faster than the global average. By the end of this Century, China’s temperature is estimated to increase by 2.5 – 4.5oC.

More extreme weather events happened in China. They included: More frequent and severe dust storms in North China. Drought – e.g. the severe drought happened in Henan Province in 2014 has led to 7.3 billion

RMB economic loss, mainly due to agricultural loss. Flood – e.g. the flood that happened in the six provinces (Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi,

Chongqing, Sichuan and Guizhou) in June 2014 has killed 34 people and caused 5.21 billion RMB damages.

Stronger snow storms in southern and central China. Increase in sea surface temperatures resulting in more powerful tropical cyclones. Heat wave – e.g. in May 2014, North China has experienced the most severe heat wave. Many

cities like Beijing have experienced high temperature up to 40oC, Tianjin 38.7 oC. In Yunnan, temperature has reached up to 40oC for 10 days. Many people have been sent to hospital because of heatstroke.

II. Impact of climate change on China

1. Melting glaciers

The change in temperature has triggered rapid melting of glacier in the Himalayan Mountain and Tibetan Plateau. It is estimated that the area of glacier will shrink from 500,000km 2 in 1995 to 100,000 km2 by the 2030s. This will lead to flooding in the upper course of the Yangtze River and lower the volume of water in its lower course. The overflow of glacial lakes will also lead to mudslides in mountainous areas. For example, a serious landslide and flooding happened in June 2004 in the Tibetan Plateau and has destroyed highways and bridges connecting the regions.

2. Rising sea levels

The State Oceanic Administration of China reported that the average sea level along Chinese coastal 3

areas has increased by 90 mm between 1979 and 2009. Sea level along the coast of Tianjin has risen by 196 mm, more than double the average increase in China. Rising sea level threatens coastal cities, especially those built on reclaimed land with a dense urban development like Shanghai, Tianjin and Hong Kong.

Besides, sea-level rise will cause seawater intrusion, soil salinization and coastal erosion. These changes alter the ecological conditions along the coast and affect the coastal ecosystem.

3. Loss of biodiversity

Climate change has led to changes in the climatic characteristics of the region which in turn changes the habitat for animals. For example, between 1959 and 2009, the amount of rainfall in Southwest China has significantly decreased. Such a change threatened the growth of bamboo which is the food source of the giant panda and endangered their survival. Another example is the golden monkey living in the Qinling Mountain in Shaanxi. Their number was decreasing as a result of the uneven distribution of rainfall and changing temperatures.

4. Threat to the coral reef

China has abundant coral reef resources along the South China Sea, especially around Hainan Island. The rising sea surface temperature and rising levels of carbon dioxide as a result of climate change cause serious coral bleaching problems. The death of coral also affects the marine ecosystem which depends on this habitat.

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I. Human responses to the issue (local level)

In 2013, China is the largest contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions by volume. Its per capita emission has risen to 7.2 metric tons of carbon dioxide, comparable with the total emission of all the countries in the European Union. Fortunately, the Chinese government has taken actions to address this issue. In March 2011, the Chinese government adopted the 12th Five-Year Plan (FYP) (2011-2015). Its key target on environmental aspect included: A 16% reduction in energy consumption per unit of GDP; Increasing non-fossil energy to account for 11.4% of total energy use; and A 17% reduction in carbon emission per unit of GDP.

To achieve these targets, the following actions have been taken.

1. Improve energy efficiency The Chinese government mobilized a national campaign to promote energy

efficiency by listing the top 1000 largest and least efficient energy consuming enterprises. These companies are required to take measures to improve their energy efficiency or otherwise, they will be closed down by the Chinese government.

The Chinese government also subsidizes the installation of over 18 million high-efficiency air conditioners and the production of more than 4 million energy-efficient motor vehicles.

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The Chinese government is working to transform Shanghai into a low carbon city by improving energy efficiency in buildings, as well as promoting green mobility through clean, efficient vehicles and public transport modes.

2. Reduce the amount of energy and coal use China has proposed to cap energy consumption in 2015 to 4 billion tonnes of coal

equivalent (btce). This meant the growth rate has to be slow down to around 4.3% per year. She has also capped coal output to 3.9 billion tonnes in 2015.

This can be achieved by raising the energy efficiency and increasing the amount of renewable energy used. Moreover, China is planning to use natural gas to replace coal for power generation.

In 2013, there was the policy to cut the use of coal and requested provinces to introduce detailed plans to cut pollution. Twelve provinces – covering 44% of the country’s coal consumption – have already pledged to cut the use of coal.

