000 pps 23 nov 2012 - research design(1)

8/17/2019 000 Pps 23 Nov 2012 - Research Design(1)

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RESEARCH DESIGN

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Four Functions of Research

1. Basic: research designed to test or rene theory

2. Applied: research conducted in a eld ofcommon practice and concerned with the

application and development of research basednowledge

!. Action: research designed to solve a specicclassroom or school problem" improve practice"or mae a decision at a single local site

#. $valuation: research designed to assess themerit and worth or a specic practice in termsof the values operating at a site

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%erbe&aan perlasanaan a'ianonvensional ( a'ian tindaan

)a'ian onvensional

1. Baca literatur

2. )enalpasti masalah

!. *b'etif a'ian

#. +oalan a'ian,. )umpul data

-. Analisa data

. )esimpulan

/. %eneanan pd metodologihasnya reabentu a'ian0 instrumentasi esahan (ebolehpercayaan

Kajian tindakan

1. Kenalpasti masalah (dengan bukti

– kumpul data tinjauan awal)

2. Baca literatur

3. Rancang penyelesaian4. Laksana

. Kumpul data

!. "nalisa data

#. Re$leksi

%. &lang semula 'ilin kedua (jikapelu)

. 'enekanan kpd penyelesaian

masalah tanpa genealisasi ke

setting lain

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– What--What was studied? – What about--What aspects of

the subject were studied? – What for--What is/was the

significance of the study?

– What did prior lit./research say?

– What was done--How was the

study conducted?

– What was found? – So what? – What now?

1. *nt+ducti+n,

Reseach '+blems-

bjecti/es, 0 usti$icati+n

2. Liteatue Re/iew

3. eth+d+l+gy(Reseach sample, data

c+llecti+n, measuement, data analysis)

4. Results 0 iscussi+n

. *mplicati+ns

!. +nclusi+ns and

Rec+mmendati+ns $+ 5utue Reseach

PRO!SS O" #!S$%&$&% ' O()$&% ' R!S!'RHPRO*!) +

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Research as +cienticnuiry6 +cientic inuiry is the search for

nowledge using recogni&ed methods indata collection" analysis" and

interpretation

6 3he purpose of scientic inuiry is todevelop nowledge

1. 4escribe phenomena2. $5amine empirical relationships

between or among phenomena

!. 3est whether such relationships are

causal in nature


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$ducational Research

6 6ac of a single" appropriatemethodological approach to studyeducation

6 3wo ma'or approaches – 7uantitative

– 7ualitative

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Quantitative Qualitative

8oals tests theory"

establishes facts"shows relationships"predicts" orstatistically describes

develops grounded

theory" developsunderstanding"describes multiplerealities" capturesnaturally occurringbehavior

Research design highly structured"formal" and specic

unstructured" 9e5ible"evolving

%articipants many participantsrepresentative of thegroups from whichthey were chosenusing probabilisticsampling techniues

few participants chosenusing nonprobabilisticsampling techniues forspecic characteristicsof interest to theresearchers

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Quantitative Qualitative

Researcher;s role detached" ob'ective

observers of events

participant observers

reporting participant;sperspectivesunderstood only afterdeveloping longterm"close" trustingrelationships with

participants


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BAB !: =$3*4*6*8

!.1 %engenalan

!.2 Rea Bentu )a'ian6 $sperimental6 Buan $sperimental

6 =engawal >$5traneous ?ariable@ esahan dalaman (luaran

!.! %opulasi dan +ampel6 Cenis" 'umlah dan taburan populasi

6 Cumlah dan aedah pemilihan sampel 0 sesuai dgn reabentu a'ian

6 )aedah persampelan selari dgn soalan a'ian

!.# nstrumen )a'ian6 Cenis instrumen

6 +umber intrumen 0 ebenaran penggunaan ( alih bahasa

6 )esahan dan ebolehpercayaan

6 %entadbiran instrumen


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BAB !: =$3*4*6*8

!., %rosedur )a'ian6 6angahlangah dalam mengurus D mentadbir penyelidian

!.- %engumpulan 4ata6 %rosedur pengumpulan data

!. Analisis 4ata+tatisti desriptif ( inferensi

6 %rogram statisti diguna

6 Cenis analisis data

6 Aras +ignian u'ian statisti

!./ E'ian Rintis6 =engu'i esahan dan ebolehpercayaan instrumen

6 +ampel dpd populasi yang tida terlibat dalam a'ian sebenar

!. Rumusan

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BAB #: AGA6++ 4AG 4A%A3AG

#.1 %engenalan

#.2 %engurusan 4ata6


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6 4iHerentiating characteristics – 8oals

6 7uantitative: tests theory" establishes facts" showsrelationships" predicts" or statistically describes

6 7ualitative: develops grounded theory" developsunderstanding" describes multiple realities" capturesnaturally occurring behavior

– Research design6 7uantitative: highly structured" formal" and specic

6 7ualitative: unstructured" 9e5ible" evolving

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6 4iHerentiating characteristics – %articipants

6 7uantitative: many participants representative of thegroups from which they were chosen using probabilisticsampling techniues

6 7ualitative: few participants chosen using nonprobabilisticsampling techniues for specic characteristics of interestto the researchers

– 4ata" data collection" and data analysis6 7uantitative: numerical data collected at specic times

from tests or surveys and analy&ed statistically6 7ualitative: narrative data collected over a long period of

time from observations and interviews and analy&ed usinginterpretive techniues

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6 4iHerentiating characteristics – Researcher;s role

6 7uantitative: detached" ob'ective observers of events

6 7ualitative: participant observers reporting participant;s

perspectives understood only after developing longterm"close" trusting relationships with participants

–


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Major Types of ResearchStudies

6 Experimental: A type of researchused to establish causeandeHectrelationships by manipulating

variablesDtreatments

6 !servational"#orrelational: Atype of research that measures two

or more variables and loos to seehow the variables are related to eachother.

