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Study unit 2:

Work-related personality research

Using examples, briefly explain how the classical personality theories are used in work-related personality research 15

Classical personality theories

According to these approaches, personality measurements use concepts (like specific traits and behaviours) from

one or more of these approaches as independent or predictor variables in order to find the relationship with work-

related correlates or dependent variables (for example training success and work performance ratings).

1. Types of personality variables from classical theories

Personality variables can be defined and measured according to various dimensions.

Here are some examples.

Single or multiple traits. This entails measuring only one specific personality trait, for example self-monitoring,

self-efficacy locus of control or multiple traits in a trait system (three [according to Eysenck's theory], five

[following the FFM] or sixteen traits [according to Cattell's theory]).

Cognitive and biologically based traits. This dimension is applied when work-related traits are

measured according to a cognitive approach – how people think and perceive things, problem-solving and

learning styles, etc. On the other hand, some personality traits have been verified to have a genetic,

biological or physiological basis (for example, introversion and sensation seeking).

Normal and abnormal traits. Many personality assessment techniques, such as the 16 PF, the NEO

personality tests and the occupational personality questionnaire (OPQ), are used to measure `'normal''

personality traits or behavior - behaviours which we demonstrate in our personal and work lives and

which do not cause discomfort to ourselves and others. Sometimes, however, we need to use more

clinically oriented assessment techniques to assess the intensity and frequency of certain ``abnormal'' or

disorganised behaviour (for example, depression, psychotism, anxiety-based behaviour, hypochondria

and phobias).

Dynamic versus stylistic traits. When we try to assess so-called dynamic traits or behaviour, we try to

determine possible deep-seated needs, fears and conflicts. These are not easily determined by objective

questionnaires, but rather by skilled psychologists through in-depth interviewing and other observation

techniques.

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According to Furnham, many of the classical psychological theories created research without much valid evidence

for the applicability of these personality concepts to work or organisational variables. Problems include conflicting

results from various researchers, while many studies are once-off attempts that are not repeated to verify findings.

Many results can instead be interpreted as a validation of the theoretical approaches and not as validation to

predict work-related behaviour.

2. Classical occupational/organisational psychology

In this approach, work-related variables as the independent variables from individuals (for example absenteeism

and productivity), groups (for example team output) or organisations (for example profit) are identified and

compared with their personality correlates. An example of this is job descriptions and situational analyses, after

which personality tests are selected or constructed to determine their relationship or fit with the selected work-

related variables. The main aim of this approach is to examine the correlation of specific personality factors with

specific work behaviours. This can be of help to human resources management in functions like selection,

training, performance appraisal and promotion.

The individual, group or organisational criterion measures can be determined in various ways (for example by

questionnaires, self-report techniques or interviews), measures can be a single criterion or combined or aggregate

measures and the variables can be used within one organisation or between organisations. In the latter case,

various organisations are analysed and compared for the applicability of the criterion measures and their

personality correlates.

The value of this approach is influenced by the same research problems as the classical personality approach.

Added to these are practices like using dated or popular measures of personality or too simplistic statistical

processing of research data. Also, it is often, ignored that the relationship between employee personality and work

behaviours cannot be controlled by the researcher or the individual employee only but is influenced by, many

powerful environmental and organisational factors.

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Briefly describe personality variables in work-related personality research with special focus on the following:

a. Types of personality variables from the classical theoriesb. Measures for work-specific individual differencesc. Biographical/case study research 15

a. Types of personality variables from classical theories

Personality variables can be defined and measured according to the following dimensions:

Single or multiple traits. This entails measuring only one specific personality trait, for example self-

monitoring, self-efficacy locus of control or multiple traits in a trait system.

Cognitive and biologically based traits. This dimension is applied when work-related traits are

measured according to a cognitive approach – how people think and perceive things, problem-solving and

learning styles. On the other hand, some personality traits have been verified to have a genetic, biological

or physiological basis (for example, introversion and sensation seeking).

