█ What determines a person’s status in society?

A Look Ahead

█ How do our social roles affect our social interactions?

█ What is the place of social institutions such as the family, religion and government in our social structure?

█ How can we better understand and manage large organizations?

Social Interaction and Reality

█ Response to someone’s behavior based on meaning attached to his or her actions– Ability to define social reality reflects

group’s power within society

Subordinate groups challengetraditional definitions and begin to

perceive/experience reality in new way

Social Interaction and Reality

Social Structure: The way in which a society is organized into predictable relationships.

Social structure is essential because it creates order and predictability in a society

Social structure gives us the ability to interpret the social situations we encounter.

Elements of Social Structure Statuses

█ Status: Socially defined positions within a large group or society– Person can hold more than

one status at same time

Ascribed and Achieved Status

█ Ascribed status: Status one is born with█ Achieved status: Status one earns█ Master status: Status that dominates

other statuses and determines a person’s general position in society

In U.S., ascribed statuses of race and gender can function as master statuses

Elements of Social Structure█ Figure 5.1: Social Statuses

Social Roles Social roles are sets of expectations for

people who occupy a given status

Role Conflict Role conflict is the challenge of occupying

two social positions simultaneously

Social Roles

█ Social role: Set of expectations for people who occupy a given status

█ Role conflict: When incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by same person

█ Role strain: Difficulties that arise when same social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations

– Doubt– Search

for alternatives

– Action stage– Creation of a

new identity

Social Roles

█ Role exit: Process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s identity to establish a new role

Groups

Any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with each other on a regular basis

Every society composed of many groups in which daily social interaction takes place

Primary group: small group with intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation

Secondary group: impersonal groups with little social intimacy or mutual understanding

Table 5-1: Comparison of Primary and Secondary Groups

Generally small Usually large

Relatively long period Relatively short duration,of interaction often temporary

Intimate, face-to-face Little social intimacy orassociation mutual understanding

Some emotional depth Relationships generallyto relationships superficial

Cooperative, friendly More formal and impersonal

Primary Group Secondary Group

In-Groups and Out-Groups

In-groups: any groups or categories to which people feel they belong

Out-groups: any groups or categories to which people feel they do not belong

Conflict between in-groups and out-groups can turn violent on a personal as well as

political level

Tension between groups sharpen the groups’ boundaries and give people a clearer social identity.

In-group promotes solidarity and sense of purpose and belonging

In-groups can also foster ethnocentrism

Members of in-groups generally hold overly positive views of themselves and unfairly negative views of various out-groups

The result is prejudice where a double standard emerges:

The traits of our in-groups come to be viewed as virtues, while those same traits in out-groups are seen as vices

Studying Small Groups

Size of Group Groups size has an important impact on the nature

of social interaction The smallest group size is know as a Dyad a two-

member group Triad: A three-member group Smaller groups have greater interaction

opportunities

Understanding Groups

Studies have shown that the smaller the group, the more direct, personally satisfying and emotionally intense the interaction.

One side effect of small groups is that they require continuing active participation, thus making it a fragile relationship

As group size increases, interaction decreases but stability increases.

Understanding Groups

Physical Anonymity As the size of the group increases, so does physical

anonymity Group conformity is also more likely to take place.

Group Conformity

Solomon Asch (1952) - conducted a study of visual perception

One-third of all subjects chose to conform by answering incorrectly.

Are we willing to compromise our own judgment to avoid the discomfort of being different?

“Groupthink”

Groupthink - the tendency of group members to conform, resulting in a narrow view of some issue

Group members often seek agreement that closes off other points of view.

- Space Shuttle

- Iraq war

Reference Groups█ Reference group: Any group individuals use for

evaluating their own behavior

Reference Groups

Reference groups set and enforce standards of conduct and belief

Reference groups serve as a standard against which people can evaluate themselves and others

Social Networks and Technology A social network is a series of social relationships

that links a person directly to others, and indirectly links them to still more people.

A network includes people we know of – or who know of us

Network ties often give us the sense that we live in a small world

Milgram study – six degrees of separation

Virtual Worlds

█ With advances in technology, people can maintain social networks electronically

– Avatar: 3-D model, 2-D icon, or constructed personality provided by an Internet site

– Castells views electronic social networks as fundamental to new organizations and growth of existing businesses and associations

Networking is a valuable skill to have when job-hunting Advances in technology, such as browsing web

pages or text-messaging, help us to maintain social networks.

Social InstitutionsOrganized patterns of beliefs and behavior

centered on basic social needsSocial institutions provide insight into the

structure of societyFunctionalist View

Five major tasks (functional prerequisites)

1. Replacing personnel

2. Teaching new recruits

3. Producing and distributing goods and services

4. Preserving order

5. Providing and maintaining a sense of purpose

Social Institutions

Conflict View Major institutions help maintain privileges of

most powerful individuals and groups within society

Social institutions have inherently conservative nature

Social institutions operate in gendered and racist environments

Hunting-and- Beginning of Nomadic; reliance on readily available gathering human life food and fibers

Horticulture About 10,000 to More settled; development of agriculture12,000 years ago and limited technology

Agrarian About 5,000 years Larger, more stable settlements; ago improved technology and increased crop

yields

Industrial 1760-1850 Reliance on mechanical power and newsources of energy; centralized workplaces; economic interdependence; formal education

Post 1960s Reliance on services, especially the industrial processing and control of information;

expanded middle class

Postmodern Latter 1970s High technology; mass consumption of consumer goods and media images; cross-

cultural integrations

Societal type First appearance Characteristics

Table 5-3: Stages of Sociocultural Evolution

Ferdinand Tönnie’s Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft

Gemeinschaft (guh-MINE-shoft) Gemeinschaft is defined as a small community in

which people have similar backgrounds and life experiences.

Gesellschaft (guh-ZELL-shoft) Gesellschaft is defined as a large community in

which people are strangers and feel little in common with other community residents

Table 5-3: Comparison of the Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft

Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach

█ Postindustrial and Postmodern Societies

– Postindustrial society: Economic system engaged primarily in processing and controlling information

– Postmodern society: Technologically sophisticated society preoccupied with consumer goods and media images

Regulating the Net

█ The Issue

– Technological innovations changed the way we shop and share information

– Can communicate with others instantaneously online

– People who use complex communication system without understanding underlying technology create potential for misuse

Regulating the Net

█ The Setting

– Internet is especially important to young people’s interactions• By 2005, 87% of those ages 12 to 17

had used the Internet• 11 million teens went online everyday• Majority of teens now text-message or

visit online social networking sites

Regulating the Net

█ Sociological Insights– Internet not a level playing field– Conflict theorists documented gap between

White and Black or Hispanic youths using electronic communication

– Interactionists investigated implications of online communication for everyday social interaction

– Feminist researchers noted that females embrace Internet more than men

Regulating the Net

█ Policy Initiatives– Self-regulation outstripping

government regulation– Net neutrality: Government should

remain nonselective or neutral toward online content

– Concern that information gathered over Internet is being shared in ways unknown to online users

Figure 5-2: Identity Information Revealed Online by College Students