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#lasses of Research $esi%n

1. %ree5perimental

2. $5perimental!. 7uasie5perimental

#. $5 %ost Facto

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&re'Experimental$esi%ns:(o #ontrol )roup and"orRandomi*ation

1. *neshot case study2. *negroup pretestposttest design

!. ntactgroup comparison

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True Experimental $esi%ns:

#ontrol )roup + Randomi*ation

1. %osttestonly controlgroupdesign

2. %retestposttest control

group design!. Factorial e5perimental design

1%


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Quasi'Experimental $esi%ns:

#ontrol )roup But (o Randomi*ation

1. Goneuivalent control groupdesign

2. 3imeseries designs

!. *thers

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Ex'&ost ,acto $esi%ns:Researcher -rrives -fter Treatment s )iven

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3ypes of Research 4esigns

3 e s c ( i p t i / e

4 + m p a ( a t i / e

4 + ( ( e l a t i + n a l

4 a u s a l 4 + m p a ( a t i / e

8 + n 9 : ; p e ( i m e n t a l

< ( u e

= u a s i

> i n g l e > u b j e c t

: ; p e ( i m e n t a l

= u a n t i t a t i / e

4 a s e > t u d y

' h e n + m e n a + l + g y

: t h n + g ( a p h y

? ( + u n d e d < h e + ( y

= u a l i t a t i / e

4 + n c e p t " n a l y s i s

@ i s t + ( i c a l " n a l y s i s

" n a l y t i c a l > t u d y 2 i ; e d 2 e t h + d

R e s e a ( c h 3 e s i g n s

+pyight A "llyn 0 Bac+n 277%21


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7uantitative 4esigns

6 3wo ma'or categories – $5perimental

6 3he investigation of causal eHects through

direct manipulation of an independentvariable and control of e5traneous variables

– Gone5perimental6 3he investigation of the current state of a

variable or the relationships" other thancausal" between variables

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6 An e5ample of an e5perimental design

– Randomly assign students to one of twoclassrooms in which the same social studiesunit is being taught. 3each the rst class usingthe traditional lecture approach" the secondclass using cooperative learning groups.$5amine the achievement diHerences betweenthe two groups to see if the type of >approach@

to instruction had an eHect.

– 3his study is characteri&ed by the investigationof cause instructional approach and eHect

achievement" manipulation choice of23


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6 4iHerentiating the three types of e5perimentaldesigns

1. 3rue e5perimental Random assignment ofsub'ects to groups

2. 7uasie5perimental Gonrandom assignment ofsub'ects to groups

!. %ree5perimental 0 one shot case study" prepost#. +ingle sub'ect Gonrandom selection of a single

sub'ect

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E/&ERME(T-0 $ES)(S

6 RES0T: +ignicant mprovement from *1 to *2i.e." sig. *2 *1 diHerence

6 QEST(: 4id I the drug cause theimprovementJ

One of the simplest experimental designs is the ONE GROUP PRETEST-POSTTEST DESIGN--EXAMPLE?

One way to examine Efficacy of a Drug:

O1 X O2

Measure DRUG Measure

Patients’ ondition Experimental Patients’ ondition

!Pretest" ondition# !Posttest"

inter$ention

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E/&ERME(T-0 $ES)(S

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E/&ERME(T-0 $ES)(S

– Geed proper form of controlLe.g." %lacebo.

R Exp. )roup 1E / 2E R #trl )roup 1# &lace!o 2#

6 QEST(:


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E/&ERME(T-0 $ES)(S

Experimental studies need to control for potentialconfoundin% factors that may threaten internal validityof the experiment:

– 3a4thorne E5ect is only one potential confounding factorin e5perimental studies.

*ther such factors are: – 3istory6

6 Biasing events that occur between pretest and posttest

– Maturation66 %hysicalDbiologicalDpsychological changes in the sub'ects

– Testin%66 $5posure to pretest in9uences scores on posttest

– nstrumentation6

6 Flaws in measurement instrumentDprocedure2%


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E/&ERME(T-0 $ES)(S

Experimental studies need to control for potentialconfoundin% factors that may threaten internal validity

of the experiment 7#ontinued8:

– Selection66 +ub'ects in e5perimental ( control groups diHerent from the start

– Statistical Re%ression 7re%ression to4ard the mean866 +ub'ects selected based on e5treme pretest values

– Experimental Mortality66 4iHerential dropout of sub'ects from e5perimental and control groups

during the study

– Etc.6 $5perimental designs mostly used in natural and physical sciences.

6 8enerally" higher internal validity" lower e5ternalvalidity

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31

C i b t


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Cenis reabentuesperimen

-. Re9a!entu9 satu pem!olehu!ah meli!at9an satu pu !ersandarshj.1. Rekabentuk pra-eksperimental 0 o tida

awalD malaran pu estraneous 0 wa'ardielaan.

2. Rekabentuk eksperimental tulen oawalan yg lebih tinggi melalui penugasan

rawa3. Rekabentuk eksperimen kuasi guna

umpulan2 sedia ada lebih bai dpd praesperimen tp tida sebai esperimentulen

B. Re9a!entu9 fa9torial ' meli!at9an 232


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Reabentu esperimen pra%ra 0 pasca tanpa umpulan awalan

*1 I *2

Reabentu esperimen uasi%ra 0 pasca dengan umpulan

awalan intact group 0 umpulansedia ada tanpa penugasan rawaD

random assignment*1 I1 *2*! I2 *#

Reabentu esperimen tulen%ra 0 pasca dengan umpulan

awalan pengagihan pd umpulanadalah secara penugasan rawa

R *1 I1 *2R *! I2 *#

)a'ian reabentu esperimenI 0 rawatanD treatment

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6 $5amples of none5perimental designs

– Appro5imately 1MN of 6ouisiana;s public school studentsdo not nish high school.

– 3he 8%A of students participating in e5tracurricular

activities is higher than that of student who do notparticipate

– +tudent attitude is moderately related to achievement

– +everal factors are related to the high dropout rate in6ouisiana. 3hese include the student;s age" academic

record" repetition of grades" gender" and ethnicity. – 3hese studies are characteri&ed by descriptions dropoutrate" 8%A diHerences" opinions or relationshipsattitudes and achievement" factors related to droppingout

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6 4iHerentiating the four types of none5perimental designs

1. 4escriptive =aes carefuldescriptions of the current situationor status of a variables of interest

2.


