Nature-Nurture:2 reasons people differ from each other:

- Genetic factors: nature- Environmental factors: nurture

Nature:- Is what you’re born with.- Determined by genetic factors.

Influence on individuals: Intelligence: 60-70% Personality: around 50% Political views and beliefs: 30-40%

(Not or hardly changeable)

Nurture:- Is what you learned- Environmental factors- Upbringing - Friends, family, social environment- Chances in life

(partly changeable)

Mental disorders:A mental disorder is a developmental disorder:

The development of mental abilities is slower The development of mental abilities stops too early

Common causes: oxygen insufficiency during or after birth, meningitis (hersenvliesontsteking), heavy asthma attacks early in life.

Brain development:

Brain develops fastest of al organs Almost al neurons are fully developed at birth Extra growth around adolescence: planning, reasoning,

abstract thinking Development continues until age of 25 Changes are possible at all ages

People that take the most risks are: Young people Males Low self controlled people Developmental disordered

Personality:"Personality" can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, emotions, Motivations, and behaviors in various situations

Personality may also refer to the patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviors consistently exhibited by an individual over time that strongly influence our expectations, self-perceptions, values and attitudes, and predicts our reactions to people, problems and stress.

Personality: 45% genes 45% rearing (0-6 years) 10% own influence (adulthood)

The big five:1. Conscientiousness 2. Emotional stability 3. Extroversion 4. Agreeableness 5. Openness to experience

Safety & security and psychology:

SSMS and psychology?Safety is both a feeling and a reality, and they’re NOT the same.

Feelings of (un) safety:What does affect the feeling of unsafety?

Social protection expenditure Distrust in police Generalized social distrust Perceived ethnic threat

Public Uniforms: Uniformed presence does not increase feelings of safety in

already relatively safe situations (thereby making patrol unnecessary)

In relatively unsafe situations, all types of uniformed presence increase feelings of safety

-> Think about what this means for safety solutions!

Group Polarization:

Group polarization is the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members

Decisions are more extreme towards greater risk if individuals' initial tendencies are to be risky

Individuals' initial attitudes strengthen and intensify after group discussion

De-individualization in Crowds:In typical crowd situations, personal self-restraints (in toom houden) are weakened by:

Anonymity (nobody knows who you are) Group unity (you blend in so you don’t stand out to others) Arousal (excitement takes over)

Leading to: Distancing from personal identity Reduced concern for social evaluation Increased individual sensitivity to the environment Lessened rational forethought Antisocial behavior

Complex Problems: Terrorism Complex: One group's terrorist is another group's freedom

fighter Complex: How to psychologically research a terrorist? Complex: Universal psychological principles

o Subconscious fear of death o Desire for meaning and personal significance

Individual Characteristics:Individuals more open to terrorist recruitment and radicalization tend to:

Feel angry, alienated or disenfranchised Believe that their current political involvement does not give

them the power to effect real change Identify with perceived victims of the social injustice they are

fighting Feel the need to take action rather than just talking about the

problem Believe that engaging in violence against the state is not

immoral Have friends or family sympathetic to the cause Believe that joining a movement offers social and psychological

rewards such as adventure, camaraderie and a heightened sense of identity.

Mechanisms of Recruitment:General psychological transformation:

o Destruction of the individual’s former conception of self (sometimes called renunciation or “stripping”)

o A transition period o Then a restructuring process (rebirth)

The same mechanisms may be found in group psychotherapy and initiating rites

Audiences and the Media: Terror is propaganda (terrorist incidents are referred to as

“symbolic”) Terrorism relies on audience (no effect without) Terrorist groups usually do not have access to a large audience Hence: terrorism needs the media

o Get the message acrosso Being recognized (or even admired)o Recruitment

Interneto Social Media

Effects of the media:

Some people claim that modern communication systems “have done more than anything else to promote terrorism as an effective way of waging war”

The response to terrorism can be more dangerous than the terrorists themselves

Counter-terrorism:Interventions• Tackle discrimination and economic and social disadvantages• (Create equality of chances)• Restore civil freedom