Normal and abnormal traits. Many personality assessment techniques, such as the 16 PF, the NEO

personality tests and the occupational personality questionnaire (OPQ), are used to measure `'normal''

personality traits or behaviour – behaviours which we demonstrate in our personal and work lives and

which do not cause discomfort to ourselves and others.

Dynamic versus stylistic traits. When we try to assess dynamic traits or behaviour, we try to determine

possible deep-seated needs, fears and conflicts. These are not easily determined by objective

questionnaires, but rather by skilled psychologists through in-depth interviewing and other observation

techniques.

b. Measures for work-specific individual differences

In these instances, work-related measures are developed and applied to find personality predictors of specific

work behaviours. Examples are identifying individual differences or personality measures for selection within the

organisation, to predict absenteeism or withdrawal behaviours, or relating work stress to personality. There are

different types of measures of individual differences:

Narrow versus wide measures, for example to predict a specific work behaviour like absenteeism

compared to behaviours which could include various sub facets (for example, productivity and job

satisfaction).

Single versus multiple traits as in measuring one specific trait or behaviour (for example anxiety) or the

Protestant work ethic compared to using a test that measures multiple traits (for example measuring the

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big five personality factors by using the NEO personality questionnaire)

Self-report versus behavioural measures, for example using personality questionnaires or behavioural

techniques such as biodata, observing behaviour, taking physiological measures or even using behaviour

simulations in assessment centres

Attitudinal versus attributional measures, that is surveying attitudes, perceptions and beliefs about the

working environment, measuring employee beliefs about their attributes or how they contribute to the

causes and outcomes of work behaviour

Although this approach is promising for predicting specific work behaviours by using certain personality measures,

not much has been achieved in this regard except for some work on the attributional style of employees.

Problems are faulty research procedures (like confusing independent and dependent variables), not tracing the

background factors of measured traits (that is, what causes the measured traits) and the possibly limited

applicability of these specific measures because the validity findings will be coupled to specific work-related

behaviours only.

c. Biographical/case study researchThis model uses personality profiles of outstanding individuals or groups to examine work success criteria. In a

social context, and even a work context, it is possible that many South Africans would use Nelson Mandela or

other well-known people as role models. There are, however, variations in the application of this approach:

Individual versus group studies. The latter refers to the analysis of business groups or families in

business, and even analysing the attributes of training institutions or work organisations where such

outstanding individuals worked and studied. In this regard entrepreneurial profiles are often constructed

from psychological attributes, successful work behaviour, attributes from a person's background, their

business environment and the organisation they work in.

Monetary versus other success criteria. However, it is not easy to decide which criteria to use to define

excellence in a specific case or situation.

Impressionistic versus scholarly. This means that successful entrepreneurs are often profiled in a

vague, romantic and subjective way while some of the other criteria, could be more concrete and

objective in referring to specific successful behaviours and outcomes.

This approach has an intuitive attraction because biographers often present successful individuals in a subjective,

intuitive and idealistic way that reflects dreamlike desires (for example, the often-heard ideal of ``the American

dream''). In research findings such profiles are often of only one or a few people, there are no control groups, few

objective assessment results and little hypotheses testing, both in measuring personality and work success

criteria.

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Discuss various approaches to identifying personality and work performance variables (independent and dependent variables) to use in work related personality research, and also illustrate and explain a possible integrated research approach (25 marks – assign 3)

In not more than five lines for each, explain the use of five theoretical approaches (excluding the classical personality theories) in work-related personality research 25

1. Measures for work-specific individual differences

There are different types of measures of individual differences:

Narrow versus wide measures, for example to predict a specific work behaviour like absenteeism

compared to behaviours which could include various sub facets (for example, productivity and job

satisfaction).

Single versus multiple traits as in measuring one specific trait or behaviour (for example anxiety) or the

Protestant work ethic compared to using a test that measures multiple traits (for example measuring the

big five personality factors by using the NEO personality questionnaire)

Self-report versus behavioural measures, for example using personality questionnaires or behavioural

techniques such as biodata, observing behaviour, taking physiological measures or even using behaviour

simulations in assessment centres

Attitudinal versus attributional measures, that is surveying attitudes, perceptions and beliefs about the

working environment, measuring employee beliefs about their attributes or how they contribute to the

causes and outcomes of work behaviour

2. Person-work environment fit and misfit models

In these approaches similar traits or characteristics in people and work environments are correlated to

find the best or desired fit (or undesired misfit).