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E'i dan u'i semula

(ama murid jian 1 jian 2

Abu - /

Baar /


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)orelasi

6 %eraitan antara 2 sor u'ian muridyg sama

E'ian 1

E 'ian

2

3#


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)orelasi

6 =agnitud

6 Arah

3%

Correlatio Coe!!iciet "Pear#o$


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Correlatio Coe!!iciet "Pear#o$

r% &.' r% &.' r% -'.( r% '

RC anges $+m 91 (pe$ect negati/e c+elati+n) t+ 1 (pe$ect

p+siti/e c+elati+n)

6 66

6

66

6

66

66

6

6

6

6 6 6 6666

66 6

6

6

6666 6

66666

66 6

6 66

666

6

6 6

8+teC $uncti+ns ha/ing di$$eent sl+pes may ha/e

the same c+elati+n c+e$$icient3


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)orelasi

6


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#RRE0-T(-0 $ES)(S

6 3he design of choice in social sciences since the phenomenon

under study is usually not reproducible in a laboratory setting

6 Researcher has little or no control over study;s indep." dep.and the numerous potential confounding variables"

6 *ften the researcher concomitantly measures all the studyvariables e.g." independent" dependant" etc."

6 3hen e5amines the following types of relationships: – correlations among variables or – diHerences among groups"

6 nability to control for eHects of confounding variables maescausal inferences regarding relationships among variablesmore diOcult and" thus:

6 8enerally" higher e5ternal validity" lower internal validity

NON-EXPERIMENTAL)CORRELATIONAL DESIGNS

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#RRE0-T(-0 ST$ES


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#RRE0-T(-0 ST$ES

6 #ovariation Rule I and P must becorrelatedGecessary but not suOcient condition.

6 Temporal &recedence Rule f I is the cause" Pshould not occur until after I.

6 nternal ;alidity Rule Alternative plausiblee5planations of P and IP relationships should beruled out i.e." eliminate other possible causes. – n practice" this means e5ercising caution by

identifying potential confounding variables and

controlling for their eHects.

W-EN IS IT SA.ER TO IN.ER CA&SAL

LIN/A0ES .ROM STRON0 CORRELATIONS?:

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Paire* Sa+,le# Stati#tic#

ean 8 >td. e/iati+n >td. :+ ean

'ai 1 ,rete#t &2./ 37 2.3%7! .434

,o#tte#t &/.0 37 1.%1 .33%13

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Paire* Sa+,le# Te#t

'aied i$$eences

t d$ Si1. "2-taile*$ean

>td.e/iati+n

>td. :+ean

D +n$idence *nte/al +$ the

i$$eence

L+we &ppe

'ai 1 petest 9

p+sttest

9.1!!!# 3.2#73% .#7 9!.3%#% 93.44 9%.!3 2 .'''

Paire* Sa+,le# Stati#tic#

ean 8 >td. e/iati+n >td. :+ ean

'ai 1 ,rete#t &2./ 37 2.3%7! .434

,o#tte#t &/.0 37 1.%1 .33%13

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=G=E= =AR)+ /

=AI=E= =AR)+ 2M

A?$RA8$ =AR)+ 12

RAG8$ 12

=G=E= =AR)+ 1,=AI=E= =AR)+ 2M

A?$RA8$ =AR)+ 1/

RAG8$ ,

pretest

posttest

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)esimpulan analisis

6 Based on the provided analysis"the minimum mars scored bystudents after teacher initiatedlesson on *rder of Ad'ectives is1," while ma5imum is full mar of2M. 3he average mars is 1/ and

the diHerence between ma5imumand minimum mars is ,. Afterteacher conducted lesson on *rderof Ad'ectives" with e5posure usingvarious methods" most of studentsmanage to score up to 1/D2M andthe range between lowest andhighest mars decreased from /during pre test to ," 4hich is aclear indication that studentsunderstood 4ell the lesson.

6 >k+ pa adalah minE

12.3#, sp E 2.3% dan

sk+ pasca adalah

min1#.3, spE1.%.

8ilai pF.7, maka @+

dit+lak. *ni bemakna

tedapat peningkatan

sk+ yg signikan iaitu

pengajaan bejaya

4!


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7ualitative 4esigns

6 =uch less precision in the denitionsof and distinctions betweenualitative designs in comparison to

uantitative designs6 Four ma'or categories of designs

1.


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7ualitative 4esigns

6 inclusion@ for three disabled studentswho had been placed in a regulareducation setting.

6 3his study e5amines indepth aphenomena of interest to the researcheri.e." the meaning of inclusion in anatural conte5t viewing it from the

participant;s perspectives 4%


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7ualitative 4esigns

6 %henomenology – A description of the meaning of an

e5perience

6 3he purpose of this study was to e5aminethe meaning of being >left out@ for anadolescent

6 3his study e5amines indepth the

e5periences of being >left out@ from theperspectives of the adolescent e5periencingthis phenomena

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7ualitative 4esigns

6 $thnography

– A description the beliefs and practices of acultural or social group or system

6 3he purpose of this study was to identifyand describe the con9icts thate5perienced secondgrade teachersencountered as they switched from atraditional approach to teaching

mathematics to a constructivistsociological approach

6 3his study e5amines the beliefs andpractices of second grade teachers

e5periencing a common phenomena7


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7ualitative 4esigns

6 8rounded theory – A description of a conceptual understanding of

a particular phenomenon6 3he purpose of this study was to understand

the relationship of the bar to the teacherswho freuented it on Friday evenings. Qefound that teachers used the bar to facilitatetheir movement from >professional@ to>personal@ self.

6 3his study e5amined a phenomena ofinterest to the researcher i.e." teacherscongregating at a particular bar on Fridayevenings and developed a conceptualunderstanding of it.

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RESE-R#3 $ES)(

#(#0S( ;-0$T


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#lassi=cation of ;aria!les

6 ndependent ;aria!le: a variable that ismanipulated" measured or selected by theresearcher in order to observe its relation to thesub'ects Sresponse@ on another variable. An

antecedent condition.

6 $ependent ;aria!le: the variable that isobserved and measured in response to an

independent variable.6 ntervenin% ;aria!le: a hypothetical variable

that is not observed directly in the researchstudy" but is inferred from the relationship

between the independent and dependent3


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variables6 4ependent variable 3he values of the dependent variable depend upon

another variable" the independent variable.

6 ntervening variable A variable that e5plains a relation or provides acausal lin between other variables. Also called by some authors>mediating variable@ or >intermediary variable.@ $5ample: 3he statisticalassociation between income and longevity needs to be e5plained because

'ust having money does not mae one live longer. *ther variablesintervene between money and long life. %eople with high incomes tend to

have better medical care than those with low incomes. =edical care is anintervening variable. t mediates the relation between income andlongevity.

