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King, Maxwell C., Ed.; Breuder, Pbbert I., 24.Advancing International Education. New Directions forCommunity Colleges, Number 26.California Univ., Los Angeles. EPIC Clearinghouse forJunior Coll. Information.National Inst.' of Education (DHE14), Washlngton,D.C.'79

134p. ; May be marginally legible due to smallprintJossey-Bass, Inc:, Publishers, 433 California Street,San Francisco, California 94104 ($5.95)New Directions for Community Colleges; v7 n2 1979

MF01/PC06 Plus Postage.College Curriculum; *College Role; CommunityColleges; Exchange Programs; Foreign Students;*Intercultural Programs; *International education;*International Educational Exchange; InternationalRelations; *Junior Colleges; Program Planning; StaffImprovementInformation Analysis Products

TWelve essays examine issues related to communitycollege involvement in international education. Hugh Adams exploresthe role of community colleges in international education. S. V.Martorana and William Shannon present a framework for programplanning. Sydney Grant examines strategies for internationalizing thecurriculum. Seymour Fersh discusses the advantages of culturalstudies and their implications for educational change. RaymondSchultz and Roland Terrell 'examine international options for staffdevelopment. Thomas Diener and Lornie Kerr delineate theresponsibilities of two-year colleges to their foreign students.Piedad Robertson and John Rogers stress the importance of providinginstruction to develop proficiency in English.trrederick Kintzerreports upon the way in which the community college concept has beenadapted to higher education needs in other countries. Rose Hayden

\ . points to possibilities for federal support of internationaleducation. John Mundt urges state boards of, education to address thepolicy questions of international/intercult4rP education. FredHarrington and Shirley Clarkson discuss education cooperation inrelation to international communication and understanding. BenjaminVygal suggests practical approaches to program'planning andimplementation. Andrew Hill's bibliography provides additi'.nalreferences pertinent to international education and two -yearcolleges. (MM)

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directionsFOR

COMMUNITYCOLLEGES

advancinginternational

education

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aU S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH.

EDUCATION I INIELFAItENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO.OUCEO EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN.ATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONSSTATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OFEOUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

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newdirectionsforcommunitycolleges

a quarterly seurcebookArthur M. Cohen, Editor-in-ChiefFlorence B. Brewer, Associate Editorsponsored by the ERIC Clearinghouse for Junior Colleges

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number 26, 1979

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advancinginternational

education

i-naxwell c. k,,.3robert 1.:breuder

guest editors7

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JosseyBass Inc., PublishersSan Francisco Washington London

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EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES I. TORMATION CENT!R

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.' LOS ANGELES

ADVANCING INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION. New Directions for Community Collegesp, Volume VII, Number 2, 1979

Maxwell C. King, Robert L. Breuder, Guest Editors

New Directions for Community Colleges (publicationnumber 121-710) is published quarterly by Jossey-Bass Inc.,Publishers, in association with the ERIC Clearinghouse forJunior Colleges. Subscriptions are available at the regular ratefor institutions, libraries, and agencies of $25 for one year.Individuals may subscribe at the special profr-sional rate of$15 for one year. New Directions is number. d sequentiallyplease order extra copies by sequential number. The volumeand issue numbers above are included for the convenience oflibraries.

The material in this publication was prepared pursuant to acontract with the National Institute of &IL:ration, U.S.Department of Health, Education:and Welfare. Contractorsundertaking such projects under government sponsorship areencouraged to express freely their judgment in professionaland technical matters. Prior to publication, the manuscriptwas submitted to the Community College Cooperative forInternational Development (CCCID) for critical review anddetertnination of professional competence. This publication hasmet such standards. Points of view or opinions,liowever, do notnecessarily represent the official view or opinions of the CCCIDor the National Institute of Education.

Correspondence.Subscriptions, single-issue orders, change of address notices,undelivered copies,_and other correspondence should be sent toNew Directions Subscriptions, Jossey-Bass Inc., Publishers,433 California Street, San Francisco, California. 94104.Editorial correspondence should be sent to the Editor-in-Chief,Anhui M. Cohen, at the ERIC Clearinghouse for Junior Colleges,University of California, Los Angeles, California 90024.

Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number LC 78.73894

Cover design by Willi Baum

Manufactured in the United States of America

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contents

editors' notes maxwell c. king. viirobert I. breuder

a rationale for international education . hugh ada,is 1

Our community colleges must become world colleges if they are-to prepare stu-dents for the interdependent world in which they will live.

international education, the college,and the community: a frameworkfor actionCareful and strategic planning is needed if international education programsare to become integrated into the essence of the colleges and the local commu-nities they serve.

s. v. martorana 11

william g. shannon

internationalizing thecollege curricu:umExamining successful strategies for internationalizing the curriculum allowsthose interested in developing their own programs to benefit from the experi-ence of others.

sydney r. grant 19

1> cultural studies: becoming our seymour fersh 31

'own teachers _

As nations become increasingly interdependent and technological changes in-crease, students will need to learn more from, as well as about, their world.

i. international education: a vehicle raymond g. schultz 37for staff revitalization roldnd terre!!Injecting international experiences into staff development can stimulate inter-est and create a new sense of excitement and enthusiasm.

institutional responsibilities to thomas j. diener 49foreign students lornie kerrCommunity colleges must reexamine their responsibilities to foreign students ifthey are to ensure a quality educational experience to this growing constituency.

teaching English as a piedad f. robertson 57second language John h. rogersIf the open door admission policy of community colleges is to really open doorsto higher education, the colleges must provide the instruction necessary for stu-dents to develop proficiency in English,

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world adaptations of thecommunity college conceptNations throughout the world are responding to growing demands for postsec-ondary education by developing new short cycle institutions related in variousways to the community college concept.

frederick c. kintzer 65

taking the word to Washington rose I. hayden 79Community and junior colleges must explore extensively the dimensions ofmailable federal support if they are to contribute substantially to internation-alizing education. ,

community college state boardsand international educationEach state education board must soon take a stand pro or con about its ownCommunity colleges if the balance among community. state, national, andworld educational interests is to be maintained.

international linkages: fred harvey harrington 101the community college role shirley clarkson

john c. Mundt 89

Our osperity depends, in large,part ',"on linkages with other parts of the world;educational cooperation can and must play a major role in enhapcing interna-tional communication and understanding

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weathering the heavy seas ofinternational educationAre we really fully prepared for the long and iisk laden voyage of internationaleducation> We must look carefully at our prospects of survival and success.

benjamin r. wygal 109

.sources-and information on the __ andrew hill 117community college in a global contextAdditional materials on international education in the community college areavailable from a variety of sources.

index 123

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editors' notes

As we approach the turn of the century, it becomes increasingly appar-ent that our world is growing smaller through the advent of moderntransportation and communications systems. The launching of the firstspace shuttle from the Kennedy Space Center will herald a new era inworld communications and represent a major step toward drawingthe world closer together. The supersonic Concorde, with its character-istic proboscis, has shortened- the travel time' between North Americaand Europe to a little more than three hours. Americans wishing toexperience the rich,hrstory and culture of the Orient can now boardthe long -range 747Sralid fly nonstop to such cities as Hong Kong,Peking, and Taipei. Engineers predict that after the year 2001 hyper-sonic airplanes flying at Mach 6 and altitudes of 95,000 to 110,000 feetwill be a common mode of air travel. Modern ground transportation.systems have also facilitated the interaction of people who heretoforehave been geographically isolated from each other. In Japan, forexample, a prototype of high speed surface transport (HSST) whiskspassengers forty miles in fifteen minutes at 186 miles per hour. Andfarther down the road, emerging as a strong future possibility, is thePlanetran, the ultimate in ground transportation an:nndergroundtrain that would travel at speeds of 14,000 miles per hour and make.theLos Angeles to New York City nib in only twenty-one minutes! No railswould be required: trains would zoom along on electromagnetic fieldsthrough tubes from which most of the air had been removed.

This slirmlung world picture-has crucial implications for educa-tion. Now as never before, the education'al professional holds a vitalposition: without the enlightenment transmitted through education,we would never progress from the depths of the past, and our futurewould be uncertain at best. Thus far, our two-year colleges havefocused on providing local communities with the very best in educa-tional programs and services. Operating within geographically pre-scribed boundaries, practitioners have offered educational experiencessuited .to the needs of what was until recently a largely immobilepopulation. As our student clientele migrates out into the world,however, anti as new constituents- with diverse cultural backgroundsand varied educational interests add to the demand for service, sea-soned acadcmic programs must be modified to accommodate therapidly changing times.

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The primary question currently-emaspating from both ac..demiccircles and local communities is, "Are we preparing our students to livein a world that has become increasingly interdependent?" Too oftenthe response is, "No." The myopic view that we can continue to edu-cate our students without .being cognizant of the historical .develop-,ment and cultural accomplishments of other nations, as well as theircontributions to science and technology, is no longer acceptable toconcerned Americans preparing their children for survival in tomor-row's complex world. If community colleges are to maintain their edu-cational viability, it is clear that there must be an expanded effort tointernationalize them. This effort must be carefully conceived andmeticulously maintained, lest we lose sight of our' purpose for involve-ment. Admittedly, some critics argue against such a movement; suchindividuals generally oppose this new thrust because their vested inter-ests may be endangered or because they simply have not taken the timeto comprehend the movement that is, to assess its values and itsemerging implications. However, a significant number of educationalleaders, at all levels are becoming more vocal about the important roletwo-yeai- colleges can and should play in the world community. As U.S.Commissioner of Education Ernest Boyer (1978), observes:

I'm conv;..cecl that when the education history of thiscentury [is] w..tten the community college chapter will be oneof the most exciting and significant.

Community .colleges have understood with refreshingclarity just who their students are and what _the/ now do toexcel. Community colleges have kept pace with the nation'smajor-social changes. They have become the cutting edge ofAmerican higher education.. .

Now the community colleges of this nation have a newand urgent challenge. The new obligation is to help the highereducation community respond to the social and technologicaldevelopments of the world. . .

Most of us are still woefully ignorant of our planet,E'arth, and I am convinced it's time to teach our students thatall actions on this planet, physical or social, are intimatelyinterlocked. It's time for education to fake the initiative in help-ing to build global bridges.

Building a bridge between the campus and the worldbeyond is an urgent challenge for all of higher education. And Ibelieve our two-year institutions will help lead the way.

Our two-year colleges can help rebuild our commitmentto international education. Our community colleges not only

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have an obligation to establish international linkages they canserve as a model of crucial education all around the world.

Community colleges have developed into the backbone ofAmerican postsecondary education Our accomplishments in occupa-tional:technical, adult, and continuing education, in particular, haveforced open the door to the global community. Venezuela, Nigeria,and, more recently, the People's Republic of China, have joined othercountries in sending increasing numbers of thtir students to U.S. Com-munity colleges for mid -level manpower training. Further, these samecountries are requesting technkal assistance from community colleges .

through such organizations as the Agency for Internatiohal Develop-ment, the Organization of American States, the American Council onEducation, the American, Association of Community and Junior Col-leges,' and the Community C011ege Cooperative for 'InternationalDevelopment in establishing similar educational training pedgrams athome. ,

. As the demand for ourexpertise and resources increasesas itmost cellainly will community colleges will be drawamore and morefully into the international arena. Whatever the motive revitalizingtheir staffs, strengthening then' academic curricult4s, or offering

-local citizens a more worldly perspective two-year colleges will havelittle choice but to get involved in international education within thenext five years. As P. ,L. Malhotra (1978), principal of the College ofVocational Studies in New Delhi, India, states:

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Increasingly, It becomes clear that local community-serving institutions have an opportunity and obligation to servethe world community as ivep, because the fate of each commu-nity in the world is bound up with eachuther. . . . Communitycolleges, then, must also become world colleges if they are toprepare students for the interdependent world in which eheylive.

As community colleges become more involved in internationaleducation, faculty, staff, students, and members of the local commu-nity will be offered the opportunity to learn more about themselves and,thus to enrich their lives both personally and professionally. Moreover,these same people will become actively involved in the primary quest ofmankind to ensure the future welfare of Planet Earth. .

This sourcebook is intended to provide community collegepractitioners with substantive information that can assist their institu-tions in further adopting an international dimension. Contributing

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authors provide a rationale, as well as strategies and arguments, forinternationalizing the community college. In addition, recognizingthat no new endeavor is without peril, related.issues and conceins. about international eduCation are pointed out throughout the'source-book and discussed in some detail in the closing chapter.

references

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Maxwell C. KingRobert L. BreuderGuest Editors

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Boyer, E. Personal communication. December 20, 1978.Malhotra, P. L. Personal communication. February 16. 1978..

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Maxwell C. King is president of Brevard CommunityCollege, Cocoa, Florida, and chairman of theboards of directors of the Community College .

Cooplrative for International Development and theAmerican Association of Community and Junior CollegeInternational/Intercultural Consortium. He has servedas a consultant to Kenya and to the Republic of China.

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Robert L. Breuder is special assistant to the presidentat Brevard Community College and serves as executive .

director of the Community College Cooperative forInternational Development. He is the author of severalarticles on international education and director of thenationally recognized Community College WorldStudies Program.

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Our Community colleges mast become world collegesif they are to prepare students for the interdependent

world in which they will live.

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a rationale forinternAional education

hugh adams

Community colleges across the country are becoming increasinglyinvolved in international education, but the extent and patterns of thatinvolvement vary widely. While one institution may be tentativelyexploring its first study abroad program for a limited number of stu-dents, another may be offkring a broad range of programs and activi-ties from student /staff exchanges to consortium-based efforts. Admin-istrative structures and institutional processes designed to facilitatesuch activities also follow no set pattern; die involvement of personnelin international education may 11 funded thitugh an institution's,reg-

, ular operating builgecor through any number of other sources sup-porting specific 'programs. Personal reactions to this internationalemphasis vary widely as well. Some view all this activity as a logicalextension of the community college role and mission. Such individualsenthusiastically endorse the international education concept whilefreely participating in its growth and development. Others view thewhole matter with apprehension and suggest that, because of limitedresources and other constraints, the community college- should notassume this new educational. responsibility.

New Directions for Community College's, 26. 1979 1

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the community college contribution

What should be the role of community colleges in internationaleducation? In responding to this question, U.S. Commissioner of Edu-cation Ernest L. Boyer (1978) told the 58th annual convention of theAmerican Association of Community and Junior Colleges (AACJC)that community colleges "can lead the way in rebuilding our commit-ment to international education." He noted that "there has been ashocking attitude in higher education," that it was "somehow 'illegiti-mate' for two-year institutions to concern themselves with internationaleducation," and that "it has been snobbishly proposed that this issenior college turf as if 35 percent of our higher education studentscould be cut off from the significant issues of our time." The Commis-

. sionenstated, that he totally'rejected "such disturbing nonsense," rdthat he was "convinced that the two-year colleges not only have a rigkt

to -establish international linkages they should lead the way. They\ ....

have an obligation." Similarly, on numerous occasions the president -ofthe AACJC, Edmund J. Gleazer, Jr. (1978), has emphasized the ialpor-tance of international education in the community colleges, notingthat "if people in this nation are confronted with issues that transcendinternational boundaries and if education has responsibilities in quali-fying them to deal with these issues, then the community college,beyond any other postsecondary institutions, require an international

dimension."Assembly participants at a recent Wingspread conference

(Gleazer, 1978) agreed that "community 40 junior colleges have aspecial responsibility and opportunity to help students shape aswell asshare their world, to create as well as adapt to changing conditions." Itis apparent that ese views are being accepted and put into practiceby an increasinenumber of community colleges across the country.