Avoid homogenization Acknowledge social identities (norms, values, needs…) Avoid segregation and pursue integration Top Down versus Bottom Up strategies for counter-

terrorism

Top Down versus Bottom up counter-terrorism- Top Down: e.g. find and kill terrorists- Bottom Up: e.g. fight poverty and inequality

Terrorism over Time:

Top

Bottom up

The decline of terrorism: Preemption, or making it impossible for terrorists to carry out

their activities (hardening targets or imprisoning or kill) Burnout, or the decline of commitment to the group and its

purposes, ideologies Hard to keep momentum in extremist actions (ideology is

strength and weakness) Backlash, or declining political support Seems to be an interaction between motivation and external

circumstances.

Learning and memory:

Goals: What is behaviorism? (Skinner) Three ways of learning? (classical/operant conditioning &

observant/copying) Learned aggressiveness How to cope with aggression? Three stages of memory Seven reasons why your memory sometimes fails How reliable are eyewitness statements?

Behaviorism:Behaviors are causal factors that are influenced by the consequences.

Skinner (1974):(Theory of skinner: behaviourism)

Skinner (1974) Newborn is a Tabula rasa (empty sheet) Only observable behaviors Behavior as a function of environmental histories of reinforcing

consequences (bad behavior being punished and good behavior rewarded)

Does not take private events such as thinking, perceptions, and unobservable emotions into account

Three ways/perspectives of learning:

Classical conditioning : a conditioned stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned response (Conditioned reflex: Pavlov)

Operant conditioning: behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences (Its taught by will)

o Trail and erroro Reinforcement and punishment (skinner)o Repetition

Observant (social) learning : learning by observing others behavior and the consequences of others behavior (Copycat behavior)

o Bandura 1925o Bobo doll (children copying the aggression of adults)

What is aggression?

Behaviors are causal factors that are influenced by the consequences Classical conditioning: a conditioned stimulus becomes

associated with an unconditioned response Operant conditioning: behavior is strengthened weakened

by its consequences Observant (social) learning: learning by observing others

behavior and the consequences of others behavior.

Nurture: Aggression:

Increased aggression in children with: Physical fear of others Family difficulties Learning, or conduct/behavior disorders Psychological trauma Corporal punishment such as spanking increases aggression in

childrenAdults:

Culture Physical fear of others Stress Personality disorders Psychological trauma

Television and Aggression:

5 reasons why aggressive television increases aggressiveness:1. If they can do it, so can I (recklessness)2. That’s how it’s done (modeling)3. That’s how I feel (identification)4. Exposure leads to normalization5. Attacking is the best defense, even when in doubt Gaming and aggression? Porn and aggression?

How to Deal with Aggression?

Let anger escape: count to ten! Meta communication: what do you feel? Distort your anger: make your excuses! Modeling non-aggressive behavior Follow a training in communication and problem-solving skills Develop your empathy

Three stages of Memory: First stage: sensory memory (zintuigen/stores specific smells

F.E.) Second stage: Working memory/short term memory Third stage: long term memory

7 reasons why our memory sometimes fails:1. Transience:

Fading of memories and new memories interfering with old memories.

2. Absent-Mindedness: Zoning out causing to forget.

3. Blocking: Tip of the tongue/Stress

4. Misattribution: Remembering wrong people in the wrong place of time.

5. Suggestibility: The way questions are asked influence the way past events are memorised

6. Bias:

Beliefs and opinions distort memories.7. Persistence:

Not being able to forget, PTSD.

Eye Witness Statements:What factors influence the reliability of eye witness statements?

Leading questions Time Repeated recovery Age Confidence in memory

Emotions and motivation:Goals:

What are emotions? - Physical component of emotions- Universal rules of emotions- Cultural component of emotions display rules of expression

What is arousal? What is motivation?

- Two different kinds of motivation:1. Intrinsic motivation:

- Motivated because you enjoy something or by interest.2. Extrinsic motivation:

- Performing an activity in order to achieve a specific outcome.