3. Develop clean energy In 2013, the Chinese government has invested US$54.2 billion in renewable energy

which was 50% larger than that of the US. The government offers financial incentives, such as a national fund to foster

renewable energy development and discounted lending and tax preferences for renewable energy projects.

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4. Industrial policy Government supports clean energy industries, such as those using solar, water and

biomass energy and promotes those energy saving and environmental protection technology industries, such as the production of hybrid and electric vehicles.

The government has spent 2.2% of GDP to encourage innovative energy-saving R&D.

5. Forestry The 12th Five-Year Plan also aimed at increasing the rate of forest cover in China to

over 21% and the total forest stock by 12.5 million hectares by 2015.

References:

1. China: A vital partner in combating climate changehttp://www.worldbank.org/en/news/opinion/2013/09/16/china-a-vitakl-partner-oin-combating- climate-change

2. China: Acting on climate changehttp://www.climatechange.gov.au/sites/climatechange/files/international/13029WEBchina133Mayaccessible.pdf

3. China says poorly prepared to fight impact of climate changehttp://www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/09/us-china-climate-idUSBRE9B806D20131209

4. Climate change impacts in Chinahttp://blogs.berkeley.edu/2011/03/08/climate-change-impacts-in-china

5. Climate change impacts on China’s environment: biophysical impactshttp://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/climate-change-impacts-chinas-environment- biophysical-impacts

6. Climate change mitigation measures in the People’s Republic of Chinahttp://ww.c2es.org/docUploads/International%20Brief%20-%20China.pdf

7. Data: What is the impact of china’s efforts to tackle climate change?http://greenpeace.org.uk/newsdesk/energy/data/data-how-china%E2%80%99s-coal-control- measures-could-help-avoid-catastrophic-climate-change –six-charts

8. Energy and climate goals of China’s 12th Five-Year Planhttp://www.c2es.org/dosUploads/energy-climate-goals-china-twelfth-five-year-plan.pdf

9. The Diplomat – In China, climate change is already herehttp://the diplomat.com/2014/08/in-china-climate-change-is-already-here/

10. The problems: China and climate changehttp://www.greenpeace.org/eastasia/campaigns/climate-energy/problems/

11. White paper: China’s policies and actions on climate changehttp://www.china.org.cn/government/news/2008-10/29/content_16681689_4.htm

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I. Basic information about Tuvalu

Capital city: FunafutiYear of independence: 1978Location: 5.20°S; 174.00°EArea: 26 km²Population: 9,894 (2014)Climate: Tropical maritime climateTerrain: Low-lying (lowest point: 0m; highest point: 5m)GDP per capita US$ 3484 (2014)

Figure 1: Location of Tuvalu

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II. Impact of climate change on Tuvalu

1. Coastal flooding Global temperature increase has caused the polar ice to melt and in turn led to sea-level rises.

In Tuvalu, sea-level has already risen by 20 cm between 1870 and 2010. The low-lying area along the coast has been flooded.

The airport of the capital city has been drowned in February 2000. Some scientists predicted that in less than 50 years from 2014, Tuvalu will disappear in the

world map.

2. More extreme weather events It has been reported that there were more tropical storms and cyclones since 1990. High winds

and rainfall causes storm surges and leads to flooding. Based on the present situation, it has been projected that the country will experience more hot

days and more days with extreme rainfall. Although it is expected that tropical cyclone will be less frequent, the intensity will be greater, and may cause more damages.

3. Soil salinization As sea-level rises, the soil will be prone to increasing salinization. The saline soil will affect

the growth of plants, such as the coconut trees. More salty water will intrude into the soil, reducing the amount of groundwater. The Tuvaluans

will lose their source of water supply. Therefore, they need to rely on collecting rainwater to meet their needs. However, this source of water is threatened as there are more droughts in recent years. The supply of water becomes irregular and is difficult to forecast.

4. Reducing biodiversity Rising sea-level changes the habitat for plant growth. Some plants may die and this in turn

affects the ecosystem of the area. Climate change results in higher ocean water temperature. This will affect corals and marine

organisms. Biodiversity will decrease especially when the corals grown in the area decreases. The decrease in number of marine organisms affects the livelihood of the Tuvaluans as they

rely on the ocean as a food source.

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I. Human responses to the issue (local level)

Before 2012, there was no comprehensive planning on what should be done to cope with the threats brought by climate change. Some people started thinking of migrating to New Zealand but New Zealand only allocated 75 slots annually to Tuvaluans in 2009. That is not enough for them. So some people suggested spending their national reserves to buy a big island off the coast of Australia as their new homeland. But there is still no final decision on this suggestion.