Supporting, this philosophical commitment is the recognitionthat, for thousands of students, community colleges provide the onlyopportunity to encounter the international dimension of higher educa-tion. In Gleazer's words (1978), community collegeS should becomeinvolved "because that's where most of the people are going. nore thanone half of those beginning their college work in this country now do soin community colleges. Just as important, perhaps more so, commu-nity colleges are becoming . . . major institutions in providing contin-uing educational services for those beyond the conventional collegeage." After noting education's responsibility for preparing citizens tOdeal effectively with issues that confront them in today's complexworld, a national colloquium at Wingspread Conference.Center inRacine, Wisconsin (American Association of Community and. Junior

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Colleges, 1978) stated that "for many of these students, the communitycollege is the only college-level educational experience they will have.An international and intercultural dimension to that experience canmake a major contribution to their exercise of responsible citizenship."Such an international and intercultural dimension would include: (1) astructured process for active involvement of the community and thecollege; (2) study programs abroad; (3) the internationalizing of cur-riculums; (4) adequate support for intercultural and internationalstudents on campus; (5) programs for college and community empha-sizing international activities, both on and off the campus; (6) student/

.staff exchanges; (7) consultant and support services workingcooperatively with foreign institutions; and (8) in- service training pro-grams for faculty and staff. Many institutions have chosen to begininternational education efforts by selecting one or two limited activitiesfrom these general areas and proceeding on the assumption that it isbetter to succeed in a small enterprise than to fail in a large one.

Community colleges have discovered that they have someunique characteristics and strengths that can assist them as they add

,,the international dimension to existing programs. First, they havedemonstrated .repeatedly their great flexibility and adaptability

, yaluabletilities in the planning and operation of new programs andactivities. Second, as community -based institutions, they have devel-oped long-standing, harmonious working relationships with other edu-cational and service agencies in their communities. Such linkages cancontribute significantly to the success of international education by

_enhancing_community understanding and support. Third, many com-munity colleges enjoy a unique flexibility in funding_ because of localgovernance and control. Fourth, the freshness and vitality present inmany two-year 'institutions facilitates_ the planning_ and operation ofnew programs (although some say this quality may disappear withage). Fifth, and perhaps most significant, great potential for futuredevelopment of international education is found in the increasingnumbers of mature, older students who seek to broaden their visionand enlarge their horizons through the international experience atboth credit and noncredit levels.

germination

The interest and involvement of community and junior collegesin international education is not new. Indeed, the first issue of the

Junior College Journal, published a little over forty years ago, carriedan article relating to junior colleges in Greece. Other early writingsfocused on junior college development in India, the Philippines, and

neighboring countries. The number of articles dealing with internationaleducation attests to a continued interest over the years. In 1970, the fifti- 0

eth anniversary year of the American Association of Community andJunior Colleges (AACJC), and the first international assembly to examinethe global dimension of education at the junior college level, convenedin Honolulu. The participants stressed the need for continued interna-tional communication and continuing 'collaboration between the [rep-resentatives] from the participating countries and the AACJC to facili-tate exchange of infonnation on matters related to the community/junior college concept and education for manpower development.

Subsequent discussions among interested colleges and the AACJCoffices resulted in the formation of the AACJC International/Intercul- .tural Consortium in January 1976. In this consortium, sixty-five com-munity colleges in twenty-four states joined together under the aegis ofAACJC to enhance international and intercultural activities throughshared efforts and information exchange. Concurrent with this devel-opment, regional and state consortium activity emerged. For example,six community colleges on the eastern seaboard region formed the

.,_ Community College Cooperative for International Development,bringing together institutions with considerable strengths in, occupa-tional, vocational, and technical education to contribute to interna-tional education efforts. Another example, the College Consortium forInternational Studies (for most of its existence called the Tri-StateConsortium), grew to include more than thirty colleges from sevenstates and Canada. Students attending consortium colleges are able tostudy and travel in more than thirty countries each year. The FloridaCollegiate Consortium for International/Intercultural Educationencompasses seven large community colleges and five state universitiesfor the purpose_of_sharing international education opportunities withthe membership. The Midwest Center for Off-Campus. Studies is awell-established group of six community colleges whose purpose is to -provide off-campus learning experiences to well-qualified studerits(Shannon, Martorana, and Wollitzer, 1977). And a final example, theSoutheast Florida Educational Consortium, merges Florida Interna-tional University with two large community colleges to enhance inter-national education opportunities. These consortiums are typical ofalliances being formed among higher educational institutions toexpand the base of participation, shafE program development andopportunities, facilitate efficient and economical operation, andotherwise enjoy the benefits of cooperative efforts in internationaleducation. ,

Development of the internationalnational dimension is sometimes slow

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but occasionally dramatic at the institutional level. A pioneer in thismovement was Rockland Community College in New`York. Throughthe vision and leadership of its president, Seymour Eskow, this institu-tif.n established over thirty-three study abroad opportunities` for stu-dents in at least a dozen different countries. This occurred despite lim-;ted enrollment and resources at Rockland and before internationaleducation was generally viewed as an appropriate addition to the curri-culum. In another instance, El Paso Community College moved earlyto provide bilingual, multicultural educational opportunities for itsconstituencies. Brevard Community College (Cocoa, Florida) focusedon study abroad opportunities for employees as well as Students andcurrently has an exchange of staff members with a sister institution inCanada. The Los Angeles Comrnunity,College District has for sometime offered extensive study abroad opportunities to its large constitu-ency. And Miami-Dade Community College reports that foreign stu-dents comprise some 15 percent of its total student population; thislarge, urban community college has replaced the University of Califor-nia and New York University both front-runner institutions for sev-eral preceding yearsas the U.S. institution of higher education enroll-ing the largest number of foreign students (Shannon, Martorana, andWollitzer; 1977).

support and its sources

These examples serve to illustrate the growing activity amongcommunity colleges in the international 'intercultural area. Such insti-tutions draw upon the knowledge and expertise of established interna-tional organizations, often working through the AACJC International/Intercultural Consortium, provide knowledge and expertise in respbnseto the growing interest among community colleges in international

__education _involvement. Such organizations include the Institute forInternational Education, whiclilias a Tong and distinguished record ofservice to international education; the National Association for For-eign Student Affairs, which has joined efforts with AACJC representa-tives to produce comprehensive planning for future international edu-cation programs; El Congreso Nacional De Asuntos Colegiales, whichemphasizes improving educational opportunities for the Spanish-speaking people in the United States; the Council for InternationalCooperation in Higher Education, and international collection ofhigher education associations; the African/American Institute; andSister Cities International. In addition, closer ties are being formedbetweet community colleges and educational associations that have

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offices dealing in international ethication; these include the AmericanAssociation of State Colleges and Universities, the American Associa-tion of Colleges for Teacher Education, the American Council onEducation, And several others. Cooperative arrangements existbetween community colleges and the Council on International Educa-tion Eichange and the American Association of Collegiate Registrarsand Adthissions Officers. The Foreign. Policy Association has alsonoted its interest and willingness to cooperate with two-year institu-tions. Numerous foundations with special interest in the internationalarea are now being approached as well by community colleges for

'cooperative, involvement. And the Office of Education of the U.S.Department of Health, Education, and Welthe has provided encour-agement and support.

Recent federaliegislation attests to the continued interest of theCongress in supporting international efforts, although the fundingprovided has not yet approached the amount deemed necessary forinstituting many of the activities desired by the associations and institu-tions involved (Shannon, Martorana, and Wollitzer, 1977). It shouldbe noted that, although community colleges historically have not beenrecipients of significant funding for international programs either fromthe government or from foundations, there is reason to believe thatthey will gain a larger share of available money in the future as awn,.ness of the community college's role and involvement in internationaleducation continues to grow. The executive branch has also expressedconsiderable interest in the activities of community colleges; the recentestablishment of the International Communkations Agency (ICA),which includes the Department of State's former Bureau of Educa-tional and Cultural Affairs, provides a visible expression of its commit-ment to international understanding and involvement. John E. Rein -hardt, first director of the ICA is providing vigorous leadership to thisorganiiation. In a speech presented to the 58th annual convention ofthe AACJC (Reinhardt, 1978) he stated: that the agency's "most valu-able resmii-C-eliThe p-aftialiation of ever-increasing numbers of privateAmerican citizens and institutions in the hundreds of different interna-tional programs that it manages at home and abroad."

slow growth

Despite such indications of interest and support, many commu-nity colleges have moved slowly to include an international dimensionin their mission. Raymond E. Schultz (1978) draws upon his consider-able knowledge and expertise in the field to suggest some reasons whycommunity colleges as a group have placed little emphasis on interna-

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tional education. He feels that many community colleges lack commit-ment to international understanding as an educational goal, assumingthat international education is an appropriate area of study for univer-sities and senior colleges but not for locally oriented community col-leges. Schultz also blames4the conservative orientation of many com-munities; adthinistrators in such cases are often sensitive to the politi-cal climates of their communities and feel that emphasizing interna-tional education amounts to waving a red flag in the face of local citi-zens. Such factors as limited faculty backgrounds, lack of effective andauthentic curricular materials, and lack of curricular flexibility (bothreal and imagined) also present problems, according to Schultz, as dostate laws and regulation* that discourage international involvement.In addition, many community colleges provide inadequate financialsupport to international education programs, particularly whenresources are limited or are more easily applied to current and moretraditional programs.

requirements -

As an institution plans for involvement in international educa-tion programs and activities, several ,requisites ihotild be noted:

The chief executive officer niust demonstrate a strong commitmentto international education.The governing board should support this commitment through apolicy statement .and in other appropriate ways.International education should be included in the plans and objec-tives of the institution.

` Piocesses must be developed for involving faculty and staff in plan-ning for international education programs.A visible structure that ,is suited to the institution must be estab-

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lished for administering the international edur4iion program. ThisMay range from a simple released time arrangement involving one

_ person tom 'sophisticated _and_ sizeable adminiarao lye operation._The personnel selected to assume responsibilities in international-education must_ be well-qualified and_respected by members of thecollege faMily.A systematicimd efficient proces* for' keeping interested personsboth within 'And outside the institution informed must be estab-lished.Community advisory and support groups for the international edu-cation program must be cultivated and organized:Outside resources should be established to enable needy and worthystudents to benefit from the international experience.

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The international education program should be carefully and sys-tematically constructed on a sound.and defensible cost basis relativeto current and more traditional programs.Activities in international education should be monitored throughmedia, conferences, and other appropriate means.Relationships with consortiums should be established for individualsand institutions active in international education.Goals and objectives for the international education program shouldbe set each year; they should periodically be evaluated to determineprogram effectiveness.Enthusiasm for international activities is contagious; it should beallowed to infect one person, at a time.

global connections

As community colleges in the United States consider their rolesand responsibilities in international education, it is important for themto -realize' that similar institutions in various stages of .developmenacross the _world are struggling with like concerns. ,Some,..developingcountries feel a growing sense of urgency in planning for the -0:duca=7---tional development of their greatest national resource their people.Many institutions in these countries have indicated their desire to shareexperiences and knowledge with community colleges in the UnitedStates, particularly in the areas of technical, occupational, mid-management, and paraprofessional services. In a study of existing andpotential linkages, the American educator, Fred Harvey Harrington(1978), noted that "in the next feW' decades the community collegesMust play a much larger role than they have to date in providing tech-nical assistance abroad. This they can and should do in the interest offoreign countries, especially the developing nations of Asia, Africa,and Latin America; in the interest of the United States and our imageand influence overseas; and in the interest of our people at home,specifically including the community colleges themselves and the corn-

-they -serve. "- -------This global interest is summarized in a resolution on the devel

opment of a world community college, as adopted at the Vana,uverConclave in 1975: "Alfa theriatiOns of the world share a concernrenewing their educational systems so that they contribute nwre effec-tively to their citizens, their communities, their countries, and theworld community. As part of tl*1/4 worldwide effort toward the reformof education, countries are . roping new .community-based, short-cycle institutions devoted to education for development and commu-nity renewal: community colleges, village polytechnics, technicums,

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institutos, colleges of further education, and open universities. Experi-ments in the use of instructional technology hold promise of makinglearning available to the teacher in schools interested in enrichingclassroom instruction. Nonformal learning agencies are serving stu-dents and needs that formal institutions have not been able to serve.

Increasingly, it becomes clear that local community-servinginstitutions have an opportunity and obligation to serve the world com-munity as well, since the of each community in the world is boundup with all of the others. Our community colleges, then, must alsobecome world colleges if they are to prepare students for the interde-pendent world in which they will live." Such a concept envisions "col-leges throughout the world working together to share information,resources, and inspiration and looking toward the possibility thatstudents on any campus might be welcome to visit and study on thecampuses of any constitutent college" (Vancouver Conclave, 1975),and where the flow of students and staff, transcripts and records, pro-grams and activities is.greatly,facilitated.

This is a broad vision, but "there are the beginnings (just thebeginnings, unfortunately) of a true world community college move-ment. There are efforts everywhere to improve the quality andincrease

_

the number of technical and vocational Scliools, with from theUnited States. There, is interest in Asia, Africa, Latin America, andEurope in linkages with community college systems", (Harrington,978; p. 1).

Things are happening. Increasing numbers of communitycolleges in this country and their counterparts across the world areshowihg a greater awareness and a deeKning commitment to theglobal dirnensiqp. International education is a concept whose timehas come.

references

American Associatiiin of Community and Junior Colleges, International Assembly ofVancouver. "Resolution on the Development of a World Community College: A Col-

'TeTe Of Colleges-Div-ofed-iii the-Exthange OrInfornistibn and A, lance Commu--nityBased, ShortCycle Education." Washington, D.C. American Association ofCommunity and Junior Colleges, 1975.

American Association of Community and Junior Colleges. 1978 Assembly held atWingspread Conference Centel*. Racine, Wis.: American Association of Communityand Junior 'Colleges, 1978.

Boyer. E L. Keynote address given at 58th annual convention of American Associationof Community and Junior Colleges, Atlanta, Ga., April 10, 1978.

Gleazer, E, J,, Jr. To Transcend the Boundaries." In The Foreign Student in UnitedStates Community and Junior Colleges. New York: College Board, 1978.

Harrington, F. ti. "Providing Technical Assistance Services Abroad." Paper presented

° 10

jonnson Foundation Conference on internationalizing community colleges, Racine,Wis., May,22-24, 1978.

Reinhardt, J. E. Speech given at 58th annual conference of American Association ofCommunity and Junior Colleges, Atlanta, Ga. April 12, 1978.

Schulti, R. E. Educating for International Understanding. A Role for Community Col-leges. Tucson: University of Arizona, 1978.

Shannon, W. G., Martorana, S. V., and Wonkier, P. A. International Understanding:A Framework for Community College and University Cooperation in InstitutionalDevelopment. Report No. 30. University Park, Pa.: Center for the Study of HigherEducation, 1977:

Hugh Adams is president of Broward-L.ornmwzityCollege in Fort Lauderdt !, Florida, and chairmanof the executive board ,of the Florida CollegiateConsortium for International/Intercultural Education.

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4.