Stress

Why do emotions matter for ssms?

- Learn how to recognize emotions- Being able to recognize emotions is an important indicator

of social skills- Learn how to recognize emotions that play a role In s&s- Learn how to deal with emotions that increase or threat s&s

What is emotion?

Emotion: subjective, conscious experience that is characterized primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, and metal state

Important:- physiological arousal- subjective experience (feelings)- response (facial expressions)- evaluation (cognitive assessment)

What is emotion?

Emotions is associated and considered reciprocally influenced with: Mood Temperament Personality Disposition Motivation

And influenced by: Hormones and neurotransmitters (testosterone, dopamine,

cortisol)

Displayed by: 43 facial muscles 3500 relevant facial expressions

Use of emotions:

Focusing attention to important situations Reacting to important situations Communicating intentions to others

Origin of emotion:

Paul Ekman- Emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically

distinct- Recognition in preliterate cultures that could not have

learned associations for facial expressions through media

Children born blind: expressing emotions by facial expressions Display rules are culture-specific: who can show which

emotions to whom and when Cultural differences and variations more important than

gender differences.

Primary emotions:

Seven primary emotions: Happy Surprised Sadness Anger Fear Contempt Disgust

Lies:

Long term observations needed Detected by micro facial expressions

Motivation: why do we do what we do?

Motivation: is the psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward a desired goal and elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal directed behaviours

All processes that have to do with: Starting Direction Intensity Persistency

Of physical and psychological activities

Motivation: what’s the use?

Motivation connects internal processes with observable behaviour

Motivation explains variations in behaviour

Motivations explains persistence Motivation connects biology with behaviour

Instinct and drive:

Instinct: Biological processes motivate species specific behavioural

patterns

Drive: Need-> Homeostasis

Two types of motivation:

Intrinsic motivation: Driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself Exists within the individual rather than relying on external

pressure

Extrinsic motivation: Performing an activity in order to attain an outcome Comes outside of the individual

What is stress?

Physical and psychological reaction to a threat or challenge

1. Traumatic or acute stress (short term)2. Chronic stress (long term)

Important:

Assertiveness Optimism Resilience

Reactions to traumatic/acute stress

Fight Flight Freeze

Five stages after traumatic stress:

1. Shock, lack of emotions, confused, incomprehension2. Automatic action3. Cooperation, generate resources, tiredness4. Meltdown, exhaustion, emotional consequences5. Long term recovery, give meaning, resignation

Post traumatic stress disorder: PTSD

Dealing with stress: coping:

1. Solution-focused coping strategies2. Emotion-focused coping strategies3. Cognitive restructuring4. Social comparison5. Positive emotions6. Finding meaning

Locus of control:

The extent to which individuals believe that they can control events that affects them.

Two types: Internal – high personal influence on results External – low personal influence on results

Cultural: Primary control- control external events Secondary control- control internal reactions to external events

Dealing with stress: interventions:

Encourage coping strategies: Social support Physical activity Food and diet Sleep or meditation

Attitudes:Goals:

What are attitudes? Do attitudes predict behaviour? How can you change attitudes? Why do we use stereotypes? What is the association between stereotypes, prejudice and

discrimination? What are attributions? How do we perceive risks?

What are attitudes?

An attitude is “ a relatively enduring organization of beliefs, feelings, and behavioural tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups, events or symbols”.

How you:

Think about an attitude object Feel about an attitude object Tend to behave about an attitude object

What do we need attitudes for?

Attitudes stem from: Nature: personality Nurture: (social) experiences

Important: by knowing someone’s attitudes, we might be able to predict their behaviour.

Structure of Attitudes:

Attitudes structure can be described in terms of three components: Affective component: this involves a person’s feelings /

emotions about the attitude object. For example: “I am scared of spiders”.

Behavioral component: the way the attitude we have influences how we act or behave. For example: “I will avoid spiders and scream if I see one”.

Cognitive component: this involves a person’s belief / knowledge about an attitude object. For example: “I believe spiders are dangerous”.