In 2012, the government has formulated a comprehensive “Tuvalu Climate Change Policy” in response to impacts of climate change and related disaster risks over the next 10 years (2012-2021). The following summarized the goals and actions being planned under this policy:

Goal Actions being planned, for example1. Strengthen the adaptation actions to

climate change hazards. Improve food and water security Coastal protection through re-planting

programmes2. Improve the understanding and

interpretation of climate change data. Old equipment is replaced and

maintained Inter-island communication is

improved to receive warnings3. Get access and manage the financial

resources for coping with climate change hazards.

Professional financial management on the funding related to coping climate change hazard

Better coordination and access to funding for adaptation and disaster risk management

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Goal Actions being planned, for example4. Develop and maintain the infrastructures

to withstand climate change impacts. Key infrastructure (e.g. power station,

telecom communication equipment, airport, wharfs, roads, hospitals, schools) are secured.

Coastal protection measures are constructed

5. Ensure energy security. Realize the target of 100% of electricity generation through renewable energy technologies

6. Plan for effective disaster preparedness, response and recovery.

Well-coordinated disaster management institutional arrangements at all levels

Advanced preparedness at all levels (national, sector, island and community) to cope with the impacts of climate change and disaster risks

7. Guarantee the security of people of Tuvalu and maintain national sovereignty.

Establishment of international legal framework for the resettlement and recognition of Tuvalu within another country as a sovereign state if Tuvalu islands disappear because of sea level rise

Tuvalu’s preparedness for any migration due to climate change impact

References:

1. Adapting the climate change in Tuvaluhttp://www.thegef.org/gef/node/9914

2. Central Intelligence Agency – The World Factbook – Tuvaluhttp://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tv.html

3. Climate change and its impacts on a small island state: Tuvaluhttp://cliffhague.planningresource.co.uk/2013/03/30/climate-change-and-its-impacts-on-a -small-island-state-tuvalu

4. International Climate Change Adaptation Initiative – Pacific Climate Change Science Program – Current and future climate of Tuvaluhttp://www.pacificclimatechangescience.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/4_PCCSP_Tuvalu_8pp.pdf

5. Klima-Tuvalu – Climate change in Tuvaluhttp://klima-tuvalu.no/tuvalu-and-climate-change/the-consequences-of-climate-change-on-Tuvalu

6. TE KANIVA – Tuvalu climate change policy 2012http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/TUV_2012_Te_Kaniva_CCpolicy.pdf

7. What happens when your country drowns?http://www.motherjones.com/environment/2009/11/tuvalu-climate-refugees

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I. Changes occurred in the Arctic region

The temperature in the Arctic region has been increasing recently. In 2014, the average increase in temperature over the land areas was 3-5oC and up to 7 oC over oceans. Precipitation has increased by about 8% across the Arctic region between 1914 and 2014. Rain now mainly falls in winter instead of spring or autumn. Between 1984 and 2014, the average sea area covered by sea ice has decreased by about 8%, an area larger than Norway, Sweden and Denmark combined. The average thickness of Arctic sea ice has also decreased by about 10-15% over this time period. These changes have induced many effects.

II. Impacts of disappearing sea ice

1. Effects on climate Polar ice caps help regulate global temperature by reflecting about 90% of the sun’s energy.

This function will be lost if more ice caps are melted. Different from solid ice, liquid water will absorb heat and in turn causes more sea ice to melt. Global warming will be enhanced further.

2. Sea-level rises Sea levels are expected to rise 18-59 cm by the end of this Century and the continued melting

at the poles can add 10-20 cm more. Sea level rise will trigger flooding of many coastal cities.

3. Coastal erosion Reduced sea ice allows stronger wave to form, increasing shore erosion. This will threaten

coastal cities and villages. People living in these cities and villages need to evacuate or migrate to other places.

As sea ice continues to decrease in coming years, more ocean surface will be exposed. More moisture and heat will be available to power storms. These stronger storms will bring stronger winds and higher storm surges to coastal areas, resulting in increased erosion and flooding of the coastal areas.

4. Effects on ecosystem Warmer climate in the Arctic region causes the northward expansion of forests. The number of

species in the Arctic region is projected to increase due to migration of species from the south. 14

However, the number of the original plant species may decrease as the new species may compete away their habitat.

The total forest area will not increase, however, as higher temperature promotes the breeding of pests which destroys these forests. For example, the Spruce bark beetles have boomed in Alaska and have chewed up 4 million acres of spruce trees between 1987 and 2007.