Measures of occupational fit or misfit are varied, and can emphasise either the individual or jobs (or a

combination of both), as in Holland's theory and related measurement techniques.

Another variation is to measure fit in terms of a subjective impressionistic manner (employees think they

fit) or in a more concrete fashion where fit is based on observed behaviours.

A last method is to base fit on similarity or dissimilarity between people; or on complementary fit, which is

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based on people differing but complementing one another because of certain attributes they have.

A good example of the person-job fit approach is Holland's self-directed search (SDS) measurement in

which certain personality types are associated with certain work environment types.

3. Longitudinal work-related personality studies

In this type of research, conducted over longer periods, the real cause and effect relationship can be determined

in work-related personality variables in and between individuals, organisations and work behaviour, and also in

how change over time influences the relationship and prediction of work behaviour.

Longitudinal research is arguably the most effective, but it is also very expensive and it is very difficult to

sustain and control all variables and changes over time. This type of research can have various forms.

Longitudinal studies can be executed in short, medium and long time frames. However, it is not always

clear when research should be classified in these time frames.

Research in and between organisations is possible. However, research in organisations can restrict the

volume of variables involved, while research between organisations suffers loss of validity because it is

difficult to control all variables.

Retrospective studies entail getting data from historical or archival sources, but control is difficult and

many influencing factors may be unknown or necessary data might not be obtained. In comparison,

prospective research makes it possible to plan well, obtain all the needed data and have good control;

analysis of data can be postponed until all data have been captured.

4. Biographical/case study research

This model uses personality profiles of outstanding individuals or groups to examine work success criteria. In a

social context, and even a work context, it is possible that many South Africans would use Nelson Mandela or

other well-known people as role models. There are, however, variations in the application of this approach:

Individual versus group studies. The latter refers to the analysis of business groups or families in

business, and even analysing the attributes of training institutions or work organisations where such

outstanding individuals worked and studied.

Monetary versus other success criteria. However, it is not easy to decide which criteria to use to define

excellence in a specific case or situation.

Impressionistic versus scholarly This means that successful entrepreneurs are often profiled in a vague,

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romantic and subjective way while some of the other criteria, could be more concrete and objective in

referring to specific successful behaviours and outcomes.

This approach has an intuitive attraction because biographers often present successful individuals in a subjective,

intuitive and idealistic way that reflects dreamlike desires (for example, the often-heard ideal of ``the American

dream'').

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By stating a research question or problem, select and explain each of the following variables and concepts in work-related personality research:

- Independent variable/s

- Dependent variable/s

- Moderator variable/s

- Correlation

- Relationship versus cause 25

Describe various types of research variables (discuss only two) 10

1. Independent variables

The predictors or independent variables obtained from personality theory and research concepts in work-

related personality research are mostly scores on self-report questionnaires.

However, scores for personality type measures or individual differences can also be obtained from

intelligence and ability tests, biodata measures, physiological measures, expert classifications or ratings

in behaviour observation like interviews and measures to indicate positions or roles in organisations, etc.

Predictor scores only represent what they measure.

Predictor scores can never exactly correspond to the underlying trait, because respondents may try to

control or manage what others think about them, predictor scores will have some reliability and validity

problems.

We cannot obtaining perfect correlations.

Psychological assessment has developed its own psychometric and other rules for scientific

measurement and best practices, providing a body of evidence that many psychological measures are

reliable and valid.

Personality measures as independent variables in assessment and research are now considered good

predictors of work performance.

2. Dependent variables

Dependent or outcome variables in research and assessment refer to those traits, states, behaviour and

other measurable concepts used to represent the quantity and quality levels of work or occupational and

organisational performance and behaviour, referred to as work performance criteria.