6 =ediating variable +ynonym for intervening variable. $5ample: %arentstransmit their social status to their children directly" but they also do soindirectly" through education: vi&. %arent;s status T child;s education Tchild;s status

6 =oderating variable A variable that in9uences" or moderates" the relationbetween two other variables and thus produces an interaction eHect

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+ala

6 sediit malumat

1. Gominal 0 lelaiD perempuan

2. *rdinal 0 1tida sua" 2sua" !sangat sua

!. nterval sela

#. Ratio nisbah6. Banya malumat


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Four 3ypes of =easurement +cales Figure .2,

!


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Four 3ypes of =easurement +cales 3able .2

easuement

>cale haacteistics

8+minal ?+ups and labels data +nlyG

ep+ts $eHuencies + pecentages.

dinal Ranks dataG uses numbes +nly t+

indicate anking.

*nte/al "ssumes that eHual di$$eences between

sc+es eally mean eHual di$$eences inthe /aiable used.

Rati+ "ll +$ the ab+/e, plus tue Ie+ p+int.

#


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Le4el o! Mea#ure+et

Characteristic Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

istincti/eness Jes Jes Jes Jes

deing in magnitude 8+ Jes Jes Jes

:Hual inte/als 8+ 8+ Jes Jes

"bs+lute Ie+ 8+ 8+ 8+ Jes


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A Gominal +cale of =easurement Figure .2-


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An *rdinal +cale: 3he Qinner of a Uorse Race Figure .2

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$escriptive Statistics

6 =ethods used to obtain indices thatcharacteri&e or summari&e datacollected

6 Focus is on the samples at hand6 +imple description of:

– ndividuals

–


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nferential Statistics

6 =ethods that allow the researcher togenerali&e the characteristics from aset of sample data to a larger

population.6


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=easurement error

6 $rror variancethe e5tent ofvariability in test scores that isattributable to error rather than a

true measure of behavior.

*bserved +coreVtrue score W error

variance(actual score obtained) (stable score)

(chance/random error)

(systematic error)

!3


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Alat mengumpul malumat

1. E'ian bertulis dan tida bertulis

2. +oal selidi

!. +enarai sema

#. +ala adar

,. Anedot

-. +osiogram

!4

?alidity Reliability and


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?alidity" Reliability" and*b'ectivity

6 ?alid nstrument 0 one which measures what itis supposed to measure

6 3he authors of this te5t say that this is an oldfashioned denition and propose that a more

accurate denition of validity revolves aroundthe defensibility of the inferences researchersmae from the data collected through the useof an instrument.

6All researchers want instruments that permitthem to draw warranted conclusions about thecharacteristics of the sub'ects they study.

6ALIDIT7

!

?alidity Reliability and


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?alidity" Reliability" and*b'ectivity

6 A reliable instrument is onewhich gives consistent

results.6 *b'ectivity refers to the

absence of sub'ective

'udgments.


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Esability6 3here are a number of practical considerations

every researcher needs to thin about. – Uow easy will it be to use any instruments that are

designedJ – Uow long will it tae to administerJ – Are the directions clearJ

– s it appropriate for the ethnic or other groups to whom itwill be administeredJ

– Uow easy is it to scoreJ – Uow easy is it to interpret the resultsJ – Uow much does it costJ

– 4o euivalent forms e5istJ – Uave any problems been reported by others who used itJ – 4oes evidence of its reliability and validity e5istJ

!#


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?alidity

6 3he accuracy of the measure inre9ecting the concept it is supposedto measure.

!%


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Reliability

6 +tability and consistency of themeasuring instrument.

6 A measure can be reliable without

being valid" but it cannot be validwithout being reliable.

!

,a9tor e!olehpercayaan


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1. %an'ang u'ian atau bilangan item. 6ebihbanya item atau lebih pan'ang u'ian" lebihtinggi ebolehpercayaan.

2. )epelbagaian ebolehan individu dalam

umpulan. )eheterogen 0 ebolehpercayaanlebih tinggi bagi heterogen berbandingumpulan homogen.

!. )ebolehan pela'ar yang mengambil u'ian.

Cia item terlalu suar 0 pela'ar aanmenea 'awapan menyebaban etealaneputusan rendah.

#7



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#. )aedah atau prosedur yang digunaan untu menganggarebolehpercayaan.


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1. >esahan >andun%an )esahan dari segi se'auhmana sesuatu u'ian mewaili andunganDsuatan

pela'aran yang telah dia'ar.2. >esahan Mu9a )esahan dari segi se'auh manasesuatu u'ian dapat menguur sesuatu onstrutertentu seperti yang dipersepsian oleh calonyang mendudui u'ian.

?. >esahan >riteria )esahan dari segi se'auhmana sesuatu u'ian mempunyai hubungandengan u'ian lain" sama ada yang ditadbiransecara serenta atau emudian. )eupaayaanmeramal 0 cth 8R$

@. >esahan >onstru9 )esahan dari segi se'auh

mana sesuatu u'ian dapat menguur sesuatuonstru tertentu.


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)inds of evidence forinstrument1.


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6 >esahan >onstru9 )esahan dari segise'auh mana sesuatu u'ian dapatmenguur sesuatu onstru tertentu.

6 >esahan >andun%an )esahan dari segise'auh mana sesuatu u'ian mewailiandunganDsuatan pela'aran yang telah

dia'ar.6 >esahan >riteria )esahan dari segise'auh mana sesuatu u'ian mempunyaihubungan dengan u'ian lain" sama adayang ditadbiran secara serenta atauemudian.

6 >esahan Mu9a )esahan dari segi se'auhmana sesuatu u'ian dapat menguursesuatu onstru tertentu seperti yang

dipersepsian oleh calon yang mendudui#4


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Face validity

6 Cust on its face the instrumentappears to be a good measure of theconcept. >intuitive" arrived at

through inspection@ – e.g. rate your

pain from 1 to [email protected] validity is sometimes considered a

subtype of content validity.7uestionis there any time when face validity is not

desirableJ #


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)esahan )onstru6 Entu menentuan se'auhmana pencapaian dalam u'ian

boleh ditafsir sebagai penting atau bermana untumenguur ualiti yang ingin diuur. Berguna untupembolehubah berbentu onsep dan tida dapat diuurdengan mudah seperti ecerdasan" ebimbangan" dan

personaliti.6 4alam aedah ini" ita perlu menentuan terlebih dahuluciriciri atau indiator untu menun'uan ualiti yangingin diuur.