Careful and strategic planning is needed ifinternational educatign programs are to become

integrated into the essence of the collegesand the local communities they serve.

international education,the college,' andthe community:

a framework for action

s. v. martoranaWilliam g. shannon

Community colleg-s are noted for their commitment to action whenthey identify new ways that their students and local .communities canbe better served. They have been termed "now"_ colleges and havesparked national programs of staff and institutional development, suchas the ACCTion Program (a federally funded program sponsored bythe Association of Community College Trustees). In this chapter, weproceed on two assumptions: (1) that commOnity- Colleges-are-no-wready to apply to international/intercultural education their charac-teristically dynamic approach to expanding and strengthening postsec-

. ondafy education in America; and (2) that the activist practitioners in. the fieldon whose shoulders rests the responsibility for effectivelyimplementing new institutional programmatic commitmentsneeda framework for action that will assure them that they meet both

New Directions for Community Colleges, 26, 1979 110

12 .

theoretical and practical standards of good practice and therefore,stand good chances of proving successful. Such a framework is pre-sented and discussed here; it is based on understandings generallyaccepted in the field of institutional change in postsecondary educa-tion and on successful efforts to strengthen the international dimensionof programs and services offered by community colleges. In this chap-ter, the term international refers to relations and activities sharedbetween different cultures as well as different nations. We firmly

' believe that educational institutions in Ariterican communities have anopportunity and an obligation to draw upon local groups of variousracial and cultural backgrounds, to use them as resources, and to showtheir relevance in a world context.

meeting thechallenge

Community colleges throughout the nation clearly demonstratea growing sense of commitment to international education. Leadersboth within and outside these institutions agree that community col-leges can and should. launch new efforts in this direction. Still to bedecided, however, is how such efforts should behhplemented. Thechallenge to the community colleges presented by this situation wasmade cleat by SeymourEskny, president of Rockland Community Col-lege, in hiitomments at the.1977 Wingspread Conference on interna-tional education. He pointed ou_tthai 'when, the past, communitycolleges adopted important new educational commitments and pro:fessed them as rr jor institutional goals, bath individual and collectiveefforts at state, regional, and national levels. were formulated t#develop strategies for their implementation. Such efforts have heel.used, for example, in attempting to universalize access to postsecon-dary editta. n throughout the land, to make postsecondary vocationaleducation accepted part of the curriculuim, and, more recently, tobuild the "community base" for institutional 'program, perspectives.,But, Eskow emphasized correctly, the effort directed toward interna-tional programs in community colleges has only recently emerged andis as yet relatively' slight. In fact },historically speaking, the public pro-nouncements and publishedli-Cerature of the community college move-ment either have ignored the international dimension in communitycollege-PrOgfinis and 'services or have painted it in negative tones.

The current pattern of essentially idiosyncratic institutionalbehavior on the part of'community colleges toward international edu-cation must be changed to a more unified approach reflecting an inter-institutional context; this calls for a systematic plan of attack involvingacademic innovation in the institution. We must develop a framework

13

for planning and action that will be recognized within the currentoperations of given institutions and whose use will be encouraged andsupported by institutions that see international education for what itreally is a new departure in community college education. Such aframework is particularly important because the emergence of interna-tional education in community colleges closely follows the community-baied, performance-oriented approach to community college pro-gramming that has come into national prominence within the las1 halfdozen years. Some marsee these two emphases as oppositional, but'wefind that perception both wrong and misleading. International edu-cation in community colleges today is consistent with not contraryto a commitment to community-based, performance-oriented com-munity college education; the framework for action presented in thesections to follow reinforces that consistency.

innovation, change, and interactive forces

Once they have become established and have gained supportfor particular purposes, institutions tend to resist change. This is anaccepted generalization about organizational behavior, and its appliycaLlity to academic institutions increasingly is becoming recognized.As a tesult, efforts to develop better understanding of organizationalresistanctrito change and to formulatelffective counteractive measuresare attracting increasing 'attention. The writings of such students ofacademic change as Hefferlin (1969), Peterson (1975), and Hodgkin:son (1971) provide a useful background against which community col-lege leaders can Idevelop a better undcrstanding of internationaleducation as an institutional innovation; we draw upon one such workto suggest a framework that can be generally useful.

In Managing Academic Change, Martorana and Kuhns (1975)advance a design for understanding, analyzing, and monitoring inno-vation in academic settings. Termed the interactive forces theory, itemphasizes that success or failure of a new departure depends on theinterplay of three sets of forces in the dynamic institutional setting:(1).1the relationship of the innovation to goals set for the institutionand, More particularly,..til the,relative levels of aspiration and achieve-ment that are attached to the goals affected by the,innovation; (2) thepersonal forces acting eitherin favor of or against.tlie change;-,And,(3) the extrapersonal forces that bear on the innovation and it§ iiisti-tutioriil setting. No attempt will be made here to apply the theoryin its conceptual and technical detail. However, its rationale can pro-vide a complete and systematic framework for enhancing discussionof international education in community colleges and for guiding

. 14

the implementation of related actions on campuses and in coinmunities.

community college goals and international education

The classical precepts on which the philosophy of communitycollege education rests bring out consistently broad goals for such insti,tutions: (1) the universalization of postsecondary education opportu-nity for all adults in a community; (2) the personalization pr instruc-tion and, counseling services for individual students; and, (3) theenrichment and improvement of the economy, society, and quality of

Jaffe in The community. Within those goals. five programmatic cmpha-ks are repeatedly advocated: (1) effective general education for all stu-dents, regardless of theil- academic specializations; (2) pi*eparation foradvanced study in specialized upper-division programs; (3) occupa..tional education leading directly to employment; (4) assessment, coun-seling, and guidance services; and (5) community services. 'In the cur-rent time of increasing international interdependence and growingintercultural pressures for better understanding worldwide, almost allthese goals can serve as justification for a strengthened emphasis on*emotional education in community colleges. The leadership taskInvolved is to dev !op an institution-wide awareness of how .interna,tional programs c contribute to a college's goal attainment. Equallyimportant is the task of developing consensus in the belief that withoutan international` perspective, the modern-day effectiveness of theinstitution can come intg question. The validity of this concept and itsrelevance to program development is being recognized by a growingnumber of administrators and faculty in community colleges, but onlyin a few cases has a board of control adopted it as official college pol-icy. Rockland Community College is one notable example. Members ofthe Community College Cooperative for International DevelOpmentare also leaning in this direction.

personal forces

As with any institutional innovation, a new major thrust towardinternational programs and activities within a community college willhave supporters as well as critics both in the college and in the commu-nity. Change agents seeking to broaden the international dimension ofcommunity college operations need to identify those individuals whowill be supportive of the concept and its implementation so that theirsupport can be effectively marshalled, deployed, and maintained. Sim-ilarly, individuals who are likely to exert personal energy and influence

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in opposition to international programs in the institution need to be*dentified so that either they can be persuaded as to the merits of andneed for international programs or their negative efforts can be isolaced and neutralized.

-- The support 3f the president of the institution is vital to the sue=cess of any international education program in a community college;

' the president's commitment to the concept and to its successful imple-mentation is a striking characterisic 'of all of the community collegesnow identified as leaders in international education. These include the

. colleges that gave rise to the consanium for international education inthe American Association of Community and Junior Colleges, theCommunity, ,College Cooperative for International Development, andthe Community College and University Consortium for International.Education. Other personal forces that also will le'd support to interna-tional education should not be overlooked. Within the college, one iscertain to findifaculty with'strong personal interests in internationalaffairs, and often student leadeis emerge and can be brought into thedevelopment and promotion effort. Within the community (dependingon its special social, cultural, and economic makeup as well as itshistory and its geogri.phic location), individuals interested in and will-ing to work on behalf of international programs come from manyquarters and may include leaders of ethnic groups or individual entre-preneurs interested in internazEonal markets and trade.

extra-personal forces

The local circumstances that surround each of our one thou-sand or so"tommuniti, colleges differ so greatly that it is impossible tomakemany generalizations that are applicable to all. One such gener-alization might be made with impunity, however: inherent in everylocality that is now served by a community college are both factors thatcan be tied positively to college efforts in international education andfactors that will militate against such efforts. Again, the leadershiptask of both the advocates of and the change agents involved in inter-national education in community colleges is to identify and accentuatethe positive forces and to work to redirect or neutralize those that arenegative. 'The experiences of community colleges that are showing theway toward successful implementation of international.education pro-grams provide helpful examples. Most Of these colleges are in Florida,New York, other heavily populated centers on the east coast, and inCalifornia. The fact that most of these institutions are located wherethere are substantial numbers of foreign nationals, businesses andindustries engaged in international trade, and organizations and asso-

er

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ciations (other than schools and colleges) interested and active in pro-motiIng international and intercultural understanding, and wherephysical facilities and monetafy support for such activities can beacquired, attests to the way community colleges draw on the specialconditions in their respective environments.

strategies for integrating programs, institutions, and community

Having identified and utilized the goal commitments of a com-munity college, the personal and extrapersonal forces for and againstinternational education in the college, leaders and activists need both a

. "'broad plan for action and, within that plan, a layout of specific ele-ments .that, if completed, will ensure its effective accomplishment.Scime of the strategies that community colleges can use to enhancedevelopment of their internaponal programs,and activities have beenmentioned in preCeding sections. For example, colleges can form coali-tions with cultural, economic, and social organizations in the com-munity that share their interest in advancing international and inter-cultural understanding. Other strategies have also proven successful.Some reach beyond the immediate college and local environments,joining forces with other community colleges and, in some cases, othertypes of educational institutions for mutual support and advantage inPromoting international education. Indeed, we see this approach as apathway to new breakthroughs in international education and havedeveloped the idea to some length in another publication (ShannonMartorana, and Wollitzer, 1977). Another strategy that is frequentlyrecommended by writers dealing with academic change is to keep a lowprofile regarding international education at the institution until someevidence of acceptance and success are at hand.,

We 'might also learn much from examples of communityinvolvement that serve to broaden community support and under-standing of the college's plans to become more international and cos-mopolitan in its services:

1. Vincennes University in Indiana assigns each foreign studentto a local host family, which allows for cultural interaction. The uni-versity also sponsors an international house, which arranges visits forthe.foreign students to local schools and community organizations forinteraction and discussion.

2. A number of colleges sponsor international festivals at leastonce a year to inform the community, as men as their students, aboutthe customs and lifestyles of other countries. Some of these institutionsalso draw, on ethnic resources in their regions in planning and operat-..ing such activities on a regular basis; they attempt to tie communityelements into the campus-oriented programs throughout the year.

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3. Several colleges offer tours abroad to the community at largeas- well as to their own students, with orientation and language pro-grams tied in with the travel.

4. Big Bend Community-College in Vashington worked formore than ten years in the training of Japanese nationals. Through theJapanese agricultural training program, it offered English languageprograms, as well as agricultural education, to Japanese men andwomen placed in American homes. Tours to Japan, open to commu-nity members, were also sponsored by the college.

committing institutional resources

It is unlikely that, an institution will be successful in a new pro:graM direction without committing some institutional resources bring-ing it aboUt. If community colleges ultimately are to claim success inadding an international dimension to their programs and services, theylimit demonstrate first the capability to marshall the necessaryresources and then the willingness to deploy those resources to get thejob 'done. The resources needed are the usual ones: people, supportfacilities, equipment and services, and money. QuestiOns concerning

-priorities in the use of institutional resources are bound. to arise in theface of such current issues as tax limitations and public challenges ofthe worth of many governmental services at all levels.' Institutions thatmake international education an integral part of their programs andthus a part of their loca' 1 communities will prove the importance ofinstitutional support of this important endeavor. The commitment ofthe college will not necessarily be shown directly in the institutionalbudget; it may be shown through the designation of personnel develop-frig, monitoring, and promoting international education on the cam-pus; through modifications in the curriculum of the college; throughthe adoption of special emphases that reflect international items in thecommunity services program; or through various other means. Thegreater the evidence of such actions in all aspects of institutional opera-tions and from all perspectives of institutional leadership, the greaterwill be the program's chances of success.

conclusion

Implementing international education programs and activitiesin community colleges is a new departure closely linked to a conceptthat has only recently emerged:. community- based, performance-oriented postsecondary edUcation: International education quicklyattracted widespread support and recently was endorsed officially bythe American Association of Community and Junior Colleges. People

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and organizations in communities throughout the nation are develop-ing interests and progrAms that deal with international and inter-cultural Affairs. Effective community ;bated postsecondary education ,,4;

cannot ignore this trend and claim to be well-integrated with its com-munity. Those enrolled intcommunity colleges, both as students and asworkers and citizens,, similarly reflect increasing interest in interna-tional developments: ideas, and opportunities; their effective perfor-mance in the last part of this century and in the beginning of the netdepends on the current reponse to their needs. Community collegesmust turn from talking and planning about international education todoing an effective job in the field.

ti

references

Eskow, S. Personal'communication, October 18-20, 1977.Hefferlin, J. L. Dynaniics of Academic Reform San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1969.Hodgkinson, H. Institutions in Transition Berkeley, Calif.: Carnegie Commission on

Higher Education, 1971.Martorana, S. V., and Kuhns, E. Managing Academic Change Interactive Forces and

Leadership in higher Education. San Francisco: JosseyBass, 1975.Peterson, R. (Ed ). Institutional Goals Inventory Princeton, N.J.:, Educational Test-

ing Service, 1975.Shannon. W. G.. Martorana, S, V., and Wollitzer, P. A. International Understanding:

A Framework for Community College and University Cooperation zn InstitutionalDevelopment. University Park, Penn.:, Center for the Study of Higher Education,

. Pennsylvania State University, 1977.

S. V. Martorana is professor of higher education andresearch associate in the Center for the Study ofHigher Education at the Pennsylvania StateUniversity and former vice chancellor of communitycolleges for New York State.

William G: Shannon is'executive director of theNational Advisory Council on Extension andContinuing Education and former vice president of theAmerican Association of Community and Junior Colleges.

Examining successful strategies for internationalizing thecurriculum allows those interested in developing ,their

own programs to benefit from the experiences of others.

c

internationalizing thecollege curriculum

*sjdney r. grant

Although no precise statistical data exist regarding the actual numberof community colleges in the United States that are involved in interna-tional education, it is clear from the great number of announcementsand brochures in the mail and from inquiries at the U.S. Departmentof Health, Education, and Welfare that many institutions are active ininternational programs and projects or are interested in them. Suchinternational prals for course wtural, interdiscigenerally exchastudy opportuniinstitutions, asother countries tStates, In a fewforces and formeable to educators and private and public enterprises in other countriestheir expertise aid facilities in training and technical assistance inoccupational, vocational, and technical education. One such groupthat has enjoyed considerable success is the Community College Coop-

sDirections iNew Direct fOr Com unity Colleges, 26, 1979 19

grams often involve both the development of materi-rk and seminars dealing with international, intercul-linary, or Third World tlfemes; the projects are

ge programs aimed at providing overseas. travel andies for students and faculty from North Americanell as opportunities for students and faculty fromstudy on community college campuses in the Unitedinstances, several community colleges have joinedconsortiums or cooperatives in order to make avail-

t... Li

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eratiie forInternational Development (CCCID). (The CCCID is com-prised of six community colleges: Brevard Community College, BunkerHill Community College, Delaware Technical and Community Col-lege, Florence-Darlington Technical College, Florida Junior College atJacksonville and Navarro College. Consortium headquarters arelocated at Brevard Community College, Cocoa, Florida.

In other cases, community colleges have formed consortiums topool efforts in developing curricular materials.

The purpose of this chapter is to review briefly and specificallysome of the international education activities in which community col-leges are participating. In addition, it will point out common elementsof and strategies for internationalizing the curriculum so that commu-nity collegei interested in developing or promoting their own programsmay benefit from the experience of others.

why internalionalize?

The need to .internationalize the curriculum grows out of thepresent world situation and the critical role of the United States in cur-rent world affairs. Thus, before we can fully understand that need, wemust examine two key concepts: interdependence and challenge. Ourinterdependence results from the fact that we live on a planet of finiteresources (food, water, energy,' air, and so on). We must, therefore,share and trade those resourcesnot destroy, spoil, or squander them.The United States, as both a major producer and a major consumer ofthese resources, occupies a central position in the interdependenceframework. Today's challenge is for the United States and otheinations to meet and deal with economic inequalities, problems arisingfrom the mindless application of technology, and the dangers arisingfrom armed rivalry among competing economic, political, and cul-tural systems. No aware person today should ignore these vital issues.All young adults, especially. those in our colleges, must learn to appre-ciate our interdependence, and they must learn how to consider pres-ent and future challenges. And, since both this interdependence andthis challenge are worldwide in scope, the colleges need to develop aninternational dimension in their curriculums.