The main objective is to define valid and reliable work performance criteria, measure them accurately and

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find their correlates or the relationship with measures for personality or individual differences in order to

predict occupational behaviours successfully.

The aim is to explain the impact of personality in work or to have an idea of how much variance in work

behaviour can be explained by personality.

3. Moderator variables

A moderator or intervening variable serves as a mediator or ``go-between'' between other variables; or it

confounds the relationship, correlation or variation between other variables.

Moderator variables should be identified, conceptualised and measured (or controlled) as accurately as

possible.

Although certain types of concepts may traditionally be used more as the predictor and outcome

variables, while other variables mostly have a moderating function, the role of a research variable will

depend on the research problem or questions and the related stated hypotheses.

4. Correlation

A correlation is a statistical indication, ranging between 71 (perfect negative) and, 00 of relationship+1,00

(perfect positive), of the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables (for example,

between job satisfaction and absenteeism the correlation might be 0,45, meaning that the correlation of

0,45 explains more or less 45% of the variance between job satisfaction and absenteeism).

Correlations only explain the strength of a relationship as either positive or negative, and from this the

chances of predicting one variable from another can be estimated.

5. Relationship or cause?

A correlation which gives a good indication of the strength and direction of a relationship between

variables does not necessarily explain the cause/s of behaviour.

It is a fact that certain genetic and acquired behaviours cause certain personality traits and behaviours.

However, it is not always easy to make such an assumption about all variables.

Only if all influencing factors have been isolated and relationships have been verified and repeated by a

body of research can causality be explained, for example that negative feedback causes job

dissatisfaction.

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Discuss, in details, models of work performance measurements 15

Describe models or approaches to explain the measurement of work performance, and refer to correct and future emphasis with regard to predictor and outcome variables in work-related personality research.

25

Models of work performance measurement

These approaches emphasise work performance measures because personality factors as outcome criteria are

also included or the relationship with personality measures may be indicated.

1. Earlier models of work performance measurement

These models used mainly ability personality factors (for example, intelligence and numerical ability) in

relation to work performance measures.

In an early model by Hunter cognitive ability was used as a causal factor for two types of work behaviour:

job knowledge and job performance (both measured by work samples and supervisor ratings), in which

Hunter found some validity; personality was viewed as a poor predictor of occupational or work

performance.

Hunter, however, recognised that many other factors could explain the variation in work performance and,

for this reason, Guion suggested that Hunter's causal model of work performance be expanded to also

include work performance attributes of the employee who is being rated.

A further addition to this causal model was by Schmidt, Hunter and Outerbridge, who added job

experience, which they found had an indirect effect on work performance, because ability and job

experience have a direct impact on job knowledge, work performance and performance on work sample

tests.

These models started to add more importance to the role of personality variables as part of work

performance criteria.

2. Later models of work performance measurement

Following Project A, which was a major research project into the relationship between personality and

work behaviour, Borman, White, Pulakos and Oppler verified Hunter's 1983 model.

However, they obtained far better correlations with work performance measures by adding to the model

the factors of achievement orientation, dependability awards and disciplinary infractions for problem

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behaviour. These, findings highlighted personality as an important determinant of supervisory ratings of

work performance and also indicated how dependability determines the acquisition of job knowledge.

In an expansion on their model, Borman, White and Dorsey, in a study with military employees, added

other personality factors: dependability, agreeableness (friendliness), obnoxiousness and show or flare.

These personality factors were correlated for their impact on overall measures of work performance by

supervisory and peer ratings.

Only agreeableness was found to have no influence on supervisory and peer ratings of work performance

and was left out of the model.

Their model explained more of the variance with overall supervisory and peer ratings.

The 1995 study by Borman et al was criticised for research flaws, for example inadequate theory and

criterion measures, and assessing only military employees.

In a civilian sample where customer contact is often more important, agreeableness could have been a

good predictor of work performance, especially if teamwork was used as a job performance measure in

place of overall job performance.