6


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)esahan )onstru

6 Bagi menguur emahiran penaulan sains danpenyelesaian masalah pula" indiator yangboleh dipertimbangan termasulah

6 ebolehan menerangan alasan di sebali idea

6 menganalisis peraitan menggunaan graf"carta atau 'adual

6 menyelesaian soalan yang tiada langahpenyelesaian yang 'elas atau serta merta

6 menghuraian pemerhatian6 menyusun ob'e atau peristiwa dalam urutan

dan menyataan sebab.

##


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)esahan )riterion

6 Entu menentuan se'auhmana pencapaiandalam u'ian yang dibina boleh meramalanpencapaian pada masa depan riterionramalanX atau se'auhmana ia berait dengan

pencapaian u'ian lalu yang telah diauiesahannya riterion ramalanX atau u'ianlain lain pada masa yang sama riterionsemasa.


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%redictive validity

6 3he ability of one measure to predictanother future measure of the sameconcept.

f 7 predicts +A3" and +A3 predicts 7%A" then shouldn;t 7 predict7%A we could sip +A3s for admission decisions

f scores on a parenthood readiness scale indicate levels of integrity"trust" intimacy and identity couldn;t this test be used to predictsuccessful achievement of the devleopmental tass of adulthoodJ

3he researcher is usually looing for a more eOcient way tomeasure a concept.

%3

)inds of evidence for


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)inds of evidence forinstrument1.


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Reliability and ?alidity

Reliability – consistency of measurement across

time and 'udges?alidity

– $5tent to which scores on a test orinterview re9ect true diHerencesXmeasures what it purports to measure

%

Reliability and ?alidity


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Reliability and ?aliditycont.

Reliability does not indicate how useful themeasurement is

?alidity is limited by how reliable themeasurement is low reliability guarantees lowvalidity

f measurements are reliable" they mi%ht be valid

f measurements are not reliable" they cannot bevalid

f measurements are valid" they must be reliable

%!

R li bilit


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Reliability

f a measurement has high reliability"observed scores will be very close to

their true scoresAssessing reliability reuires analy&ing

the variability in a set of scores

3otal variance in ?ariance due ?ariance due

a set of scores V to true scores Wmeasurement error

%#

R li bilit


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Reliability cont.

Refers to the consistency of scores not peopleY

mportant to now values before you conductstudy –


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Assessing Reliability

Reliability V 3ruescore variance D 3otalvariance

Esually done via correlationcoeOcients which e5press thestrength of the relationship betweentwo variables

– ?alues can range from 1.MM to W1.MM

–


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Reliability6 Uomogeneity" euivalence and

stability of a measure over timeand sub'ects. 3he instrumentyields the same results over

repeated measures and sub'ects.$5pressed as a correlation coeOcient degree ofagreement between times and sub'ects M toW1.

Reliability coeOcient e5presses the relationshipbetween error variance" true variance and theobserved score.

3he higher the reliability coeOcient" the lowerthe error variance. 3enceA the hi%her the

7

+tability


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+tability

6 3he same results are obtained overrepeated administration of theinstrument.

– 3estrestest reliability – parallel" euivalent or alternate forms

1

3est Retest reliability


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3estRetest reliability

6 3he administration of the sameinstrument to the same sub'ects twoor more times under similar conditionsnot

before and after treatment6 +cores are correlated and e5pressed

as a %earson r. usually .M acceptable

2

% ll l lt t f


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%arallel or alternate forms

reliability6 %arallel or alternate forms of a testare administered to the sameindividuals and scores are correlated.

6 3his is desirable when the researcherbelieves that repeated administrationwill result in >testwiseness@

+ample: @ am able to tell my partner how feel@ >=y partner tries to understand my feelings@

3

Uomogeneity


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Uomogeneity

6 nternal consistency unidimensional – temtotal correlations

– splithalf reliability

– )uderRichardson coeOcient –


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tem to total correlations

6 $ach item on an instrument iscorrelated to total scorean itemwith low correlation may be deleted.

Uighest and lowest correlations areusually reported. – *nly important if you desire

homogeneity of items.

+pit Ualf reliability


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+pit Ualf reliability

6 tems are divided into two halves andthen compared. *dd" even items" or1,M and ,11MM are two ways to

split items. – *nly important when homogenity and

internal consistency is desirable.

!

)uderRichardson coeOcient


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)R2M

6 $stimate of homogeneity when itemshave a dichotomous response" e.g.>yesDno@ items.

6 +hould be computed for a test on aninitial reliability testing" andcomputed for the actual sample.

6 Based on the consistency ofresponses to all of the items of asingle form of a test.

#


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$uivalence

6


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ntertater reliability

6 Esed with observational data.6


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+tability

3estretest reliability – 4egree of temporal stability of a

measuring instrument or test

– Assessed by having instrumentcompleted by same people during twodiHerent time periods

– %roblems D issues6 Familiarity with test items practice eHect

6 Attribute being measured should not changeover time

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$uivalence


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$uivalence

Alternate parallel forms reliability – 4egree of relatedness of diHerent forms

of the same test

– Fi5es familiarity problemnterrater reliability

– 3he consistency among two or more

researchers D raters who observe andrecord participants; behavior

172

nternal


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nternal


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nstruments6 Qho provides the informationJ

–Researchers can get theinformation:

1. 3hemselves" with little or noinvolvement of other people.

2. 4irectly from the sub'ects of the

study.!. From others" freuently referredto as informants" who arenowledgeable about the

174

=eans of


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nstruments cont;d6 Researcher nstruments

– 3ally sheet – Field notes

6 +ub'ect nstruments – +pelling tests

– 7uestionnaire – 4aily log

6 nformant nstruments – Rating scale

– Anecdotal records – nterview schedule

17

Qhere 4id the nstrument


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FromJ6 3here are essentially two basic ways for a researcher

to acuire an instrument: – Find and administer a previously e5isting instrument of

some sort

– Administer an instrument the researcher personallydeveloped or had developed by someone else 0 this is not

easy to do. 4evelopment of a >good@ instrument taes afair amount of time and eHort" not to mention aconsiderable amount of sill. 3he author;s of our te5t donot recommend it for those without a considerable amountof time" energy and money to invest in the endeavor.

6 A number of already developed" useful" instrumentse5ist and can be found online

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Qritten Response ?ersus


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%erformance6 Qrittenresponse instruments 0 ob'ective tests" short

essay e5aminations" uestionnaires" interviewschedules" rating scales" and checlists

6 %erformance instruments 0 any device designed tomeasure either a procedure or a product – %rocedures are ways of doing things such as mi5ing a

chemical solution" diagnosing a problem in an automobile"writing a letter" solving a pu&&le" or setting the margins ona typewriter.