Title VI experiences

Considerable stimulus has been given to internatidnalizing thecollege curriculum through the National Defense Education Act(NDEA) Title VI grants awarded to selected institutions in the early1970s; these grants were provided to strengthen the international

21

dimension of education. It is clear, however, that, money alone is notenough. The institutions that received NDEA Title VI funding alsohave made their own investments in terms of time, personnel, andother resources, as is illustrated by the following examples.

Kirkwood Community College. Under the leadership ofFlorence Masters, chairperson of its foreign languages and Englishdepartment, Kirkwood Community College in Cedar Rapids, Iowa,started a two-year curriculum development project in 1976. Built onexisting offerings in French, German, and Spanish and on its ethnicheritage studies, the project was both international and interdiscipli-nary. More than seventeen facUlty members became involved througha committee composed of both arts and sciences and vocational andtechnical faculty participants. The committee's goal was to develop acurriculum that would provide a higher level of knowledge and thathad an emphasis on global issues so that students could develop theskills and abilities needed to make effective personal, and public deci-sions. An attendant institutional goal was to strengthen the interna-tional dimensions of the total program at Kirkwood and to build oninternational studies program. As the project abstract states:

Three four-hour credit courses consisting of twelve one-hour credit modules were developed during the fall and winterquarters of Project Year One, 1976-77. These modules werepilot-tOted, evaluated, and revised during spring quarter.1977.The tihodules were correlated with existing courses and incorpo-rated principles and key concepts from these courses in theinternational framework of Third World' nations. Curriculumdevelopers formed a committee to identify key concepts andorganize generalizations (principles by disciplines); to choosematerials, instructional tools, learning experiences, andteaching strategies; to 'formulate an evaluation structure; andto pilot-test, evaluate, and revise (deyeloped materials).

A core course of four credit hours was developed as anintroduction to the Third World (People, Livelihoods, and Pol-itics). Additional units consisting of eight one-hour creditmodules were developed during [the] fall and winter quarters ofProject Year Two. These twelve units were field-tested, eval-uated, and revised by the'end of spring quarter 1976. The cur-riculum development during Project Year Twii resulted in atotal of twenty-four credit hours in Third World topics that areavailable to students as independent study or as part of existingcourses.

Students from both arts and sciences and vocational

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technical programs are encouraged to enroll in the interna-tional studies modules and to choose an international studies.major. (Kirkwood Community, College International Dimen-sions Project Abstract Mimeographed No Place, No Date.)

Beyond these student achievements, several important staff spin-offsresulted as well:

t

. The degree to which the project ;activities resulted inchanges in faculty was of major concern to the grant adminis:trators. The curriculum-building P. d teaching skills of the staffwere quite diverse. A major goa't was to promote change and toupgrade, and no effort was made to be selective in recruiting.staff. It was important to have representation from a maximumnumber of disciplines in order to disseminate the internationalcontent to a maximum degree. Interest was the principal factorin staff selection. The staff developMent process extended wellint9 Project Year One. Staff worked initially in a group, thendivided into subgroups, as their. research and dialogue led todusters of topics. New relationships- crossing department anddivision lines evolved and faculty gained insight into otherfields.

At the end of the second year of the project, Kirkwood reportedpositive results:

et

Paralleling the changing climate of the college duringthis period [were] the development of the Third World issuesmodules and the publicizing of the international studies .pro-gram. Seventeen instructors were involved in an interdisciplin-ary project. Over 25 percent of arts and sciences students and3 percent of vocational technical students were exposed to theinternational curriculum. Evaluations showed that the studentsand staff believed that they gained in knowledge, understanding,and awareness of Third World cultures and issues. When theeffect of the International Dimensions Project is combined withthe other international elements in the college, we can judgethat there has been significant progress toward greater empha-sis of international education in the total college curriculum.

Among the topics receiving special emphasis were 'ThirdWorld Women," "Introduction to Latin American Fiction," and

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"Non-Verbal Dimensions in Intercultural Communication." But suchgeneral themes as "Third World People," "Third World Livelihoods,"and "Third World Politics" attracted few students.

North Shore Community College. North Shore CommunityCollege in Beverly, Massachusetts, another NDEA Title VI grant.recipient, began its p: -iect in September 1977 under the direction ofArin Kelleher, Directri International Studies at nearby Bunker HillCommunity College The general aim of the project (which is at pres-ent in, its second year of operation) is to stimulate the teaching of inter-iiatiOnal in-Massachusetts community colleges on a system-widebasis; its overall goal is to disseminate knowledge of international issuesand ptocegses to the general citizenry because, in this interdependentworld, such knowledge is essential in a representative political system.

The international studies project at North Shore was organizedaround 'three activities faculty workshops, intercampus simulations,and ,a pre- and post:testing program. Faculty representing any disci-pline from all fifteen public community colleges in Massachusetts wereinvited to participate in the first of these activities, the faculty work-shops. Their time was spent in writing new material for courses theywere already teaching, with an eye toward developing an internationalcomponent. One workshop was held on each of five selected Saturdaysthroughout the semester. Twenty faculty participated; each received' astipend of $75 per workshop. The second activity, the intercampussimulations, was planned to work with students from five Massachu-setts community colleges beginning in the Fall of 1978; these five wereNorth Shote, Massachusetts Bay, Mount Wachusett, Bunker Hill, andRoxbury. Simulations are games designed to highlight economic, polit-ical, diplomatic, and military strategies and relationships amongnations. Through role-playing in a simulation one begins to appreciate

, the forces present in similar real situations, thus gaining insight intothe complexity of a selected activity on the international scene. Thethird activity, the pre- and post-testing program, is based on criterion-referenced, competency-oriented Objectives. This means that .thespecific skills to be learned those skills judged necessary for achievingcompetence and effectiveness in the topic being taught are spelledout in measurable terms. Test results are evaluated to determine whichof three learning situations seems most effective: classroom teaching,simulation, or selected !field experiences (such as travel/study pro-grams). -

So far, North Shore Community College reports the results of itsinternational studies project in very positive terms. For example,regarding internal benefits to the Massachusetts community collegesystem, North Shore states that:

g.C.)

24

1. 'Participating faculty have experienced a new interest andenthusiasm in their work, with a concomitant lift in morale.

2. The use of existing faculty and courses over a wide variety ofdisciplines means a large number of students are beingexposed to international studies material. .

3. Cooperative linkages are being made operational on boththe faculty and administrative levels. This point is madeespecially dramatic by the close administrative cooperationOf the two colleges cosponsoring the project.

4. Federal grant money ($48,000) is being spent almost whollywithin the system for consultant work as well as for faculty_stipends.

And in terms of external benefits to the Massachusetts com-munity college system, North Shoe makes these points:

1.. The linking of international sttidies with technical educa-tion is one of the newest trends nationwide., Community col-leges are potentially natural leaders of this trend, given theircareer 'orientation, and, therefore, expertise , developedthrough the project will be useful elsewhere in the UnitedStates.

2. Stimulation of international studies education through theuse of, existing faculty:resources has put the Massachusettscommunity college syitein in the forefront of, U.s. interna-tional education.

A notable part of the project is that the participating facultyare assisted in writing and designing operational objectives. ,Amongsome of the topical themes developed in this statewide project are:"Impact of Environment on Behavior, Literature, and Society," "Intro-duction to International Relations," "Human Growth and Develop-ment," "International Relations," "Elementary French," "Governmentand Politics in Latin Ainerica," and "Western Civilization."

Monroe Community College. A third recipient of an NDEATitle VI grant was Monroe CoMmunity College in Rochester, NewYork. Under the leadership of Sumatti Devadutt, Monroe hasdeveloped a project aimed at strengthening international and globaldimensions by helping students understand the history and culture ofthe peoples of Asia; Africa Latin America, and the Middle East. Thefacu' at Monroe are also building on existing course offerings aimedat de. eloping modules that focus on the international dimension. Forexample, from a course called Basic College Writing come modules onAsian and African literature; from Interpersonal Speech Communica-tion come modules on Asian and African world views and socialsystems:. from Human Geography come modules on biological and

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physical interdeptadency issues; from Problems in Life Science comemodules on population, food, and global environment; and so forth.In addition, among the completely new causes Monroe plans to.develop and introduce are: The American Respon:e to ./ze Third andFourth World Challenge: The Case of Asia and Africa, and TheFuture of Mankind' in an Interdependent World. The project involvessmall faculty groups (about five members each) working as studygroups in developing the instructional modules and the supplementarymaterials. Each faculty member is released from about one fourth ofhis regular twelve-hour teaching load. The faculty are assisted by con-sultants.

conferences

International and interdisciplinary elements in the community"collcge curriculum were considered at four key conferences oganizedand held under the supervision of the instructional resources staff atthe Miami-Dade Community,College. The conferences were held inJanuary, May, and September of 1973 and March of 1974, respec-tively, in various parts of the United States and dealt with internationalthemes in the natural sciences, the social sciences, environmentaleducation; and the humanities. The parpose of the conferences was todevelop instructional materials for internationalizing the communitycollege curriculum and making it more interdisciplinary. Among theinstitutions participating were: Miami-Dade Community College, CityColleges of Chicago, Cuyahoga Community College (Ohio), Commu-Vity College of Denver, Essex County Community College (New Jersey),Golden West College (California), Kansas State University, NorthernVirginia Community College.. Orange Coast Communiy College (Cali-fornia), Portland Community College (Oregon), and Tarrant CountyJunior College (Texas).

The four conferences achieved wide participation throughsmall work groups, using case studies to present materials and modi-fied Delphi feedback methods to promote original thinking and tap thevaried creative and experiential background of the participants.Careful consideration of the themes treated at these conferences mayprove helpful to those readers interested in developing their own inter-national education programs, so it is perhaps appropriate to cite themhere. First, in the natural sciences, the themes covered included:satellites; cybernetics; energy; resources and recycling; world food sup-ply.now and later; shaping the human population; and the survival ofthe individual. Second, in the social sciences, the themes were: a senseof community; alienation; consumer economics; the cost of economic

26

development; decision 17' :hanisms; democracy (political systems);intergroup tensions and e..tnic groupings; internationalism; national-ism; sociology of revolution; urt tnization; and value and beliefsystems. Third, the themes in enyitonmental education were: man andthe environment: a global view; the nature of man; value systems; con-ceptsof change; responsibility to future generationi; spaceship earth asan ecosystem; the nature of the environment; consetyation of vitalresdurces; _energy systems; water pollution; air pollution; 'scenic pollu-don; and sound pollution. And finally, the themes dealt, with in thehumanities were: y.h.).t is human culture?; the preservation of culturalheritage; what is happiness?; culture change and counterculture; man-and divinity, the lively humanities; what does art dol;' and art asexpression and as social force. These themes are broad, vital, pro-vocative, and capable of generating many subthemes of great interestto young people and, indeed, to people of any age who are aware of thestate of our world during a time of crisis, tension, and rapid change.

foreigh curriculum consultants

The presence on campus of scholars and educators from othercountries can also contribute to internationalizing the college curricu-lum. This is especially effective at smaller institutions where the visitor(who usually is present fig- six to twelve months) has a chance to meet-.and get to know most of e faculty and students. Acting as curriculumconsultants, such individt Js not only can help the staff develop curric-ular modules about 4!:!r countries, but they can also participate inclassroom activities as teachers, panzl Members, or resource persons.The presence, views, and perspectives of foreign consultants can serveas specific and real bases for an internationally focused experienceright on the college campus. Such efforts are often funded throughfederal aid via the Division of International Programs of the U.S. Officeof Education.

exchange and :ravel abroad programs

Exchange and travel abroad programs are tried-and-true .waysto promote interest in international and cross-cultural education. It isstrange that such programs have not been dt--,:loped as frequently bythe colleges as one might expect given the interest in them; in the pi-vate business sector, travel abroad programs and "affinity group flights"have proven commercially profitable. Indeed, many travel agenciesand specialized educational organizations, such as the New York based,non-profit Council on International Educational Ex .hange, are enthu-

27

siastic about the possibility of collaborating with colleges intravel and study abroad programs.

Such programs vary tremendously, ranging, from the two-weekvacation break trip to the semester or academic year abroad. The pro-grams may involve general visits to geographic and historical sites, orthey may focus on a specific theme, such as the teaching of industrialand technical subjects in one or more countries. In ,some cases, hostinstitutions-or colleges in the countries visited serve as the institution ofrecord. The costs and administrative efforts required are importantconsiderations in these programs; experience has shown, however, thatmany persons are willing and able to afford the costs, especially if thetrip becomes part of a genuine study prOgram for which credit is avail-able. Furthermore, the cooperating travel and educational agenciesare specialists in taking care of the administration and red tape involved,Including making reservations and insurance arrangements. If suchprograms are designed properly, many individuals may be able todeclare the costs of their experiences as tax deductible, (One programworthy of investigation is the Community College World Studies Pro-gram offered by Brevard Community College in Cocoa, Florida.)

The straight exchange program, in which one or two studentsor faculty trade places with counterparts from other countries, is alsoan exceptionally rewarding and revitalizing international experience.In such cases, faculty generally fit into each others' situations. Providedthat language does not prove a barrio-, such opportunities can be prof-itable-for both the individuals and the institutions involved.

recommendations for action

Those interested in starting or further promoting the interna-tionalization of their college curriculums would do well to consider thefollowing recommendations:

1. Top leadership (including the board of directors) shouldsupport the effort. It is always difficult to start something new and dif-ferent, even under the best of circumstances. Support from the toppsychological, political, and finahcial right at the beginning is essential.

2. The person selected to spearhead the effort should be knowl-edgeable in the relevant content fields, have excellent interpersonalskills, be enthusiastic, have sufficient time available to devote to theprogram, and le allowed freedom to work. Such leaders typically havebeen drawn from th, social sciences, foreign language departments, orthe arts. It is important that their academic background be as interdis-ciplinary and intercultural as possible; they shoilld be able to bridgethe traditional boundaries of curricular areas or of languagc.- and cul-

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tural areas, and should be broad in training and outlook. They will berequired to bring people together in new and different configurationsand, at times, promote delicate and critical understandings. Theyshould want to lead the program rather t)an accept it half-heartedlyor have to be talked into it. Unless leaders have enough time and free-dom from their usual tasks, not much will be accomplished. Leader-ship on a project such as this will not be possible if it is an "add-on" toan already bUsy schedule. Each community-college is different. Staffsare different, and different skills exist to different degrees and in vary-ing supply. Therefore, leaders must be given the chance to develop anindividual program within a broad range of objectives. They must beable to "take the ball and run with it." The program should not be acarbon copy of somebody else's program; each program should beadapted to the idiosyncrasies of the community it will serve, includingan eye for its ethnic patterns and its'cultural and economic interests.

3. Intercultural and international education does not alwayshave to lead beyond ()he's own nation, state. or community. Becauseour nation is blessed with rich diversity, persons right in our own com-munities can serve as resources and par ticipants in culturally and inter-nationally oriented programs. We should thus try to use local resourcesas much as possible.

4. Program development that builds toward the one-timeexperience should .be avoided. The single event may be splendid, butwhen it is over everyone will tend to lapse into old ways and the'effeasof the experience may soon fade. It is best to_build toward ongoing,permanent activities and materials that become a regular p f thecollege program and that will be available and visible month a tmonth for many participantseven if such programs may seem some-what less spectacular.

5. Programs should be people-based as well as materials-based.People based programs are those in which participants come into closecontact with one anotherwhere friendships are made, students andprofessors mingle and work together, American and foreign studentsmeet and work together so that meaningful personal bonds can beformed. Materials are also important in bringing people together andin making for an interesting and informative experience, but the per-sonal and interpersonal elements should be central to internationaliza-tion efforts.