These findings illustrate the importance of well-selected measures and careful scrutiny of predictor and

criterion measures for types of jobs and situations in order to find models which can be valid in specific

and general applications, but which are also integrative in the sense that they consider all possible

determinants of work performance.

3. Newer directions in work-related personality research

More current theoretical and research emphasis includes outcome variables for individual and group level

criteria, dynamic or changing criteria, and typical versus maximum performance work performance

criteria.

For predictor or independent variables, the emphasis is on compound or multiple variables and the more

specific analysis and measurement of personality factors and their relationship to specific work

performance criteria across jobs and situations.

Other predictor variables that are emphasised are group-level predictors, situational variables, job fit,

culture and research settings.

New directions in work-related personality research also consider the influence of other types of research

variables which influence relationships, for example moderator and other types of influences.

Other personality theories and taxonomies (classifications) of personality traits are also emphasised in

current and future research.

Methods to measure personality and its attributes are continually scrutinised, for example measurement

issues like item theory bandwidths of measurements, cross-cultural considerations and assessment,

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instructions.

In methodology an important emphasis is multilevel assessment and analysis, while social and legal

issues should always be considered in a changing work and assessment environment.

Some of these issues are highlighted in some detail under the headings below.

(a) Dependent variables

Current and future perspectives in research and practice include the following emphasis on a more specific

analysis of criterion or outcome variables:

Individual-level

o criteria that is measuring the work performance of individual employees on more than overall

measures or ratings of job performance.

o These more specific outcome measures may be criteria or outcomes like counterproductive

behaviours, contextual performance, task performance etc.

o These factors further demonstrate that personality-related measures can be used as work

performance or outcome criteria.

Group-level outcomes

o Jackson describes six team effectiveness criteria: problem-solving, task execution, creative

decision-making, internal group processes, group stability and external liaison.

o Cohen and Bailey use another classification of group or team effectiveness, namely performance,

attitudinal and behavioural outcomes – which may integrate most of Jackson's criteria. These two

classifications obviously overlap in variables, but each model (and a possible integration of both)

should still be verified further.

o Taggar, however, found that underlying group processes may modify the interface between

individual-level creativity and group-level creativity.

Dynamic criteria

o That is how the variance or relationship between work performance criteria changes.

o This is particularly important because in many human resources practices the same predictor and

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outcome measures are often used for long periods, while many change and transformation processes

may have occurred in the nature of work and working environments.

It is also essential to establish whether performance or outcome criteria can be described as typical compared to maximum performance measures.

(b) Independent variables

The analysis of group-level personality predictor variables indicated that groups high on certain big five

personality traits (for example extroversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness to

experience) correlated significantly with relationship conflict and work performance in the group. However,

the types of groups and tasks may also influence the relationship between personality and behaviour or

performance in the group.

Situational variables may, and mostly do, influence personality traits and behaviour. Situational issues

which have been found to impact on the relationship between personality and work performance are

types of tasks, types of teams, types of jobs or job characteristics, person-job fit, culture and the research

settings.

4. Other directions in work-related personality research

One future perspective is the function of personality variables.

Another direction of research is the development of new personality theories and taxonomies for

personality structure, and also new measurement techniques.

According to Barrick and Ryan, models of work performance will also benefit by making more use of

predictor concepts in other types of personality theories for the prediction of work performance, a

requirement being that such concepts can be adequately verified and measured.

With regard to personality measurement methods, a renewed emphasis will have to be given to

assessment strategies, measurement accuracy and alternative ways of measuring personality.

Cross-cultural assessment also remains an important measurement issue as a consequence of diverse

work groups and employment of ``alien'' or culturally estranged employees.

Work-related personality measurements and research models should continually determine the effects of

test instructions and other test-taking behaviours, like participants who are trained in measurement

methods and constructs, and test responses which indicate faking or socially desirable behaviour.

The emphasis on multiple-level assessment is an important development because it brings in an

integrative and systems perspective, and not only single determinants like the individual employee or the

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organisation.

A last issue concerns certain social, ethical and legal requirements amidst increasing diversity in the

workforce, and pressure for non-discriminatory assessment, research and related issues.