– %roducts are the end result of procedures such as thecorrect chemical solution" the correct diagnosis of the

automobile;s problem or a properly typed letter.

6 Qrittenresponse instruments are generally preferredover performance instruments.

17#

$5amples of 4ata


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nstruments

6 Researcher completes – Rating +cales

– nterview +chedules

– 3ally +heets

–Flowcharts – %erformance ubject +mpletes – 7uestionnaires

– +elfcheclists

– Attitude +cales – %ersonality nventories

– AchievementDaptitude 3ests

– %erformance 3ests

– %ro'ective 4evices

– +ociometric 4evices

.

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$5cerpt from a Behavior Rating +cale for3eachers


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3eachersFigure .,

Instructions: 5+ each +$ the beha/i+s listed bel+w, cicle the

app+piate numbe, using the $+ll+wing keyC E :;cellent, 4 E "b+/e "/eage, 3 E "/eage,

2 E Bel+w "/eage, 1 E '++.

". :;plains c+use mateial clealy.

1 2 3 4

B. :stablishes app+t with students.

1 2 3 4

. "sks high9le/el Huesti+ns.

1 2 3 4

. aies class acti/ities.

1 2 3 4

17

$5cerpt from a 8raphic Rating +cale


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ce p o a 8 ap c a g +ca eFigure .-

Instructions: *ndicate the Huality +$ the students

paticipati+n in the $+ll+wing class acti/ities by placing an M

anywhee al+ng each line.

1. Listens t+ teaches instucti+ns.

"lways5eHuently ccasi+nally >eld+m 8e/e

1. Listens t+ the +pini+ns +$ +the students.


1. $$es +wn +pini+ns in class discussi+ns.


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%articipation Flowchart Fi 1M


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%articipation Flowchart Figure .1M

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tem Formats


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tem Formats6 +election tems

– 3rueDfalse

– =ultiple choice

– =atching

– nterpretive

6 >upply *tems

– +hortanswer items which

reuire the respondent tosupply a word" phrase"number or symbol

– $ssay uestions

&n+btusi/e easues – data c+llecti+n p+cedues that in/+l/en+ intusi+n int+ the natually +ccuing c+use +$ e/ents.

&sually n+ instument is eHuiedG +nly s+me $+m +$

Rec+dkeeping..

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Scale Development


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Scale Development

6 +cales V the approach used tomeasure concepts constructs.

3wo *ptions:

1.Ese published scales.

2.4evelop original scales.

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MEASUREMEN S!A"ES


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6 3ypes of +cales6 =etric interval ( ratio

6 6ierttype6 +ummatedRatings 6iert6 Gumerical

6 +emantic 4iHerential6 8raphicRatings

6 Gonmetric nominal ( ordinal6


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$5amples of 6iert3ype +cales:

>Qhen hear about a new restaurant " eat there to see what it islie.@

+trongly Agree Geither Agree 4isagree +trongly

Agree +omewhat or 4isagree +omewhat 4isagree

1 2 ! # ,

>Qhen hear about a new restaurant " eat there to see what it islie.@

+trongly +trongly Agree 4isagree

1 2 ! # ,

11

MEASUREMEN S!A"ES # Metric


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+ummated Ratings +cales:

A scaling techniue in which respondents are ased to indicatetheir degree of agreement or disagreement with each of anumber of statements. A sub'ect;s attitude score summatedrating is the total obtained by summing over the items in thescale and dividing by the number of items to get the average.

$5ample:

>=y sales representative is . . . . > +4 4 G A +A


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-lternative -pproach to Summated Ratin%s scales:

FGhen hear a!out a ne4 restaurant A eat there to see 4hat it isli9e.H

Stron%ly -%ree (either -%ree $isa%ree Stron%ly

-%ree Some4hat or $isa%ree Some4hat

$isa%ree 1 2 ? @ I I

F al4ays eat at ne4 restaurants 4hen someone tells me they are%ood.H

Stron%ly -%ree (either -%ree $isa%ree Stron%ly

-%ree Some4hat or $isa%ree Some4hat $isa%ree

1 2 ? @ I

3his approach includes a separate labeled 6iert scale with each itemstatement. 3he summated rating is a total of the responses for all theitems divided by the number of items.

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Gumerical +cales:

$5ample:

>Esing a 1Mpoint scale" where \1; is \not at all important;and ;1M; is \very important"; how important is [[[[[[ inyour decision to do business with a particular vendor.@

Gote: you ll in the blan with an attribute" such as reliabledelivery" product uality" complaint resolution" and so forth.

11%



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+emantic 4iHerential +cales:

A scaling techniue in which respondents are ased tochec which space between a set of bipolar ad'ectives orphrases best describes their feelings toward the stimulus

ob'ect.

$5ample:

>=y sales representative is . . . . >


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8raphicRatings +cales:

A scaling techniue in which respondents are ased to indicate their

ratings of an attribute by placing a chec at the appropriate point

on a line that runs from one e5treme of the attribute to the other.

>%lease evaluate each attribute in terms of how important theattribute is to you personally your company by placing an >I@at the position on the hori&ontal line that most re9ects yourfeelings.@

Got mportant ?ery mportant


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%lease divide 1MM points among the following attributes in

terms of the relative importance of each attribute to you.@


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%aired


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>+tingC

A scaling techniue in which respondents areased to indicate their beliefs or opinions byarranging ob'ects items on the basis ofperceived importance" similarity" preference orsome other attribute.

124

MEASUREMEN S!A"ES # Nonmetric


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Ran9 rder Method%

A scaling techniue in which respondents are presented

with several stimulus ob'ects simultaneously and ased

to order or ran them with respect to a specic

characteristic.