6. The person selected as leader of the effort should be assuredthat he or she is not meant to "be" the program, to be solely responsiblefor it, or to develop the materials for it singlehandedly. He or sheshould serve as a catalyst in bringing together people and materials in amix that will, on its own, bring about the formation and emergence of

3

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a new or modified program. The Pesult is a joint undertaking that rep-resents the creative efforts of diverse minds, backgrounds, points ofview, and disciplines, all centered around important human themesthat haVe relevance for our tune end for mankind in general.

7. Using experienceat

expertis, from the outside can be agrea advantage, especially at the outset of the program. Often, in ourenthusiasm tcr get things going, we jump into projects without consid-ering the alternatives available. Benefiting fr9m the experience ofothers is just using our common sense and does not mean that our ownprograms will not be original. Many pitfalls can be avoided by securingthe advice of a consultant at critical junctures in program develop-me9t. Appropriate counsel can help coNge groups be more objective,it can open up new avenues and possibilities, and it can offer freshinspiration.

8. The purpose of the programserving our students, faculty,and communities should be borne in mind throughout the programplanningand development. We should always remember that our pur-poses are wOrld-based, intercultural, and interdisciplinary which is agood descripticin of our social, political, and economic situation in theworld today.

, 9. Evaluation should be an important elemeni\of the programfrom the very beginning. Evaluation in this case means collecting infor-mation about how tlfe program is unfolding, how well it is movingtoward its stated objectives, and how it should be reformulated andadapted if such changes arc deemed necessary. Evaluation also meansfinding out what changes, gains, or achievements have been realized asa result of our collective efforts.

10. Above ali, a should be kept in min(' Mitt the major themesof international, intercultural, and interdisciplinary education arepervasive and thus may be spelled out through panyiliversesiteationsand in many ways. The world at home contains many elements of theworld at large; international themes have many intercultural elements;and intercultural topics have numerous international strands. Breadthof view, interrelatedneis, and openness are the most important compel°.nents to build into tAco and affective realms of an internation-alized college curriculum.

Sydney R. Gant is r professor in the departmen,t ofedueution'al research, development, and foundations

at THe Florida State University, Tallahassee,Florda. He also serves as senior consultant toseveral Latin American countries through the

Agency for International Development.

As nations become increasingly interdelent andtechnological changes increase, students will needto learn more from, as well as about, their world:

cultural studies: becomingour own teachers

seymour fersh

Until recently, it did nox,..yealty matter to most people of the world ifunderstanding stopped at national boundaries, if indeed it stretchedthat far beyond falai and clan. lwauch tradition-directed societies,the major function 5446001s' generally has been to pass along fromteacher to student the accumUlated wisdom tof a .particular sharedculture. It was appropriate for teachers to master a body of knowledgeand then help train others who could benefit from such a reservoir ofvaluable know-what and know-how. Students were trained to taketheir places in society and encouraged to become ethnocentric tobelieve that their homeland, people, language, and way of life werenot only special but also superior to those of others.

This kind of schooling is still appropriate where there are fewchanges and the elders know best the kinds of behavior that are mostlikely to be effective for survival and fulfillment. And inihany ways,the ethnocentric view is helpful if a person spends all of his or her life inone relatively unchanging culture, as was true until recently for most ofthe wy:ld's people, includingmany Ameritans. Today, however, con-ditions are changing rapidly; moreover, the condition of change itselfis changing there is more of it and it is occurring at an accelerating

New Directions for Community Colleges, 26, 1 79 31

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rate. "Until today, ideas have always lived longer than people," saysEdward de Bono (1969, p. 28), "but now people live longer than ideas.As a result, there is a great need for mental tools.that make possible[the] re-forming or ideas." In addition,in today's world of growinginterdependence among nations and peoples, we need to increase ourawareness of how our national actions and interests affect others andhow we are affected in turn. The need for such awareness is becomingincreasingly crucial, warns Edwin 0. Reischauer (1973, p. 157):

While the world is becoming a single great global community,it retains attitudes and habits more appropriate to a differenttechnological age..... Before long, humanity will face manygrave difficulties that can only be solved on a global scale. Edu-cation, however, as it is presently conducted in this country, isnot moving rapidly enough in the right direction to produce theknowledge about the outside :world and the attitudes towardother peoples that may be essential for human survival within ageneration or two.

The study of human societies is essential because we all belongto cultures and need to know more about how they are created, howthey function, and how they change. We need more information andmore understanding, but, even more, we need new -methods of learn-ing: above all, students will need to develop the capacity to learn fromthe world as well as about it. This kind of learning will place greateremphasis on the student as the subject, using selected content to helphim or her become both more selfdirecting and more self-educating.This shift in educational purpose is more in harmony with communitycolleges than with any other American educational institutions. This isnot surprising. After all, the community college movement itself owesmost of its growth to the recognition since World War II that tradition-directed training is not as effective as innovative education.

advantage of cultural studies

The study of other cultures should not only contribute to amore specialized knowledge of some foreign area but must be an inte-gral part of the kind of humanistic,education William de Bary (1964,p. 111) characterizes as "education for a world community":

I put it this way because "education for world affairs" suggeststhe same preoccupation with the current world scene which wehave grown wary of. Research and reporting on the interna-

1 I1

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tional situation is indeed essential in government, in business,and in our democracy for all educated persons participating in

0 it. But the first essential is to have educated persons. They mustbe educated to live, to be truly themselves, in a world com-munity. They must undergo the kind of intellectual chasteningthat is the prerequisite to the exercise of any power or influencein the world. They must know themselves better than they knowworld affairs so that the responsibilities they assume are com-mensurate with their capabilities and not swollen with self-conceit wersonal, national, racial, religious, social, political,and so on.

Moreover, an awareness of international cultural differences can alertus to cultural differences within our own country. National boundariesmay encompass geographic areas, but they do not necessarily, norshould they, convert all people within a country to the same culturalvalue system. In the United States, for example, there is still a richheritage of ethnic variation that started with the immigrants. When wespeak of some of these ethnic groups as being culturally disadvantaged,we make the same error as when we assume that some other nationsthat do not share our cultural values are backward, emerging: under-developed.

Such an awareness of cultural differences can be helpful notonly to those inhabiting different areas, but also to those living in dif-ferent times. In the United States especially, technology changes livingconditions so rapidly that each generation lives in ways that differ dra-matically from those of its predecessors. American parents and theirchildren experience a culture gap as well as a generation gap, differingnot only in age but also in language, dress, music, folkways, andmores. Moreover, all of us are increasingly experiencing our own cul-tural reincarnations; we do not live in the same cultures into which wewere born nor in which we will die. One no longer has to change one'splace to change cultures; even if he or she stays in the same place, thesame place does not stay the same culturally. It' is now possible tobecome an immigrant without migrating.

The greatest value of cultural studies can be in helping studentstranscend their own cultural conditioning. A good example of this isthe way in which the system of arranged marriages is often presented inAmerican textbooks. For instance, consider how this statement shouldbe evaluated: "Indian children are rushed into marriage at an earlyage by anxious parents who pay an exorbitant dowry." In many cul-tures, it is believed that marriage should take place when the bride andgroom are biologically ready to have children in order to balance the

34

high death rate. Few Americans realize that this belief was held inAmerica during colonial times and in the early decades of the nineteenthcentury, when the fertility of women in the United States approachedthe physiological upper limit of about fifty-five births per 1,000 popu-lation (compared with a low of seventeen births per L000 populationduring the early 1930s).

Through encounters with culturally different ways of thinking,students are reminded that their viewpoints are,cultural rather thannatural and that their potential beliefs are not limited to their culturalinheritances. This kind of awareness can help students realize and bereassured that other people are much like they areconcerned withthe perennial human questions of survival and fulfillmentand it canhelp increase their confidence and encourage _their ability-co s ape,share, create, and atipt to changing conditions. - ,

Cultural studies can also lead to the enrichment of one's life.What would our standard of living be like if we had no knowledge ofwhat has been created in Europe its arts, literature, languages,sciences, religious and philosophic thought, and more? Might we notbecome culturally deprived if we do not share in the possibilities ofenrichment from people who live elsewhere?

implications for educational change

Historically, more emphasis has been placed on content than onconcepts in American schools and colleges. We still speak of students"taking" and "Ossing" and "majoring" in certain subjects, and thecurriculum is still basically divided into subject matter units. This pat-tern is still appropriate for part of students' education. For other parts,however, it is not; in these areas, cultural studies can have a particu-larly beneficial effect. Rather than merely broadening the curriculum,cultural studies can give students a process as well as a content forincreasing their self-awareness. Students can internalize a general tech-nique for studying a particular culture and use it to understand othercultures both within and outside their own systems. This kind of learn-ing can help them develop the skill of empathy and the styles of humil-ity. The learner's introduction to other value systems need not result ina minimized view of his or her own culture, but it will surely result inchanging his or her view of both others and self. Thus, a first step inrevisrng the curriculum would be to organize a 'core course around stu--dent achievements rather than around content units. Content, ofcourse, should always be authentic and important, bin it is perhapseven more important to help students experience entirely new responses("I never thought of that! ") and to become comfortable and even pleasedwhen they discover that their assumptions can be reversed. .

Qt. 74'

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The importance of this kind of education 'is becoming widelyaccepted. At Harvard University, for example, the faculty of arts andsciences is beginning to substitute a new core curriculum for its tradi-tional general education program. In this new curriculum, one fourthof a students' total courses are core courses, half are in his or her majorfield, and the remainder are electives. Core courses cover five broadacademic areas, one- of which is concerned with fOreign languages andculture. According to a report in the New York Times ("Harvard isD acing . . . ," 1978, p. 1), this single cotase "aimed at expandingthe student's range of cultural experiences and providing freshperspectives on his or her own culturalAssumptions and traditions" isoffered as a part of this area. If this course deals with a western culturesuch as France, the work is done in that culture's language. Thosecourses involving other major cultures, such as China, use translations.The details of this new core courses have yet to be agreed upon, but thecurriculum change is proposed because "America's role in the worldhas changed from one of detachment to one of interdependence andpermanent involvement with other societies and cultures. Harvardstudents are almost certain to spend a portion of their lives working,living, and traveling abroad or engaged in some sort of active endeavorinvolving other societies and cultures."

becoming our own teacher's

Our response to the possibilities offered by cultural studies is anindicator of our own educational philosophy. We favor the kind ofeducation that Yu-Kuang Chu (1972) calls "interior orientation," aprocess in which personal inner resources are developed and strength-ened by recognizing that "it is not the environment that educates a per-son; it is the inner reactions of the person to the environment." This isthe same kind of education that Robert Pirsig (1974) brilliantlyexplores, in his Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance: AnInquiry Into Values, which considers how any learning activitymotorcycle maintenance among otherscan help a person becomemore self-aware and self-educating. It is also the kind of education inwhich the contributions of cultural studies will be revealed, not onlythrough increased knowledge but through personal development aswell. Learners will not only know; they will also think, feel, appreciate,and act creatively. No other part of the curriculum has a greateropportunity for helping students bec me more fully conscious of theirhuman potential.

Teilhard de Chardin (1959, p. 191) writes of "the planetizationof mankind," which will make us "more completely personalized andhuman." Such opportunities for enhancing human life both individ-

36

ually and as a group are now better than ever, and they will continueto improve as we learn more from, as well as about, our world. Now,when nations are only minutes apart and it no longer takes eighty days

Au circle the earth, it is hazardous to base actions solely on one's ownviewpoint. Moreover, ignorance about others perpetuates ignoranceabout oneself, because only through comparisons can one come tounderstand personal differences and similarities. The glass throughwhich other cultures are viewed serves not only as a window, but also asa mirror in which each can see a reflection of his or her own way of life.

Now more than ever, we need to become our own teachers andcontinue the process of self-education. No content can serve this pur-pose better than cultural studies; through such studies, our communitycolleges have a unique opportunity to contribute to both the overallhuman condition and the individual conditions of humans.

references

Chu, Y. Interior Orientation Commencement address at Hawaii Loa College, May 14,.1972.

de Bary, W. "Education for a World Community." Liberal education, 1964, 50 (4),110-113.

de Bono, E. "The Virtues of Zigzag Thinking." Think, 1969, 35 (3), 7-11.de Chardin, T. The Phenomenon of Man. New York: Harper & Row, 1959.Fersh, S. "Worldwide Dimensions Enrich CommunityBased Education." Community

and Junior College Journal, 1979, 49 (6). 14-19."Harvard Is Debating Curriculum to ,Replace General Education" New York Times,

February'26, 1978, 1.Pirsig, R. Zen and the Art y Motorcycle Maintenance. New York. William Morrow,,

1974.Reischauei, E. 0. Toward the Twenty-First century. New York: Knopf,, 1973.

Seymour Fersh is director of international servicesfor the American Association of Community andJunior Colleges and the author of several books,including Learning About Peoples and Culturesand Asia: Teaching About/Learning From.

A

Injecting international experiences into staffdevelopment can stimulate interest and create

a new sense of excitement and enthusiasm:

international education:a vehicle for

staff ,revitalization,

raymond e. schultzroland terrell

International education as an approach to staff development is begin-ning to receive attention in community colleges throughout the nation.Until recently, these institutions have been too engrossed in meetingthe demands of rapid growth and in serving diverse p)pulaiions todevote much time or attention to this important, area of education.However, recent world developments are placing new responsibilitieson community colleges, calling for staff development that emphasizesinternational education. Meeting these new responsibilities means thatcommunity college faculty, administrators, and support staff membersmust acquire new knowledge, insights, and methodologies. Staff devel-opment efforts directed toward that end should help faculty and staffdevelop the ?rofessional competence they need to: (1) help studentsbetter understand the implications for their lives of events and condi-tions in other countries and in other parts of the world; (2) gain betterunderstanding of their own fields of specialization by viewing them in

New Directions for Community Colleges, 26, 1979 374 .e1.1. i

relation to developments and practices elsewhere in the world; and(3) more effectively serve the growing number of foreign studentsenrolling in our community colleges. Furthermore, internationalexperiences may have additional merit for staff development programsthemselves: they may help break down the immunity that faculty andother staff tend to- develop to traditional conferences, seminars, andsummer study. Injecting international experiences into a staff develop-ment program can stimulate interest and create excitement, in addi-tion to offering a wide variety of activi .s.

Most administrators will readily agree that an internationalbackground is of great value to faculty who teach foreign languages,humanities, and social sciences. However, they may not see the meritsof an international orientation for faculty in other fields or for non-teaching staff and administrators. We contend that instructors ofcourses in business, auto mechanics, and nursing, to mention just afew, stand to benefit from international experiences as much as dohumanities and social science faculty. Such experiences provide valu-able insights into technical and human issues in countries whose cul-ttiral values and levels of technological sophistication differ from ourown. For example, a building technology instructor can learn a greatdeal by observing construction practices in South American countries.Such an opportunity would probably prompt greater appreciation ofour advanced construction technology and, at the same time, lead toan awareness that the masonry skills in'those countries are considerablyahead of ours.

We have no assurance that greater tolerance for different cul-tures will result from international experiences, but such experiencesrepresent our best opportunity for improving such tolerance. It isessential that intercultural tolerance be cultivated among all commu-nity college personnel from the president to the lowest-paid supportstaff members because they all come into direct contact with notonly the growing number of foreign students currently entering ourcommunity colleges but also the large number of recent immigrantsbeing served by these institutions.

international options for staff development

Community colleges wishing to use international experiencesfor staff development have a considerable variety of activities fromwhich to choose. We recommend using a combination of these experi-ences, since they complement one another. In this chapter we will con-sider seven types of-international experiences that can make a signifi-cant contribution to a staff development program: (1) exchange pro-

39 ,

grams; (2) group study abroad programs; (3) foreign curriculum con:sultants; (4) h ist families; (5) teaching abroad; (6) workshops and con-ferences; and (7) institutes.