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Two methods of using research to predict work behaviour or performance were identified by Furham (1992; 1997). Identify one method and with an aid of a diagram, discuss such method. 10

Make visual presentations of the adapted Furnham models for work-related personality research and describe all the applicable variables. 25

A research model

Furnham asserts that many of the abovementioned approaches, and considerable research on work-related

personality variables, are theoretically and methodologically poor. For this reason he suggests a research and

assessment model to illustrate the complex possibilities in the relationships between personality/individual

differences and work-related variables. Figure 2.2 illustrates most of the personality or individual differences which

are mostly used in assessment for personnel selection in order to predict occupational behaviour.

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Furnham's model explains the interaction between personality and work behaviour according to four paths.

Firstly the relationship between personality factors and work or organisational variables is not direct and

can be influenced by many other factors. This line indicates a two-way relationship between personality

and work. Personality or work factors can have mutual or interactional influence; personality may

influence work behaviours or create the predisposition for them, but work variables may in turn influence

the expression or functioning of personality through the process of socialisation in organisations. This

relationship between personality factors and work-related behaviours is indirect and multi-causal. This

makes the exact prediction of work-related personality behaviours extremely difficult.

Block B illustrates the possible mechanisms, processes or phenomena according to which work-related

personality behaviour can be explained, measured and studied. These concepts (sometimes very

complex or very simplistic) make it possible, for example, to relate the concepts of locus of control, self-

efficacy introversion, extroversion and conscientiousness or a whole system of traits, (such as the 16

personality factors measured by the 16PF) to certain occupational behaviours.

The relationship between personality and work variables is further influenced by organisational

behaviours (block C) like certain structures, selection and other assessment procedures, informal and

formal ways and rules of doing things, and reward systems. All these factors mediate the contract or

relationship between employees and the organisation and its expectations: for some employees it may be

the ideal person-job fit, while others may experience misfit, incongruence or dissatisfaction because their

own profile and that of the organisation does not fit.

A fourth path is the influence of the broader environment on personality and organisational/work

performance in which the organisation and the individual exist. Individual differences stemming from

employee history and changes in surrounding environments (for example, political, economic and work

technology) will impact on employee personality and related behaviours. An example of these spill-over

effects is the work-home context in which family responsibilities have been shown to have work-related

consequences, such as absenteeism and turnover. Environmental demands may lead to products and

employees being less efficient in their job performance, with the resultant job losses and other health

problems.

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With examples, describe at least four types of work performance criteria. 15

Work performance criteria can be classified into hard and soft data

Soft criteria Hard criteriaWork habits: absenteeism, doctor visits, tardiness,

lateness, violations of specific rules, excessive breaks

Output: units produced, items assembled or sold,

profits/money made, patients visited, loans approved,

students graduated/passed

Work climate: number of grievances or other

complaints, employee turnover

Costs: budget/unit costs, operating costs, amount of

savings, sales expenses

Attitudes/feelings: attitude changes, job

role/responsibility perceptions, measures of loyalty

commitment,

Time: equipment down time, overtime, task completion

time, time waste (e. g. absences, lateness, lost days),

work stoppages

Skills: decisions made, problems solved,

grievances/complaints solved, use of new skills

Quality: scrap/waste/rejects, error rates, shortages,

work repeat, volume of tasks completed, number of

accidents, deviations from standards

Initiative: number of new ideas/suggestions, using new

ideas/suggestions, successful completion of tasks

Development/advancement: number of promotions,

number of merit pay increases, training programmes

attended, transfer requests, performance appraisal

ratings

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By referring to research cited in this study unit (or other information), briefly state why you agree or disagree with the following statement: “Personality was and still is a very poor predictor of work performance”. 15

The history of work-related personality research has entrenched various applications of personality assessment in

the work context; moreover, it has shown that personality assessment is a significant predictor of work performance. Current emphasis on improved analyses of the theoretical or measurement constructs for

personality and work performance criteria, more accurate assessment techniques and better research procedures

have led to a renewed interest in the place of personality research and assessment in the work life, and to an

increase in positive results in the relationship or correlations between personality factors and work performance

criteria.