>%lease ran the following attributes on how important each is toyou in relation to a sales representative. %lace a >1@ beside theattribute which is most important" a >2@ ne5t to the attribute thatis second in importance" and so on.@


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%ractical 4ecisions Qhen 4eveloping+cales:

• Gumber of items indicators to measure a conceptJ

• Gumber of scale categoriesJ

• *dd or even number of categoriesJ

nclude neutral point J

• Balanced or unbalanced scalesJ

• Forced or nonforced choiceJ

nclude 4on;t )now J

•


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Balanced vs. Enbalanced +calesJ

Balanced:• >3o what e5tent do you consider 3? shows with se5 and

violence to be acceptable for teenagers to viewJ@

[[ ?ery Acceptable [[ +omewhat Acceptable [[ Geither Acceptable or Enacceptable [[ +omewhat Enacceptable [[ ?ery Enacceptable

Enbalanced:

[[ ?ery Acceptable [[ +omewhat Acceptable

[[ Enacceptable

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Scale Development


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Forced or GonForcedJ

• >Uow liely are you to purchase a laptop %< in the ne5t si5 monthsJ@

?ery ?ery

Enliely 6iely

1 2 ! # , - [[ Go *pinion

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Scale Development


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!ateory "abels for Scales

*erbal "abel%• &+o, important is the si-e of the hard drive in selectin a laptop .! to purchase

*ery Some,hat Neither mportant Some,hat *ery

Unimportant Unimportant or Unimportant mportant mportant

0 1 2 3 4

Numerical "abel%

• &+o, li5ely are you to purchase a laptop .! in the ne6t si6 months'

*ery *ery

Unli5ely "i5ely

0 1 2 3 4

Unlabeled%

• &+o, important is the ,eiht of the laptop .! in decidin ,hich brandto purchase'

*ery *ery

Unimportant mportant

777 777 777 777 777

12

MEASUREMEN S!A"ES


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!hoosin a MeasurementScale%

6


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Assessing =easurement +cales%

6 *alidity

6 Reliability

=easurement $rror V occurs when thevalues obtained in a survey observed valuesare not the same as the true values

population values.

131

RESEAR!+ DES8N


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3ypes of $rrors:

• Gonresponse V problem denition" refusal"sampling" etc.

• Response V respondent or interviewer.• 4ata


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yp

6 Raw +cores 0 not easily interpreted" sincethey have little meaning

6 4erived +cores 0 scores which have beenderived from raw scores into more useful

scores on some type of standardi&ed basis6 Age and 8radelevel $uivalents

6 %ercentile Rans 0 A percentile is the point below whicha certain percentage of scores fall. 3he th percentileis the point below which percent of the scores fall.

6 +tandard +cores – `scores

– 3scores

133

$5amples of Raw +cores and%ercentile Rans bl


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%ercentile Rans 3able .1

1 2 177

3 1 24 !

%% 2 23 2

% 3 21 %4

# 1 1% #2

# 4 1# !%#7 ! 13 2

! 2 # 2%

!2 1 27

% 1 4 1!

4 2 3 12

7 1 1 4

N = 25

Raw umulati/e 'ecentile

>c+e 5eHuency 5eHuency Rank

134

GormReferenced ?ersus


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6 GormReferenced nstruments –

All derived scores give meaning to individual scores bycomparing them to the scores of a group. 3his means thatthe nature of the group is e5tremely important. 3he groupused to determine the derived scores is called the normgroup and instruments that provide such scores arereferred to as normreferenced instruments.

$5amples:

– A student6 +cored at the ,Mth percentile in his group

6 +cored above M percent of all the students in the class

6 Received a higher grade point average in $nglish literature than

any other student in the school.6 Ran faster than all but one other student on the team

6 And one other student in the class were the only ones to receiveA;s on the midterm

13

GormReferenced ?ersus


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6


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6 Qhile a criterionreferenced test may be more useful

at times and in certain circumstances than the morecustomary normreferenced test" it is often inferior forresearch purposes. 3his is mostly because a criterionreferenced test will provide much less variability ofscores" because it is easier. Qhereas the usual normreferenced test will provide a range of scoressomewhat less than the possible range" a criterionreferenced test" if it is true to its rationale" will havemost of the students getting a high score. Because inresearch we usually want ma5imum variability in orderto have any hope of nding relationships with othervariables" the use of criterionreferenced tests is oftenselfdefeating.

13#

=easurement +calesReconsidered


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Reconsidered6 3here are two reasons why you should have at least arudimentary understanding of the diHerences amongthese four types of scales. – 3hey convey diHerent amounts of information. f possible"

researchers should use the type of measurement scale that willprovide them with the ma5imum amount of information neededto answer the research uestion being investigated.

– +ome types of statistical procedures are inappropriate for thediHerent scales. 3he way in which the data in a research studyare organi&ed dictates the use of certain types of statisticalanalyses.

– *ften researchers must decide whether to consider data ordinal

or interval level data. t would be possible to analy&e the databoth ways and then mae certain they are prepared to defendthe assumptions underlying each of these measurement scales.

13%

%reparing 4ata for Analysis


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p g y6 +coring the 4ata 0 must be scored accurately and

consistently

6 f a commercially purchased instrument is used" scoringprocedures are made much easier. Esually a scoringmanual will be provided by the instrument developer.

6 3he scoring of a selfdeveloped test can produce diOculties"and researchers should carefully prepare their scoringplans" in writing" ahead of time" and try out their instrumentby administering and scoring it with a pilot group similar totheir population.

6 After scoring" data should be entered into a summary sheet.Esually some sort of spreadsheet software is used.

13

Uypothetical Results of a


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3able .!

!9177 7 7

19 7 2

%!97 7 3

%19% 2 3

#!9%7 2 4

#19# 3!!9#7 ! 4

!19! 4

!9!7 4

19 3

4!97 2 2

4194 7 7

3!947 7 1

N = 35 3

>c+e $+

NRapp+tO eth+d " eth+d B

147

)ualiti u'ian


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6 )esahan validity 0 instrumenmenguur apa yg ia ata ia uur

6 )esahan andungan C%) 0 C%E

6 )esahan mua 0 mempengaruhi caramurid men'awab

6 )esahan beraitan onstru 0 cth

onstru motivasi@

141

Fator2 yg mempengaruhiesahan


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esahan

1. Arahan urang 'elas2. )osaata dan strutur ayat abur

!. =asa yg diberian tida mencuupi

#. Aras esuaran urang sesuai,. Bilangan item tida mencuupi

-. +usunan item urang tepat

. %ola 'awapan AB


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1. %an'ang u'ian atau bilangan item. 6ebih

banya item atau lebih pan'ang u'ian" lebihtinggi ebolehpercayaan.

2. )epelbagaian ebolehan individu dalamumpulan. )eheterogen 0 ebolehpercayaanlebih tinggi bagi heterogen berbandingumpulan homogen.

!. )ebolehan pela'ar yang mengambil u'ian.