When do attitudes predict behaviour? Are there factors that make attitude more or less predictive of behaviour?

4 factors impact the relationship between attitudes and behaviour: Behavior (general vs. specific) Person (who is being asked) Situation (when and how are they being asked?) Attitude (how was the attitude formed?)

Attitudes and behaviors must be measured at the same level of specificity:

Specific attitudes will predict specific behaviors.

Example: a person attitude toward their general health will not predict their propensity to jog.

Can you change attitudes?

Assumption: Shift a person’s attitude in the right direction and behavior will follow. For example:

If people see the value of wearing their seatbelt then they are more likely to actually wear it

If people think that smoking is bad for their health then they will quit

Attitudes based on affect Talk about feelings, provide insight on reactions, conditioning

Attitudes based on behavior Change behavior, provide behavioristic examples

Attitudes based on cognitions Convince, arguments, experts

Three bases for attitude change: Compliance: with regulations (nakomen/naleven) Identification: wanting to be like someone else Internalization: all your habits change

Attitudes fastest/easiest to change: cognitive (waarneming) dissonance

Cognitive dissonance:

The state of holding two or more conflicting cognitions simultaneously

Ideas, beliefs, values, emotional reactions Feeling one way, behaving another Inconsistency leads to cognitive dissonance

Reducing cognitive dissonance:

Three ways to reduce cognitive dissonance`;

1. Change behaviour2. Change cognition3. Add cognition

- External justification: use of external excuses to justify one’s actions

- Internal justification: a change in the way people perceive their actions

Emotions and attitude change:

Emotional appeals are commonly found In advertising, health campaigns and political messages:

Persuasion: trying to convince someone to do something else Social influence: groepsdruk Attitude change:

Heuristics:

Heuristics are simple, efficient rules (rules of thumb: expensive things are better), which explain how people make decisions, come to judgements, and solve problems, typically when facing complex problems of incomplete information

Nature Nurture Systematic error (availability heuristic) Cognitive biases

For example: stereotypes are heuristics

What are stereotypes?

A stereotype is a form of categorization, which helps to simplify and systemize information so the information is easier to be identified, recalled, predicted, and reacted to.

Simplification Exaggeration Generalization

When do we use stereotypes?

All the time!

Stereotypes are categories of objects or people. Between stereotypes, objects or people are as different to each

other as possible Within stereotypes, objects or people are as similar to each

other as possible

What is the use of stereotypes?

Stereotypes can help make sense of the world. Function as time- and energy-savers which allow people to act

more efficiently

Stereotypes are used for: Explaining social events Justifying activities of one’s own group (in-group) to another

group (out-group) Differentiating the in-group as positively distinct from out-

groupsThe overarching purpose of stereotyping is for people to put their collective self (Their in-group membership) in positive light!

What are the consequences of stereotypes?

Prejudice Discrimination

Prejudice:

Prejudices are negative stereotypes: Other groups are not just different, they Are inferior.

Prejudice is an unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual based solely on the individual’s membership of a social group.

Emotionally charged stereotypes:

Involves negative perceptions Involves negative emotions A prejudiced person may not act on their attitude In-group is perceived as superior!

Discrimination:Discrimination is the behavior or actions, usually negative, towards an individual or group of people

Feeling better about own in-group Scapegoating

Stereotypes, prejudices and discrimination:Stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination are related but different concepts, all based on gender, social class, age, disability, religion, sexuality, race/ethnicity, language, nationality or any other personal characteristics.Attitudes!

Affective (emotional) component: prejudice Behavioral component: discrimination Cognitive component: stereotypes

Cognitive attributions:Attributions are the processes by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events to understand the world around them.Two kinds:

Internal (personal) attributions External (situational) attributions

Risk perception: People exaggerate spectacular but rare risks and downplay

common risks

People have trouble estimating risks for anything not exactly like their normal situation

Personified risks are perceived to be greater than anonymous risks.