Whereas in the past, jobs were based on the industrialised economy that emphasized assessment of physical,

motor and intellectual abilities, the modern economic and work environment emphasises team work, change and

diversity in jobs, jobs have more of a service orientation, information and digital contents are the order of the day

and the world of work has become, globalised. The modern world of work will demand increasingly new and

updated competencies and behavioural models to understand human behaviour in the work context. It seems as if

personality factors and competencies to cope with and adjust to ever-changing work environments, to be flexible

and respond quickly to modern business requirements, to deal with diversity in workforces, effective interpersonal

skills, self-management, and entrepreneurship and organisational citizenship behaviours may be emphasised in

future jobs and in research and assessment of work-related personality correlates. Though still existing in many

work environments, stable job and career descriptions are now being replaced by expectancies of being more

flexible and adaptable with just-in-time competencies.

A last issue – while the literature has provided a great deal of proof of the efficient role of individual difference

factors in predicting the work performance of individual employees, much less has been done in group- and

organisational-level performance criteria. This may represent a difference of perception and emphasis between

work-related personality theorists and researchers, and may explain why in many cases organisational

management doubt the use of personality measures.

Conclusion: I therefore disagree with the above statement on the grounds that personality differences may have

been insignificant during the industrial era but now during the information and service era there is a great

correlation between success in certain types of jobs and certain types of personalities.

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Explain factors which may influence work-related personality research. 10

INFLUENCING FACTORS ON WORK-RELATED PERSONALITY RESEARCH

Many factors, controlled or uncontrolled, may influence the relationship between personality and / or individual

differences and work behaviour.

The way in which research variables are conceptualised.

The manner in which research variables are measured with well-designed or selected measures; whether

these techniques measure what they are supposed to measure.

Whether well-designed or selected measures are used to measure variables which will provide more or

less similar or consistent results in various situations.

The execution of faulty research processes, for example comparing research groups which are not

necessarily comparable, incorrect statistical analyses and not controlling confounding variables

The way in which the relationship or causal patterns between personality and work performance are

interpreted will determine the assumptions made in the literature and in applying such findings in

practices such as selection, promotion assessment and research

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Briefly describe methods to assess or measure work performance. 15

CLASSIFYING AND MEASURING WORK-RELATED CRITERIA

Job performance criteria

There are many ways to classify and measure work performance criteria. However, the same rules for scientific

measurement should also apply here. Many problems in applying criteria work-related to personality assessment

are the result of vague and inaccurate work performance criteria, and the way they are conceptualised and

measured.

Hackman and Lawler proposed a very useful classification, classifying work performance criteria in four main

dimensions: variety, autonomy, task identity and feedback. If these attributes receive high priority in jobs,

employees with a good sense of accomplishment and growth will experience work as meaningful with high job

satisfaction, will be less absent and will be rated highly by their supervisors. Another important issue in measuring

work performance is the rules set out by Smith, which still apply Performance measures or ratings should be

executed shortly after the actual job behavior has taken place, and performance measures may be on a specific

aspect of job performance (for example, satisfaction with salary) or on overall work performance (for example,

applying a measure for general work satisfaction which includes many aspects of job performance and the

organisation). Smith also indicates that work performance measures should be as close as possible to the

organisational goals at three levels:

Behaviours refer to actual observed or measured work behaviours, for example volume and accuracy in

completing a task or product.

Results refer to the effectiveness or quality of the work behaviours involved in completed work, for

example indicators by objective measures of absence and work speed.

Organisational effectiveness may include behaviour and results measures of all employees and other

measures for business success, for example whether business goals (such as budget, sales, profit) were

achieved.

Work performance criteria can also be classified into hard and soft data, which can be measured as

presented in the table below.