Cia item terlalu suar 0 pela'ar aanmenea 'awapan menyebaban etealaneputusan rendah.

143


#. )aedah atau prosedur yang digunaan untu menganggar


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p y g g g ggebolehpercayaan.


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% g 'mana sesuatu u'ian mewaili andunganDsuatanpela'aran yang telah dia'ar.

2. >esahan Mu9a )esahan dari segi se'auh manasesuatu u'ian dapat menguur sesuatu onstrutertentu seperti yang dipersepsian oleh calonyang mendudui u'ian.

?. >esahan >riteria )esahan dari segi se'auh

mana sesuatu u'ian mempunyai hubungandengan u'ian lain" sama ada yang ditadbiransecara serenta atau emudian. )eupaayaanmeramal 0 cth 8R$

@. >esahan >onstru9 )esahan dari segi se'auh

mana sesuatu u'ian dapat menguur sesuatuonstru tertentu.


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1. =engetahui andungan pela'arandengan bai.

2. =engetahui dan memahami

pela'ar yang aan diu'i!. Beremahiran

#. )reatif

,. )esahan dan )ebolehpercayaanE'ian

14!

%ertimbangan umum dalam %erancangan danpembinaan u'ian


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6 i. =engetahui andungan pela'aran dengan bai 0 guruperlulah menguasai dengan bai andungan pela'aran yangdia'ar. ni penting bagi mempastian yang guru dapatmenentuan apaah sop andungan pela'aran yanghenda diu'i serta tahap ebolehan pela'ar dalammemahami topitopi yang dia'ar.

6 ii. =engetahui dan memahami pela'ar yang aan diu'i 0u'ian yang dirancang perlulah mengambil ira latarbelaang serta ebolehan pela'ar. ni perlu supaya gurudapat menyesuaian andungan u'ian" format u'ian" itemu'ian dengan tahap pela'ar.

6 iii. Beremahiran 0 menulis item u'ian memerluanemahiran serta penguasaan bahasa yang bai supayadapat menghasilan u'ian yang berualiti.

14#

%ertimbangan umum dalam %erancangan danpembinaan u'ian


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6 iv. )reatif 0 menulis item u'ian 'uga memerluan reativitibagi menghasilan itemitem yang sesuai dan menari.%enggunaan pelbagai media" ra'ah" simbol" gambar sertalainlain bentu rangsangan atau stimulus aan men'adianitemitem lebih pelbagai bentu serta dapat menguurpelbagai aras emahiran.

6 v. )esahan dan )ebolehpercayaan E'ian 0 +e'auhmanaahu'ian menguur apa yang sepatutnya diuur adalahmerupaan soalan berait dengan esahan u'ian. 8uruperlu mempastian sop andungan yang diu'i merupaanpengetahuan dan emahiran yang telah dia'ar dan pentinguntu dietahui oleh pela'ar. ni melibatan esahanandungan yang merupaan aspe penting dalampenyediaan u'ian. 4i samping itu" etealan sor yangdihasilan oleh u'ian 'uga perlu diperhatian bagimempastian eboleh percayaan u'ian.

14%

&roses -sas &em!inaan jian


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1. %enentuan 3u'uan E'ian2. =enyediaan Cadual %enentuan E'ian

!. %enulisan tem

#. =enilai semula soalan,. Analisis temD+oalan

-. %emilihan +oalan Pang Bermutu

. +usunan +oalan

/. %ercetaan +oalan.

14



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1. %enentuan 3u'uan E'ian 0 sebelum sesuatu u'ian dibina" guruperlu terlebih dahulu tentuan tu'uan u'ian diadaan. Adaahuntu tu'uan formatif" sumatif" penempatan atau diagnosti.

2. =enyediaan Cadual %enentuan E'ian menentuan bidangcaupan u'ian andungan yang perlu diu'i serta menentuanaras emahiran atau 'enis perlauan yang diharapan

!. %enulisan tem tentuan perlauan yang aan diuur dengan

meru'u epada ob'etif penga'aran. 4i samping itu tentuan 'enis'enis item yang sesuai

#. =enilai semula soalan dia'i semula oleh raanraan lainatau 'awatanuasa untu memperbaii aspeaspe sepertiidea yang diu'i" emahiran yang diu'i" format item" poo

soalan" penyusunan ayat" strutur pilihan 'awapan dan uncisoalan.

17



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,. Analisis temD+oalan untu mengetahui peratus pela'ar yangdapat men'awab sesuatu item dengan betul" eberesananpengganggu" uasa disriminasi soalan dan se'auhmana soalanmenepati ob'etif pembela'aran.

-. %emilihan +oalan Pang Bermutu pemilihan soalansoalan untumemenuhi C%E yang ditetapan berdasaran analisis item

. +usunan +oalan +oalan yang terpilih disusun mengiut 'enis itemuntu mengelaan eeliruan" memudahan pela'ar mengealan\mental set;" memudahan guru memerisa. +oalan 'uga disusunmengiut aras esuaran" ativiti mental berembang dari mudahe omples" menimbulan eyainan dan motivasi dan 'awapanbetul disusun mengiut \random pattern;.

/. %ercetaan +oalan ualiti percetaan adalah penting dan peraraperara seperti ualiti ertas" ruang antara soalan" penggunaangambar ra'ah serta dawat perlu diberi perhatian.

11


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12

Analytical 4esigns


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6 4escriptions of historical" legal" or policyissues through an analysis of documents" oralhistories" and relics

6 3wo basic approaches –


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6 An e5ample of a concept analysis – 3he purpose of this study is to

e5amine the meanings and uses ofthe term standards-based curriculum.

– 3his study e5amined the variedmeanings" interpretations" and usesof an important curricular concept.

14

Analytical 4esigns


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6 An e5ample of an historicalanalysis – 3he purpose of this study is to

e5amine the changes in standardi&edtesting over the last #M years.

– 3his study addresses the historicaldevelopments characteri&ing the useof standardi&ed tests over a #M yearperiod.

1

=i5ed =ethod 4esigns


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6 3he use of uantitative andualitative designs and methodswithin a single study

6 Allows the researcher to bettermatch the approach to gathering

and analy&ing data to the researchuestions6 Relative emphasis given to any

particular method varies widely1!

Action Research 4esign


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6 +ystematic investigation6 $mphasis on teachers" counselors"

and administrators

6 Brings together characteristics ofsystematic inuiry and practice

000 pps 23 nov 2012 - research design(1)

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