Exchange Programs. Teaching or working in an entirely differ-ent educational, cultural, and geographical environment can be anenriching experience and can contribute greatly to participants' pro-fessional and personal growth. One popular way to arrange this kind ofexperience is through an exchange program. Such programs come inall sizes and shapes. They can be for a quarter, a semester, an aca-demic year, or even a summer. They can be on a one-for-one basisinvolving, for,example, two English instructors, an English teacher anda Spanish teacher, or several instructors not necessarily matched byfields.

A set of procedures should be established before an exchangetakes place to prevent misunderstandings within, and between the insti-tutions involved. We recommended, first of all, that the exchange par-ticipants remain officially employed by their home institutions. Thisprotects them in terms of salary, fringe benefits, tenure, and the like.Where substantial differences in living, costs, exchange rates, andsalary levels are involved, salary adjustments should be made. Theexchange program between Malaspina College in British Columbiaand Brevard Community College in Florida during the 197748 aca-demic year represents a model that other community colleges inter-ested in exchange programs would do well to investigate.

Group Study Abroad Programs. Group study abro'ad programsprovide intensive study opportunities for faculty who want to improvetheir backgrounds for the direct benefit of students. The primary goalof such programs is to expand faculty members' knowledge of othercountries, cultures, and geographic regions and to help them applythat background to curriculum development and teaching. Generallyconducted during the summer months, these study abroad experiencesusually last up to six or seven weeks. During that time, several 'facultylive, study, and travel abroad together to gain experiences in cultural,economic, political, and/or social aspects of one or more countries.

A community college can become involved in such a program inany of several ways. For instance, it can develop its own program,working with a travel agency that specializes in group travel abroad.The agency will help develop an itinerary, arrange for guides, andmake living arrangements. However, travel agencies usually do nothave contacts with educational institutions in other countries. If thegoal is for the group to spend its time abroad at one location associatedwith a particular educational institution, arrangements are often bestmade directly between the two institutions involved.

40

Helpful assistance is also available from the Fulbright-Haysgroup study abroad program of the Division of International Educa-tion, U.S. Office of Education (USOE), which makes grants to univer-sities and colleges for study abroad. Through one such grant, forinstance the Community College Cooperative for International Devel-opment participated in a study abroad program in Brazil during thesummer of 1978. In 1979, the cooperativ, hopes to send faculty toIndia and/or Taiwan. Groups funded by these grants are organizedaround an academic field for study at a specified location during asummer period of six or seven weeks. The grants cover participants'costs' fdr travel, living abroad, and educational expenses. The empha-sis is on developing curricular and instructional materials that can sub-sequently be used by participants with their own classes.

We recommend that community colleges just getting into inter-national activities join a program that has been developed by anotherinstitution (community college or university) that has earned, a goodreputation, such as the Community College World Studies Programsponsored by Brevard Community College and offered -luring the sum-mer of 1978 and again in 1979. That program provided combinationstudy and travel programs around the world for community. collegegroups representing various teaching fields and administrative roles.

Foreign Curriculum Consultants. The Division of InternationalEducation, USOE, also has a foreign curriculum consultants programwith excellent potential for staff development. That program is designedto bring foreign educators to the United States to serve as curriculumresource consultants for one academic year. The foreign educatorswork with faculty in redesigning courses to more accurately reflect thecultural, economic, politic?' ..nd social developments of other parts ofthe world. These consultants also serve as guest lecturers to students,,faculty groups, and local, civic organi, a tions.

One community college that has participated in this programfor a number of years is Florida Junior College at Jacksonville. The col-lege has hosted curriculum consultants from Egypt, Taiwan, Uganda,and Japan. Brevard Community College has also participated and hashad the services of curriculum consultants from Guatemala and Brazil.The program has provided an initial exposure to staff developmentthrough international education for many faculty at both institutions,as well as at other community colleges.

Host Families. Community colleges that have limited resourcesbut want to give faculty and other staff an initial international expo;sure should consider one of several host family programs. These pro-grams offer opportunities for faculty and other staff to become associ-

e

....

1.... ..,,

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aced with visitors from other countries by hosting them in their homes.Depending on the program, a visitor is hosted for a few days to severalmonths. In most such programs, the host's responsibility is to providelodging, meak. and local transportation. Through these c.,atacts, atleast the beginnings of new insights and understandings of ethercultures, countries, and governments can be realized. Experiences ofthis kind can kindle a desire to learn more and become the impetus forfurther professional growth tl rough international experiences. Inaddition, they can lead to long-lasting Criehdships and often result invisits abroad by the host family. When the visitors are educators, theseassociations call lead to exchanges between community colleges in theUnited States and educational institutions or agencies in other soun-tries. Williarnspoit Community College (Pennsylvania), for example,,has developed several successful host programs.

A number of organizations help arrange host family visits.Among these are:

American Host Foundation12747 Brookhurst St.Garden Grove, CA 92640

Institute of International EducationWashington Office11 Dupont Circle, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20036

The International Center in New York745 Seventh StreetNew 'ork, N.Y. 10019

Nationaltouncil for Community Services toInternational Visitors

1630 Crescent Place, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20036

Visitor Program Service1776 Massachusetts Ave., N.W.Washington, D.C. 20036

Teaching Abroad. Teaching assignments in other countriesalso offer excellent potential for faculty development. These programsdiffer from exchange programs in that they give faculty opportunities

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to experience other cultures and geographic regions through teachingassignments for their own_colleges. The opportunity to associate withhost country educators and the extent of that association depend onhow the program is organized and where it is offered.

Student study abroad programs represent one kind of teachingabroad opportunity currently being offered by a number of commu-nity colleges. Under this arrangement, a faculty member is assigned asan instructional leader for a college course taught in two phases. Dur-ing the first phase, students attend concentrated class sessions at theirhome institution that give them an orientation to living and studyingabroad. During the second phase, students travel to another country orcountries and continue their study, gaining firsthand knowledge andexperience that is related to the courses being taken. During thisphase, one (or more) faculty member is in charge and directs theirlearning activities.

Programs based in another country provide a second type ofopportunity for community college faculty to teach abroad. RocklandCommunity College in New York and Broward Community College inFlorida are examples of institutions that have such programs. Rock-land has established an i9ternational student center in Tel Aviv, Israel.,Students enroll for courses .through the home campus and areinstructed by regular Rockland faculty assigned to the Tel Aviv center.'Browartt, in conjunction with the Florida Collegiate Consortium forInternational 'Intercultural Education, has developed an internationalstudent center in Seville, Spain, on the campus of Columbus College.StudentS enrolled at BroWard may spend one semester taking courses atColumbus College that are taught by faculty from the Florida campus.

Workshops and Conferences. Workshops and conferences pro-vide community colleges with a means of focusing on staff developmentthrough international education. Workshops can address a wide rangeof topics, including exchange prOgrams, study abroad, and curriculumdevelopment for an international orientation. They provide a means ofbringing together, for a short period of time, individuals who may wishto be involved in international education, but are unwilling or unableto commit much time to it.

One approach to using workshops in international educationthat has proven successful involves identifying a similar type of institu-tion in another country_that desires to cooperate in a joint endeavor. Asone example, Brevard Community College in Florida and MalaspinaCollege in, British Corti' mbia, Canada, worked together or, curriculumprojects in energy and science,. As another example, Florida JuniorCollege at Jacksonville and Dawson College in Montreal veld jointstaff development workshop in Jacksonville. Faculty and/a lministra-

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tors from the two institutions spent three days together Comparinginstitutional missions, discussing curriculum projects, and exchanging%pleas on instructional strategies. .

.

A community college can also host or participate in interna-tional conferences as a means of promoting staff development in muchthe same way as it does with workshops. An institution that sponsors aninternational conference can use its own personnel as moderators,reactors, and even speakers while bringing faculty and other staff intocontact with experts in various phases of international education aswell as with educators from other countries. An example of an interna-tional conference that is achieving these outcomes is one sponsoredannually by the Community College' Cooperative for InternationalDevelopment. This is a consortium of six community' colleges along theEastern seaboard and in Texas. Its major goal is to identify, develop,and expand mutually beneficial international relations that contributeto the improvement of member colleges' programs and services. Theannual conference sponsored by the cooperative provides opportunitiesfor educators from throughout the United States and from other coun-tries to come together and discuss trends, developments, and issues ininternational education.

Institutes. Institutes are another way of providing staff develop-ment for community college personnel. They offer intensive experi-ences for a group with specific interests that works together for a periodof up to several weeks. The purpose of such institutes is to help facultyand other staff develop specialized backgrounds or skills for specificassignments. They often include internship activities and observationsby specialists. Several examples may be valuable as institutional modelsfor community colleges interested in staff development through inter-national education. One such example is the International ForeignLanguage Institute, which was hosted in Spain during the summer of1977 for community college foreign language faculty. Another exam-ple is the United States/United Kingdom Transatlantic Institute that isplanned for the Summer of 1979. It is being jointly sponsored by Lan-caster University in England, Appalachian State University in NorthCarolina, and Florida Junior College at Jacksonville. Participants willinclude community college faculty and administrators primarily fromthe United Kingdom (colleges of furthering,education) and the UnitedStates:

guidelines.

WE recommend the following guidelines for any institution thatdesires to initiate international education for staff development. Insti-

2 444

tutions with at least partially developed programs have probablyalready accomplished some of these proposed steps. .,

1. Obtain governing board endorsement lb develop an institu-tional plan for using international education experiences for staffdevelopment. This should be done even if a governing board hasadopted a policy statement pertaining to international education (asrecommended elsewhere in this chapter), because institutional expen-ditures will be involved. Whether or not the endorsement should beformal differs for each institutionjlepending on how similar matters

. are handled.2. lect information on existing international education staff

developmen programs. This should include information from otherinstitutions not li.nited to community colleges) and on cooperativeprograms, examples of which are provide(' elsewheie in this chapter.Such information should be collected before appointing the staff devel-opment committee (see guideline 4).

S. Start with a few initial ackities that are easy to manage andpromise high "pay-off." Such activities might include arranging aforeign exchange for a single faculty member, granting a paid leaveallowing one or two faculty members to spend a terth in another coun-try on a project of significance to their institution, or helping a fewfaculty members to participate in a summer study travel programabroad.

4. Appoint or use an existing staff development committee topropose institutional policies related to international experiences. Itmay be best. to delay appointing this committee until after the initialactivities suggested in guideline 3 have been completed. The commit-tee shout i be headed by- someone with substantial international experi-ence or, at the very least, it should have representative membershipwith such background. Further, the members of this committee shouldinclude representativzs from the administration, the faculty, and thesupport staff the three groups who should be included in the pro-gram being developed. The committee should 've attention to:(a) goals and priorities for the program; (b) the types of international'experiences that might be recognized by the institution as staff clever-opment; (c) the way the institution might assist a staff member inundertaking each type of experience (in other words, providing profes-sional leave without pay, leave with pay or partial pay, travel expenses,and so on); (d) the type(s) of recognition that the institution might pro-vide for each type of experience (salary increase in accordance withdegree of professional development, recognition toward promotionwhere academic rank is used, meet professional growth requirements);

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and, (e) obligations that a staff member might incur by participatingin each type of activity (he or she might be asked to prepare a writtenreport, develop curriculum materials, revise a course, and so on). hislast step should provide the principal evidence for evaluating the ro-gram.

The proposal developed by this committee should be reviewedby the president; if he or she finds it satisfactory, it should then be sub-mitted to the governing board for review and/or adoption.

5. Seek opportunities and sources of support to help staffbecome involved in international education. This responsibility shouldbe assigned to a staff member who is close to the president, effective atthe "grants game," and a "hustler." This person should certainly be amember of the committee discussed in guideline 4, if not the chairper-son. As mentioned earlier in this chapter a community college that ismaking its initial move into international experiences for staff develop.ment would do well to consider affiliating with an ongoing programrather than starting from scratch with little or no experience.

6. Publicize the program. The larger the institution, the moreimportant it is that formal measures be taken to inform staff of theopportunities available to them for using international experiences forstaff development. Further, staff need to be informed of the types ofrecognition given such experiences and why the administration encour-ages such participation. This rationale should emphasize the value ofinternational experiences as background for c4iriculum development,as well as for gaining cultural insights, improving teaching skills andcompetencies, and acquiring teaching and learning resources. Public-ity should take several forms, including announcements at meetings,in-house newsletters and reports, and special brochures. Oral reportsby those who have ,had successful experiences are among the mosteffective methods of publicizing a program that is underway.

7. Keep the governing board informed of the program's prog-ress. One of the best ways to do this is.to have staff members who haveparticipated in international experiences report to the board in person.This is especially effective during the early stages of a program'sdevelopment, when some board members may have reservations. Thesame is true when changes occur in board membership.

potential problems

A community college that follows the preceding guidelines inusing international experiences for staff revitalization can still experi-ence probl,:ns. For example, the program may be slow in gettiag under-

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way. This can happen for a number of reasons. For instance, too muchmay be expected too soon and/or too much may be attempted. Thisproblem can be largely avoided if goals and priorities are established atthe onset. Undue administrative concern over difficulties can also be aproblem resulting in undue caution and restrictions being placed onthose who participate, especially in the case of exchange programs.Getting the president and other top level administrators, as well asmembers of the governing board, involved in international experienceswill do much to resolve this problem.

Those who participate in programs abroad may be a source ofproblems themselves. Some people, unfortunately, are unable to adaptto new cultures, educational philosophies, and/or living conditions.Every effort should be made to limit the participation of such persons,at least initially. This is not always possible, of course; thus, when theybecome involved and react negatively to their experiences, their reac-tions must be kept in perspective.

Unforeseen and unavoidable problems occasionally will occur.For example, participants may become ill or have an accident whileabroad, individuals in other countries who agree to make arrange-ments may not follow through on their commitments, or governmentalchanges may negate agreements. When these things happen, it isimportant that a president view them for what they are and view theentire-program in perspective.

Failure to commit the proper amount and type of talent andresources to the, effort are other causes of difficulty. These difficultiesmost often result from underestimating what is required to developand implement an international program for staff development. Properestimation is not an assignment that can be handled adequately by justanyone. A president who is serious about using international experi-ences for staff deVelopment must be prepared to invest the talent,time, and funds needed to give it a fair chance of success.

implications for action

The illusion that any country or part of the world can exist inisolation from other nations and regions of the world should have beenshattered long ago. Y9 the actions and attitudes of some individuals ineducational institution at all levels indicate otherwise. Because of thewide diversity of people that it serves, the community college is in aparticularly good positi nn to play a key role in educating for interniz-.tional understanding. This can be accomplished, however, only if thefaculties and staffs of otilr community colleges have a much broaderbackground and a greater international understanding than most now

47

possess. Since few additions are being made to community college staffsthese days, the job must be done primarily by these already employedand that calls for imaginative and effective staff development pro-grams. Institutions that want to utilize the international approach tostaff development face a great challenge, but the benefits are manyand, as is becoming increasingly clear, well worth the effort.

ql

Raymond E. Schultz is professor of community collegeeducation at the University of Arizona and foriner

director of international programs for the AmericaAssociation of Community and Junior Colleges. ,

Roland Terrell is district director for staffand program development and international education

at Florida Junior College at Jacksonvilleand former president of The National Council

for Staff and Program Development.