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Work performance criteria can be classified into hard and soft data

Soft criteria Hard criteria

Work habits: absenteeism, doctor visits, tardiness,

lateness, violations of specific rules, excessive breaks

Output: units produced, items assembled or sold,

profits/money made, patients visited, loans approved,

students graduated/passed

Work climate: number of grievances or other

complaints, employee turnover

Costs: budget/unit costs, operating costs, amount of

savings, sales expenses

Attitudes/feelings: attitude changes, job

role/responsibility perceptions, measures of loyalty

commitment,

Time: equipment down time, overtime, task completion

time, time waste (e. g. absences, lateness, lost days),

work stoppages

Skills: decisions made, problems solved,

grievances/complaints solved, use of new skills

Quality: scrap/waste/rejects, error rates, shortages,

work repeat, volume of tasks completed, number of

accidents, deviations from standards

Initiative: number of new ideas/suggestions, using new

ideas/suggestions, successful completion of tasks

Development/advancement: number of promotions,

number of merit pay increases, training programmes

attended, transfer requests, performance appraisal

ratings

Methods to obtain criteria scores

To obtain work performance scores or indicators the hard and soft criteria data can be used in any one or a

combination of many methods as follows:

Counts on personnel and organisational records of factors such as illness, lateness, absences, turnover,

accidents, profits, work stoppages, duration of employment and number of complaints from clients

Specific inventories to measure certain types of job performance or behaviours

Supervisory ratings on specific or general aspects of work performance, for example general work

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performance and promotability

Various types of performance appraisal (for example by management and colleagues)

Profits/income and other organisational success criteria

Productivity volumes in organisations

Behavioural observations and ratings, for example of leadership behaviour

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Personality theories are also associated with individual difference. Discuss personality theories and indicate each theory’s contribution to the uniqueness of each person (individual differences). 15

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With examples, briefly explain how research variables can be identified according to various psychological theories or approaches. (10 marks – Oct 10 exam)

A variable is a characteristic that can vary or change in interaction with other variables or situations e.g. learning can change according to different teaching methods. Personality factors are usually used as independent variables which will influence the dependant variable. Personality variables can be defined and measured in various dimensions:

a Single or multiple traitso Only one specific personality trait is measured within a trait system

b Cognitive and biologically based traitso Here work related traits are measured according to a cognitive approach e.g. problem solving

and learning styles.o Some personality traits have been verified to have a genetic, biological or physiological basis

c Normal and abnormal traitso Many personality techniques are used to measure “normal” personality traits or behaviour.

Sometimes the use of more clinically oriented assessment techniques to assess the intensity and frequency of certain “abnormal” behaviour is needed.

d Dynamic versus stylistic traitso In assessing dynamic traits we try to determine possible deep-seated needs, fears and conflicts.

These should be determined by skilled psychologists through in-depth interviews and other observation techniques.

Because employee personality is influenced by many environmental and organizational factors, work-related measures were developed and applied to find personality predictors of specific work behaviours. There are 4 different types of measures:

a Narrow versus wide measureso Predicting a specific work behaviour e.g. absenteeism compared to behaviours that could

include various sub facets e.g. productivity and job satisfaction

b Single vs multiple traitso Measuring one specific trait or behaviour e.g. anxiety

c Self-report versus behavioural measureso Using personality questionnaires or behavioural techniques e.g. biodata, observing behaviour,

taking physiological measures

d Attitudinal versus attributional measureso Surveying attitudes, perceptions and beliefs about the working environment.

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The Biographical/case study research model uses personality profiles of outstanding individuals to examine work success criteria.

a Individual versus group studieso A group study is the analyses of business groups and analyzing the attributes of training

institutions or work organizations where outstanding individuals worked or studied. Entrepreneurial profiles are often constructed from psychological attributes, successful work behaviour, a person’s background and their business environment and organisation they work in.

b Monetary versus other success criteriao It is not easy to decide on which criteria to use to define excellence in a specific case.

c Impressionistic versus scholarlyo Successful entrepreneurs are often profiled in a vague, romantic and subjective way, while

some other criteria could be more concrete and objective in referring to specific successful behaviours and outcomes.

This approach has an intuitive attraction as biographers often present successful individuals in a subjective, intuitive and idealistic way that reflects dreamlike desires.

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