In the Arctic region, the whole ecosystem relies on the presence of sea-ice. The plankton living on the bottom of the sea-ice will die with the disappearance of the sea-ice. Marine organisms relying on plankton will lose their source of food.

Arctic animals will also be affected by the melting of sea-ice. For example, polar bears give birth and hunt on sea-ice and they need it to travel from one region to another. Decrease in winter sea-ice means that female polar bears have to travel longer distance without food. This increases their risk of death. Similar situation also threatens the life of the penguins on Antarctica. Their numbers have fallen from 32,000 breeding pairs to 11,000 between 1977 and 2007.

5. Effects on human activities Warmer temperature affects the farming activities in the Arctic region. The range of crops that

can be grown increases. However, as there will be more evaporation than precipitation as a result of higher temperature, there may not be enough water for the crops. Irrigation systems will be needed to ensure the crop yield. In addition, yield increase may be offset by the increasing amount of pests due to increase in temperature.

A warming of the climate is likely to have a positive effect on marine fishery which is an important sector to the economy of many countries within the Arctic region, such as Norway and Iceland. Warmer water favoured many commercially fished species, such as herring, pollock and cod. Besides, increase in water temperature makes salmon and trout, the two main aquaculture species farmed in the Arctic region, grow faster. However, there are also some negative impacts. Warmer water increases the occurrence of disease and the growth of toxic algal blooms which in return will kill the fishes.

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I. Types of mitigation measures

1. International co-operation

Since the problem of climate change is a globalized one and its effects are not confined to specific areas, international co-operation in dealing with this problem is needed. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is the leading international body for the assessment of climate change. It provides the world with a clear scientific view on the current state of knowledge in climate change and its potential environmental and socio-economic impacts.

In 1992, a number of countries joined “the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change” to cooperatively consider what they could do to cope with the impacts brought by climate change. In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was adopted by many countries over the world which legally bound the developed countries to emission reduction. The commitment of reduction in greenhouse gas emission was further actualized in later meetings in Durban (2011), Doha (2012) and Paris (2015). Such discussion and meetings will continue to update the actions that needed to be done.

2. Ways to alleviate global warming

The most direct way to alleviate global warming is to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases. The followings are possible ways of doing that: The burning of fossil fuels is the main source of greenhouse gases.

More energy-efficient fuels, such as natural gas, and renewable energy, such as hydropower, solar, wind and geothermal power, etc. can be used to replace coal for the generation of electricity.

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Energy embedded in solid waste can be converted into electric power or heat after processing. This can reduce the amount of fossil fuels used. For example, the Hong Kong and China Gas constructed a commercial landfill gas utilization plant in Tai Po Gas Production Plant. It utilized the Shuen Wan Landfill gas to produce coal gas. This reduces the emission of some 4,600 tonnes of carbon dioxide every year.

Forests help to reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis. Deforestation leads to a sharp increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air, and enhancing the greenhouse effect. Trees themselves store large amount of carbon atoms. Once they are destroyed, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will increase. Therefore, the cutting of trees must be controlled and extensive afforestation should be carried out.

About one-fourth of energy resources are consumed by the transport sector. As most transport vehicles use fossil fuels, they become the major source of greenhouse gases in cities. The following can be done to improve the energy efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emission: Development of mass transit system Building of high-speed railway to reduce short-haul air travel Improving the design of motor vehicles, such as hybrid

vehicles

References:

1. Arctic sea ice declinehttp://www.wunderground.com/climate/SeaIce.asp

2. Effects of global warminghttp://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/gw-effects

3. Global greenhouse warminghttp://www.global-greenhouse-warming.com/polar-caps.html

4. Global warming impacts in the Arctic and Antarctichttp://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/aboutcc/problems/impacts/polar_melting

5. Global warming puts the Arctic on thin icehttp://www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/qthinice.asp

6. Green facts – Arctic climate changehttp://www.greenfacts.org/en/arctic-climate-change/1-2/2-polar-ice-cap-melting.htm

7. Hong Kong RE Nethttp://re.emsd.gov.hk/english/gen/overview/over_intro.html

8. Mitigation of global warminghttp://climap.net/mitigation-of-global-warming

9. Summary of policy makers – Climate change 2014 Mitigation of climate change (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)http://report.mitigation2014.org/spm/ipcc-wg3-ar5-summary-for-policymakers-approved.pdf

10. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Changehttp://unfcc.int/essential_background/items/6031.php

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