,.J.y

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Community colleges must reexamine theirresponsibilities to foreign students if they are to ensure a

quality educational experience to this growing constituency.v..

a

institutional responsibilitiesto foreign students

thomas j. dienerlornie kerr

Although few two-year institutions enrolled any foreign students untilthis decade, hundreds of U.S. community colleges now serve thousandsof foreign students; Miami-Dade Community College in Florida leadsthe entire postsecondary education community in the enrollment ofstudents from other lands. When did this happen? And why? First, theemergence of community colleges in this country as a major sector ofpostsecondary education established a vast new, learning network.From a few hundred colleges in the 1920s and 1930s, often small andrural, these institutions grew to over a thousand in number in the 1960sand 1970s, providing educational opportunity to virtually all citizens inevery state in the Union. The variety of programs available also grewduring this period. No longer did the two-year college largely providethe first two years of a four-year college program. -No longer did itserve only students intending to transfer to a university. No longer didit promote only liberal arts education. The comprehensive communitycollegeone capable of offering general education and career pro-grams for those students wanting employment in mid-management or

New Direcirons for Commundy Colleges, 26, 079

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technical positions became the dominant model in the post-WorldWar II era. At the same time the community college enlarged its mis-sion to include serving the many students who were educationally dis-advantagedthose not immediately able to succeed in postsecondarycourse. The development of basic academic skills programs and specialcounseling, career advisement, and placement services became a sig-nificant objective of many community colleges.

Second, while all these developments were falling into place inthis country, our world was experiencing great change, too. The ThirdWorld countries of Asia, the Middle East, and Africa became increas-ingly important as a force in world affairs. The developing Countriesfixed their sights on industrialization and mechanization. Their peopleincreasingly left the farms and villages seeking better jobs and higherwages. Their national manpower requirements began to include moreand more mid-management and technician-level workers. Demandsfor education increased dramatically. And in other countries, a risinglevel of personal wealth permitted more and more individuals andtheir families to consider advanced study at home and abroad. Thus,both individuals and governments, especially in the Third World,began to look :xternally for educational opportunities. To a largeextent, those looking for such educational services looked to the UnitedStates with its ever-widening reservoir of low-cost educational servicesand programs and its array of career development options dispersedthroughout the nation in community and junior colleges.

The result of all this has been an upward surge of enrollment inU.S. community colleges by students from many countries around theworld, especially the Third World. Latin America, the Near and Mid-dle East, Africa, and the Far East .,end large numbers ofst adents to theU.S. In 1976-77, Cuba, Iran, Vietnam, Saudi Arabia, and Mexicowere major suppliers of students to U.S. community wIleges. During19A-79, more than 1,200 Nigerian students studied on our commu-nity college campuses under the aegis of the Agency for InternationalDevelopment.

Uncertainty about both definitions of what constitutes a foreignstudent and :le accuracy of current surveys still caste, some doubt onthe exact numbers of foreign students in U.S. comm.nity colleges. Butthe trend is unmistakably toward more. Foreign students were firstreported to be enrolled in U.S. community colleges in any sizablenumbers in 1968. Ten years later, estimates indicate a range of be-tween 58,000 and 68,000. That figure includes visa holders, refugees,and immigrants. Excluding immigrants, the figure is probablybetween 31,000 and 36,000. The total population of foreign studentsin U.S. higher education was estimated to be 203,000 in 1976-77.

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Foreign student enrollment, as well as the presence of immi-grants and refugees, has had a notable impact on programs and ser-vices offered by community colleges. Subsequently, many colleges are .

asking, "What are institutional responsibilities to the foreignstudents?"

why serve foreign students?

Why should U.S. community colleges be interested at all in hav-ing foreign students iti their Midst? After all, with students comingfrom countries with different languages, customs, dietary habits, andattitudes toward work and study; with the problems associated withimmigration regulations and authorities; with the omnipresent issue offinancing a college education community colleges are bound toencounter many problems and issues in dealing with foreign students.So why serve them? That is a reasonable question and one worthy of athoughtful answer.

One of the greatest values of serving foreign students isenlightened self interest. We, as U.S citizens, have much to learn fromcitizens of other cultures and nations. Ours is no longer a world ofisolated nations. Indeed, quite the opposite is true. The world and itspeoples are being made more interdependent whether or not we wantor particularly like this condition. In trade, commerce, diplomacy,finance, and communications, an awareness of the importance ofworldwide relationships and responsibilities is thrust upon us. As anation, we must be able to respond to an expanded and worldwideagenda of human needs.

The community college is fast becoming a "major supplier ofeducational services to adults in this country. The factory worker, theretiring kindergarten teacher, the out-of-work cab driver, the house-wife all these and literally millions of other adults look to 'communitycolleges each year for intellectual stimulation, development or polish-ing of job skills, career advisement, and ways to contribute to their per-sonal growth and to that of their communities. The presence of foreignstudents on community college campuses has great potential for theAmerican peoplc. United States citizens have an important resource intheir own communities through which to learn about other people,their nations, their attitudes and styles of life, and, their views of worldand national affairs. Foreign students present a,yital living curriculum.They can help us see points of view other than our own, expand ourown horizons, challenge our values, and stimulate our minds andhearts.

We benefit in many other ways as well from having foreign stu-

52 -

dents in our midst. They are, after all, tuition-paying students whogenerate business where they live and study. Some see opportunities fordeveloping warm, personal, and lifelong friendships with persons fromother cultures. Some speak of the great ideals of "increasing interna-tional understanding" or "creating a world view" for all people. Butmost will agree that foreign students in U.S. community colleges con-tribute to these objectives: (1) educating individual students fromaround the world and providing useful knowledge, skills, and atti-tudes; (2) assisting other countries in their drives for further develop-ment; (3) strengthening the educational programs and experiences inU.S. community colleges; and (4) continuing the commitment tomutual understanding among all peoples of the world.

problems of educating foreign students

Enrolling foreign students in any community college will quicklybring to the forefront a series of problems and concerns. Headingalmost everyone's list is the issue of English proficiency. To what 4!xtentshould institutions admit foreign students whose English skills ale lim-ited? On what basis should an admissions judgment or placeme u in aspecific program be made? What obligation, if any, does an institutionhave to provide training in English as a foreign language? Adequateuse of the English language is so fundamental to all educational studiesthat both foreign students and community college faculty are unani-mous in stressing its importance; inadequate English proficiency isconsidered a major problem by both groups.

Another major problem involves finances. How will the foreignstudent pay for his or her education? Issues related to rates of currencyexchange, difficulties in transferring money from one country toanother, misunderstandings about the frequency and amount of pay-ments all these and more cause financing of a college education torank high on most lists of critical issues in international education.

The recruitment, selection, and registration of foreign studentsalso create a variety of concerns, Foreign students are often unac-quainted with U.S. higher education, its forms, and its necessary pro-cedures, and they often know little about the community college as aninstitution. Lack of understanding of an institution and its programsLieates many problems for foreign btudents both before and afterenrollment::.:.' -niliar or unexplained selection and registration pro-cedures are often a source of irritation or worry as well. Providing ade-quate, accurate, and timely information about the institution and itsprograms can be difficult enough in this country;, preparing materialsfor distribution abroad (and ensuring that they are in CI:: appropriate

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locations at the appropriate times) calls for an unusual measure ofdiligence and persistence.

Academia advising is a problem for some students and institu-tions, The strictures of certain curriculums (prerequisites, for exam-ple, course sequences, and general education requirements), oftencombined with some language difficulties, make this an area of tension,and concern. Coordinating transfer requirements and articulatingthem to both students and four7year institutions are additional areaStifconcern. Other problems for both students and institutions arise insuch areas as student activities, social and personal relationships, livingand dining arrangements, orientation programs, health services, reli-gious programs, and the frequency and types of involvements withcommunity agencies and persons.

Research findings indicate that these problems afflict studentsin rural as well as urban settings and that they have about the sameimpact on newly arrived students as on those who have been on campusfor a year or more. However, students in institutions enrolling twenty-five or fewer foreign students seem to have more problems than dothose in institutions enrolling larger numbers. Such problems are noteasily solved. A carefully designed academic and nonacademic orienta-tion should be developed by each institution to alleviate their potentialharm.

institutional responses

How can an institution prepare itself to serve foreign studentsadequately ? - First, the commitment of the ihstitution to international'education must be established and articulated. The commitmentshould include policy statements developed by the governing board ofthe college (and by the appropriate state coordinating body, if possi-ble). Governing board statements should speak to the rationale forinternational education in community colleges generally and to theinstitution specifically. Within that context,, board statements should,identify the unique role of foreign students on an institution's campusand specify principles and concepts that impel the college to developand implement a foreign student program and second, the administra-tive staff and faculty should develop specific policies and procedures,services, and programs that in effect answer the challenge laid down bythe governing board. After appropriate discussion ,nd approval by thecollege community, these policies and procedures should be writtenout and issued in official documents of the institution, such as facultyand staff handbooks, catalogs, end college operating procedures.

Following this sequence w;11 help ensure that all sectorf of the

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college agree with these policies and are cognizant of the basis onwhich the institution builds its programs and services for foreignstudents. It will lend credibility to efforts to secure community supportfor such a program. And it will undergird efforts by the administrationand by the teaching and counseling staffs to direct financial resourcesto services for foreign students.

institutional responsibility

Several elements of institutional responsibility should be consid-ered by each college as it responds to the mandate of its board to serveforeign students:

1. The staff development program should be examined todetermine what and bow it might contribute to sensitizing, training,an.: assisting faculty and staff to understand and meet the special

needs and concerns of foreign students. Policies should be developedregarding appropriate staff involvement in state, regional, andnational associational activities related to international educationalexchange.

2. Accurate and complete information about the college, itsprograms, its supporting community, the nature of its student 'body,and services such as health, housing, financial aid, and assistance inEnglish instruction should be made available to students prior toadmission.

3. The college should decide whether or not it can continuean open door admissions policy; generally, that policy should bemodified for foreign students. Indeed, the institution may not onlyspecify levels of language And other skill competencies, but it mayestablish enrollment, limits by country or by world area to better ensurea diverse foreign student representation within the college.

4. The college should review a pitosperctive student's applica-tion and desired program of study to detefmine whether or not theappropriate curriculum and services required to successfully serve thatstudent are available at the college.

5. English proficiency should be made a condition of admis-sion and should be measured carefully according to established guide-lines. Community colleges should admit only those foreign studentswhose competence-is established or for whom the institution is pre-pared to provide English instruction and suitable developmental work.

6. The student's financial resources should be assessed as acondition of admission to determine whether he or she is able to coverthe cost of the entire program of study being proposed, The collegeshould provide the applicant with a carefully prepared and detailed

4.

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estimate of the costs he or she will encounter while studying in the UnitedStates. A signed and certified financial resources statement should beobtained prior to issuing a Form I-20(F) or Form DSP-66(J) (which areused to obtain student visas and exchange visitor visas, respectively)since the institution must certify that it has checked and verified thestudent's source of financial support.

7. Counseling is a unique function that should be provided toforeign students by staff who can competently advise either about thecollege and its curriculum and support services or about personal mat-ters. The adviser to foreign students should be the person primarilyresponsible for their academic and, personal counseling; he or she musthave technical competence in dealing with immigration regulations,an understanding of the role and objectives of international educa-tional exchange, and a knowledge of the community resources avail-able to assist with developing a foreign student program.

8. Health information and care of foreign students and theirdependents is a vital function of the college. Health and accident costsand coverage during enrollment, advice on preventive health mea-sures, as well as guidance on physical and mental health care facilitiesand procedures are necessary ingredients of a comprehensive healthprogram. Community colleges should requite foreign students to havehealth and accident insurance, especially as a condition of continuingenrollment.

9. Housing may be provided by the institution in its own resi-dence halls or, in many instances, the community college may assist theforeign student in finding suitable off-campus housing. Foreign stu-dents and their families should have both preliminary assurance thatadequate housing will be available upon arrival and a clear under-standing of what the housing arrangements will be. The quality alifefor many foreign students is most immediately affected by housingarrangements, including of course, the possibility of living with localhost families for periods of time. The college should give special atten-,'tion to this dimension of a student's life in the United States.

10. Curricular involvement offoreign students requires careful "planning by the instittnion. In many cases, the foreign student can be animportant resource for enricbing,the instructional program of the col-lege. Faculty may wish to involve such students in class presentationsand special classroom experiences, as they will have expertise that canbe-beneficial to the instructional program. Care must be taken, how-ever, not to exploit the student; ways should be devised to mare anyclaisroom or social activities mutually beneficial.

11. Community involvement provides a splendid way to sharethe talents and insights of foreign students with the larger constituency

56

of the college. The college should look for opportunities Co allOwforeign students to spend time in the homes of families and to becomefamiliar with local agencies, Infsinesses, and industries. It should alsoencourage-and support the formation of a local community volunteergroup that can assist the institution in developing community-relatedprograms. Such programs can both provide community enrichmentfor foreign students -and bring an international dimension to the com-munity.

12. Follow-up on foreign students and their experiences incommunity colleges is rarely pursued. How well are foreign studentssucceeding on the job? As a student (if they have transferred to anotherinstitution)? What impact are foreign students having on United Statesstudents, faculty, curriculums, and communities? To what extent isthe mandate of the governing board being met? Which elements ofprograms and services for foreign students are most successful? Whichare defiCient? Why? Answers to these questions are basic to programassessment and modification, as well as to the improvement of an insti-tution's services for foreign students

13. Advocacy of effective programs and services for foreignstudents in community. colleges is essential if educational and politicalsupport is to be maintained or enhanced. Governing boards, adminis-tration, and faculty together should plan a systematic appro2ch to pre-senting the case for foreign students to the local-community, to state

-community college and political leaders, and to appropriate agenciei(such as the American Assocation of Community and Junior Collegesand the National Association for Foreign Student Affairs) at the

. national level.14. Participation in area, regional, or national consortiums of

community colleges or universities whose programs and activities sup-port and strengthen the institution's own services should be exploredcarefully.

Thomas], Diener is director of the Institute ofHigher Education Research and Services at theUniversity of Alabama and a member of theAACJC/NAFSA Liaison Committee.

Lonnie Kerr is dean of student services at NorthwesternMichigan College and has served as a consultantto several international education agencies.

b

If the open door admission policy of communitycolleges is to really open doors to higher education,

.he colleges must provide the .instruction necessaryfor students to develop proficiency in English.

4.7

teaching English asa second language

piedad f. robertsonjohn h. rogers

During the past fifteen years, there has been a steady upward trend inthe enrollment of international students in our two-year colleges. As aresult, as Lorenzo Middleton (1978, p. 4) states, "according to a rep-onfrom the Center for the Study of Community and Junior Colleges,enrollments in English courses [at two-year institutions] for foreign stu-derits increased by 84.3 percent in two years, with a total of 5,302students enrolled in English coures in 178 colleges surveyed in thespring of 1977." These new constituents have had many positive effectson the colleges; but they have encountered difficulties not previouslyexperienced as well. The most serious, far-reaching, and worthy of ourconcern among these is the problem of acquiring sufficient skills in;English to succeed in an acadei*renvironment. Many foreign studentswho have experienced difficulty during,their first year of academicwork in the United States indicate that inadequate preparation inEnglish contributed substantially not only to their lack of academic suc-cess but also to problems they encountered in acculturation. It is there-fore of utmost importance that institutions accepting international

New Directions for Community Colleges, 26, /979 57

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students recognize the students' needs for adequate advising and orien-t

tation tohe college, the community, and American customs and tra-ditions, as well. as for instruction in English usage. The problem ofacculturation is a two-edged sword; it handicaps not only internationalstudents but also the faculty and the other students who have contactwith them. Colleges must be aware of cultural differences and developprograms to help staff and students understand and be sensitive toother cultural patterns. They must staff these programs withdequately trained ,nrofessional1 and evaluate them on a regular baiis todetermine their success in helping foreign students adapt to highereducation in the United States.