People underestimate risks they willingly take and overestimate risks in situations they can't control

People overestimate risks that are being talked about and remain an object of public scrutiny (kritische blik)

Group dynamics:Goals:

Functions of groups Social norms and roles within a group What is groupthink? Milgrams findings on obedience to authority What does the Stanford Prison Experiment teach us? Bystander effect Conformity

What is a social group?A social unit consisting of a number of individuals interacting with each other:

Two or more people Common motives and goals An accepted division of roles Established status (social rank, dominance) relationships Accepted norms and values relevant to the group

Functions of social groups:Functions of groups

Proximity Interaction Influence Security Safety Value Power Identity

Primary and Secondary Groups:Primary groups: small social group whose members share personal and lasting relationships

Usually involves spending time together, engage in activities and feeling mutually well known

i.e. Families, friends

Secondary groups: large groups involving formal and institutional relationships,

Usually weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one another

i.e. Companies, communitiesPrimary groups can be present in secondary settings: attending a university exemplifies membership of a secondary group, while the friendships that are made there would be considered a primary group.

Social Norms and Roles Within a Group: Social norms: the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that the

social group establishes Social roles: socially defined behavioral pattern that people

in a certain situation or group are supposed to show

Cultural effects in social norms and social roles Of course, cultural effects are huge Different cultures have different norms There are cultural effects on gender roles, though there are

quite a few universals too

Social Norms and Roles Within a Group: Social norms: the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that the

social group establishes

Social roles: socially defined behavioral pattern that people in a certain situation or group are supposed to show

Cultural effects in social norms and social roles Of course, cultural effects are huge Different cultures have different norms There are cultural effects on gender roles, though there are

quite a few universals too

Group Dynamics: Facilitation and Inhibition:Social Facilitation

Improved performance in the presence of others in easy tasks Probably due to arousal

Social inhibition Decreased performance in the presence of others in difficult

tasks Probably due to arousal

Group Dynamics: Social Loafing:Social loafing: exerting less effort to achieve a goal when working in a group than when working alone

Visibility individual performance Importance of the task Loafing more likely when co-workers are expected to perform

well Reduced loafing when working with acquaintances and no

loafing at all when working in highly valued groups

Cultural effect Reduced effect for women and individuals originating from

Eastern cultures

Group Dynamics: Groupthink:Groupthink occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Strive towards minimal conflict and maximal harmony within group

Less critical evaluations of facts Reduced quality of groups decisions

Caused by: Overconfidence Conformity Self justification Can be stopped by a good leader that listens to others and

welcomes criticism Minorities can affect the group if they stick to their guns

Group Dynamics: Conformity:Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms

Factors that affect conformity: Made to feel incompetent At least three people High status group Unanimity No prior commitment Our behavior is in the open Cultural effects

Group Polarization:Group polarization is the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members

Decisions are more extreme towards greater risk if individuals' initial tendencies are to be risky

Individuals’ initial attitudes have strengthened and intensified after group discussion

Group Dynamics: Bystander Effect:The Bystander effect is the phenomenon where people do not offer help in an emergency situation to a victim when other people are presenthttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JozmWS6xYEw

Probability of help inversely related to the number of bystanders

What is necessary: Notice the situation Interpret it as an emergency Take responsibility for helping

Example: Obedience:Milgram (1974): How far do we go in obedience to authority? Teacher and Learner

Learner was a confederate Paired associates Wrong answer, given a ‘shock’ ‘You must continue’

Group Dynamics: Obedience: (gehoorzaamheid) Distance to the victim (he was in another room, you cant see

him) Proximity (nabijheid) of authority Shared responsibility Background of authority

What did we Learn from Milgram? 63% completed! Started a big debate about ethics Most participants were happy to learn this scary thing about

themselves I have a heart condition’ -> no effect! Legitimate authority was the key Affiliation Depersonalization Modeling effects

What can Group Dynamics Lead To? People go against their beliefs under the right circumstances Under the right conditions people will do awful things

- Don’t let this absolve anyone Zimbardo: ‘that line between good and evil — which privileged people

Like to think is fixed and impermeable, with them on the good side, and the others on the bad side — I knew that line was movable, and it was permeable’