° establishing an English langu: c.,,e program

International students may receive any number of years ofEnglish language trahaing in their home countries; but experienceindicates shat, in many cases, such training does not bring students tothe level of English proficiency required to successfully engage inacademic pursuits in the United States. An English language trainingprogram is therefore ne ary wherever international students areadmitted for college work. The kind of progra chosen will depend onthe admission standard established by.the colleg the economic feasi-bility of the program for the college, and the a liability of trainedprofessional staff. It should provide instructio s needed in speakingand listening, reading, writing, and structure of the language.Although each of these skill areas is distinct and must be taughtseparately, a good curricu reflects their interrelatedness and thevalue of reinforcement f m class to class. Because of the uniquenature of language study, asses must meet frequently for relativelyshort periods of time. The ult ate goal of any such program must beto enable the ; sernational stu nt to function in English both in thecollege setting and in the comm pity.

Program Options. College wishio to implement an Englishlanguage program have three bas options; the kind of programchosen both depends on and affects th admission.policy of the college.For example, implementing an intensive English program on the cam-pus will enable the college to admit students with zero English profi-ciency. An intensive program, by National Association for Foreign Stu-dent Affairs (NAFSA) definition, provides a minimum of twenty hours aweek of supervised instruction, owhich at least fifteen must be classroomlanguage instruction other than language laboratory. The total pro-gram should provide a minimum of 100 hours of classroom languageinstruction. Generally an intensive program should provide 200 to 30Q

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r

classroom hours rather than the minimum. An intensive prog:arnshould proAde classes structured in such: a way as to recognize (1) theseparable features of language skills (2) levels of proficiency(National Association for Foreign Stude Affairs, 1977).

A semi-intensive program requires that students meet somestandard measurement of English proficiency befoie they will beadmitted (based on the Comprehensive English Language Test(CELT), the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), theAmerican Language Institute of Georgetown University test(ALIGU),or the Michigan Test of English Language Proficiency). This kind ofprogram fulfills all the requilfments of an intensive English programexcept that it should provide a.: least ten hours a week of supervisedinstruction other than language laboratory, and a total minimum ofsixty hours of classroom instrugion. Again,a good program will gener-ally provide 100 to 200 hours rather than the minimum (National Asso-ciation for Foreign Student Affairs, 1977).

third kind of program that can be implemented (called thedevelopmental or support service program) combines an interrelatedseries of support services and requires a much higher level of English'Proficiency as a condition of admission; such a program could offerdevelopmental help with reading, writing, and listening skills. Sincethe educational systems inmost other countries are more structuredthan they are in the United States, it is recommended that studentsattend a college that has a developmental program if they scorebetween 450 and 500 on the TOEFL. Attendance is required in bothintensive and semiintensive programs, but it is up to the students toavail themselves of the opportunities provided by devdopmental pro-grams. In many cases, a good developmental program in ESL may bethe best approach a college can provide during a time of limited fund-ing. Furthermore, many Ltudents who score 500 on the 'TEFL andspeak fluently need to improve their reading vid writing skills beforethey can hope to sucessfully compete in academic areas with nativespeakers of English.

The cost involved will, in some cases, affect a college's programchoice. Intensive programs require financial commitments not only interms of hiring qualified full-time faculty, but also in terms of pro-viding materials and equipment, including both software and hard=ware, for classroom and laboratory use. Developmental support ser-vices, however, usually exist on campus and can easily be adapted tothe needs of international students.

If the open door admission policy of community colleges is toreally open doors to higher education, the colleges must providewhatever English language programs are ?cessary for students to

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develop proficiency in English. Should the college be unable .to adequately 'fulfill a student's needs in terms of English language instruc-tion, that student should not be admitted until he or she has demon-strated his or her attainment of the level of English language profi-ciency required by the college. If the college wishes to admit studentsconditionally because of lack of adequate language skills, such studentsmay be referred to an English language institute in the area, in suchcases, the college has an obligation to thoroughly investigate the insti-tutes it recommends. Admitting international students solely toincrease enrollment, however, is unfair both to the student and to theinstitution. No specific quotas are recommended, but an appropriatecultural balance should be maintained through judicious admissionpractices so that no single culture becomes dominant in the college set-ting. The danger of enrolling a large number of students from onecultural background lies in the fact that these students will tend tocluster, use their own native language, and thus reinforce theircultural patterns. When this occurs, the effectiveness of a collegeexperience in a foreign country for international students is greatlyjeopardized.

Staffing. All professional staff involved with internationalstudents, from the admissions officer through those teaching ESLcourses and counseling, must have a thorough knowledge of collegepolicy and programs, a clear understanding of Immigration and Natu-ralization Seivice regulations, and adequate professional preparation.Each ESL program is administered by one person whose primaryresponsibility is to the program and who has background and trainingor experience in the administration of ESL programs. ESL facultymust be selected on the basis of linguistic training, knowledge ofEnglish, and personality. All too often, ESL courses are staffed byfaculty with no ESL training or experience solely to fulfill a sudden needresulting from unexpected program expansion. A background in basiclinguistics is essential if the instructor is to teach effectively; since thetask of the ESL instructor is to teach students how to use the Englishlanguage, how to function in an English-speaking society, and how toprofit from classroom work taught by native speakers; he or she obvi-ously must have native competence in English and should not need toresort to translation as a teaching technology. Maiiy native speakers ofEnglish are so unfamiliar with the structure of English that they believeit to be a "difficult" language when, in fact, English as a secondlanguage is easy to learn because it has a regular and predictable struc-ture. Unfortunately, many otherwise excellent teachers, expectingEnglish orthography to be merely a guide for pronunciation, miss thispoint. The attitude of the instructor toward his material is critical,

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beFause students will sense immediately if an instructor is unsure of hisor her facts or feels that the goals of the class cannot be reached by thestudents.

international student advisers

Language,programs cannot occur in a vacuum ;, they must bepart of an integrated plan for international education. Of utmostimportance is the role of the international student adviser, the staffmember responsible for coordinating the federal government's issu-ance of all immigration documents, arranging reasonable and realisticclass schedules for the student with less-than-native language ability,and providing help in personal crisis situations. The international stu-dent adviser should have counseling skills and must develiop a rapportwith the students. Some ESL programs are full-time, and Internationalstudents interact only with program faculty and staff. However, part-time ESL programs must be able to depend on the support of interna-tional student advisers, who should counsel students enrolled in ESLcourses in selecting other course work; it is unrealistic to allow begin-ning international students to advise themselves or to enroll in coursesthat require heavy reading, ihours of study, or laboratory work. Oncampuses that have no dormitories with support services, internationalstudent advisers will need to develop community contacts that can pro-vide students with home-stay, ,possibilities and opportunities to establishlong-term social relationships. I

1

International student advisers should also ' elp internationalstudents develop a sense of identity by exploring w ys for students tobecome acquainted with other students and by piogramming inter-cultural activities. These adviisers not only serve as sources of practicalinformation about the campus and the community, Ibut they must alsoprovide liaison between international students an the faculty, themembers of the community, and the student body. In order to facili-tate all these activities, they should develop an ori ntation program;which may be an ongoing experience involving all a pas of the collegeor a series of workshops held prior to registration. \

\ .

\ placement\

Four excellent, nationally recognized placement t sts have beenmentioned in this chapter TOEFL, ALIGU, CELT, a d the Michi-gan Test of English Language Proficiency. Each of these is availablecommercially. The TOEFL can be taken prior to admissio at testingcenters hither in the home country or in the United States. complete

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listing of ese centers and their testing dates is available through theTOEFL Of k e, Educational Testing Service. A form of the Michigantest may be ac uired by any college and administered by its testingdepartment. Any ollege may also ask the testing and certification divi-sion of the English Language Institute at the University of Michigan toauthorize administration of a secure form of the Michigan test to spe-cific applicants. The Michigan test evaluates reading and writing skills,comprehension of structure, vocabulary, listening, and speech. Profi-ciency scores from this test that are more than two years old should notbe considered.

Some colleges might want to develop their own measuring toolsfor use on students' arrival. However, a 'word of caution is in order.Proper test development is based on experience and a thorough under-standing of linguistic principles. It is a common failing of inexperi-enced faculty and administrative staff to evaluate a student's profi-ciency solely on his or her conversational ability or his or her writingskills. Testing oral ability is a highly developed skill in itself; a greatdeal of experience in the use of sophisticated conversational techniquesis required in order to determine students' strong and weak areas.

The individual colleges must determine,, on the basis of the lan-guage program available, the minimum acceptable score for any of theEnglish proficiency tests. Proficiency scores should be interpreted inlight of students' other documents, their language backgrounds, andtheir intended fields of study.

evaluation

Exit objectives for ESL courses must be established at the begin.ning of the program so that both students and faculty are aware of thegoals that must be achieved in each course. The ESL classes shouldprovide a nonthreatening learning situation for the international stu-dent, but their ultimate goal must be linguistic independence. In orderto maintain quality and strengthen programs, it is urged that collegescontinue to monitor regularly throughout their academic careersprogress of students who have completed ESL programs. Such moni-toring should allow international student advisers to determine whenstudent difficulties are language-based and when they are not.

technical assistance

a

Technical assistance in all areas of international education isavailable on both national and regional levels. The National Associa-

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tion for Foreign Student Affairs ( NAFSA),, located in Washington,D.C., publishes an excellent series of guidelines for administering allaspects of international educationadvising, community service, 1:SLprograms, and so on as they apply to both foreign students in theUnited States and Americanrstudents abroad. The NAFSA also has afree consultation service and provides (through its field service pro-gram) in-service grants to allow newcomers to the field to attend con-ferences, hold workshops, and observe established programs. TheTeachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), locatedat Georgetown University (Washington, D.C.), is a resource for ESLand bilingual education, and it publishes a scholarly quarterly thatprovides information on the most recent research, techniques, strate-gies, and materials in the field. Both organizations hold annual confer-ences in the spring and provide in-service training through local orregional groups. Other valuable resources are the Society for Inter-cultural Education,. Training, and Research (SIETAR), GeorgetownUniversity, and the Experiment in International Living, Brattelboro,Vermont.

conclusion

There is no "ideal" English language training program thatshould be imitated. Each college knows its own community, its finan-cial and academic resources, its educational goals, and its student pop-ulation; on the basis of these factors, each college can develop a uniqueprogram that will best fulfill its needs. Nevertheless, certain elethentsare essential to the development of any such program, regardless of theschool's needs. Among these are:

1. an admission policy that clearly states the institution's re-quirements;,

2. an English language program design that is commensuratewith the college's admission policy;,

3. on-site testing of students for placenient in ESL programs;4. the establishment of exit requirements for ESL courses that

ESL students must meet before enrolling as degree candi-dates;

5. Financial and academic commitments on the part of theinstitution that allow for the employment of qualified ESLinstructors and a foreign student advisor.

Average class size in ESL should not exceed seventeen students. Nosuch limits, however, need be imposed in laboratory classes or in indi-vidualized instruction programs.

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references

Middleton, L. "English A Growing Foreign Language." Chronicle of Higher Educa-tion, May 30, 1978, p. 4.

National Association for Foreign Student Affairs. Guidelines English Language Profi-ciency. Washington, D C.:, National Association for Foreign Student Affairs, 1977.

Piedad F. Robertson is assistant to the president atMiami-Dade Community College, Florida, and servesas consultant for the National Association for ForeignStudent Affairs in matters relating to teachingEnglish as a second language and community collegeeducation.

John H. Rogers is director of the intensive Englishprograiti at the University of Miami, Florida, andserves as consultant Jur the Nationayssociation forForeign Student Affairs in matters relating toteaching English as a second language.

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Nations throughout the world are responding togrowing demands for postsecondary education bydeveloping new short-cycle institutions related invarious ways to the community college concept.

world adaptation of thecommunity college concept

frederick c. kintzer

Nations in all corners of the inhabited world are rallying to meet theburgeoning demands for postsecondary education. These efforts fre-quently include the development of new institutions now recognized asshort-cycle colleges. Called regional colleges in Norway, Vile gkole orhigher schools in Yugoslavia, colleges of further education in Britain,regional technical institutes in Latin America, and community collegesin the United States, New Zealand, and Western Canada-, these instirttdons are assigned educational objectives that, at least in part, tradi-tional universities are incapable of or are not interested in providing.Most popular and effective among those objectives is serving man-power needs at low cost to both the country and the student. Someshortcycle institutions address the traditional objective of ,preparingstudents for the university by offering the first segment of long-cycle(baccalaureate) education. More recently, others have joined Ameri-can community colleges. in a community services mission, as well as acommunity or regional development responsibility. A few of theseinstitutions, such as the French University Institutes of Technology, areactually called universities, and some, such as the Colleges of AdvancedEducation of Victoria, Australia, offer baccalaureate and advanced

New Directions for Community Colleges, 26, 1979

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degrees. However, nonuniversity components (such as regional rela-tionships and decentralized governance) are invariably present.

types of short-cycle institutions

Diversification is the key word to describe international short-cycle development. Four types of short-cycle institutions are identifi-able. The first two-- comprehensive and specialized are character-ized primarily by their programmatic elements. The third and fourthtypes binary and dual differ from the first two principally in theirorganizational features.

Comprehensive. The American community college, with itsdiversified programming and clientele, is the obvious prototype of thecomprehensive model. Closely linked to universities through a credittransfer relationship, these new institutions provide the short-cycleportion of long-cycle, career, and, in some national settings, adulteducation. The regional colleges in Norway and the single short-cycleinstitutions in New Zealine (Hawke's Bay Community College) andAustralia (Darwin Community College) all maintain comprehensivecurriculums and therefore enroll both career-oriented and university-bound students. Close relations with their respective comniunities fur-ther characterizes these institutions. For example, the college at Dar-win, serving the entire Northern Territory of Australia, offers a fullrange of courses and activities and opens facilities to the public on itssix campuses and at Alice Springs Community College. Short-cycleinstitutions in Quebec called colleges of general and vocational educa-tion, offer two-year university preparatory degic.:.s, paraprofessionaland vocational training, and adult education. Similar to nur upper-level universities and colleges, Quebec universities have become terti-ary and graduate institutions. Regional colleges recently established inseveral sparsely populated areas of Israel also offer academic and °cc-6-pational education. They are university-snonsored and are thereforeadministrative units of the national university.

Specialized. Virtually all nations of the world ate now relyingheavily on institutions concentrating on single technolozies to supplymanpower needs. With a few notable exceptions, these .chools havelittle if any linkage with national university systems and few of the tiesto the community that characterize American community colleges.The regional technological institutes (RTIs) found in most states inMexico and Japan's junior colleges are clear examples of specializedshort-cycle' institutions. The Mexican RTIs are responsible for man-power training indigenous to the region or state; controlled by a-cen-tralized bureaucracy, they, like most short-cycle institutions, continue

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to be viewed as second class. The Japanese colleges, while performingan important manpower specialist training function, suffer a similarreputation.

Several southeast Asian nations have also launched spcjalized-type institutions. In Taiwan, for example, two junior technical collegesoffering three- and five-year programs prepare their students for occu-pations in government and industry; some graduates of these collegestransfer to the recently established National Taiwan Institute of Tech-nology.-SirigapOre trains its technicians at two technical institutes anda single polytechnic. Six junior university colleges in Sri Lanka func-tioned for a period in the early 1970s as technical institutes (with fourrequired general studies) until closed by the opposition'political party.Although they were not included in the original plans, possibilities forcredit and course transfer were being explored. As is typical in south-east Asian societies, the notion of community involvement was notunderstood by Sri Lankans and was therefore not implemented by thegovernment that created the junior university colleges.

Additional examples of the specialized short-cycle model arefound in the African nation of Tanzania and in the People's Republicof China. Two Tanzanian colleges offer a wide variety of career educa-tion courses, including a three-year technician's degree that leadsdirectly to employment. In mainland China, short-cycle specializededucation has proliferated in response to industrialization, rapidlyincreasing numbers of secondary graduates, and a lack of universityaccommodations. Having little or no connection with universities,short-cycle schools there appear to be responsive to local manpowerneeds and concentrate on single work-preparation courses.

Upper-secondary schools in the Soviet Union specialize 'in uni-versity preparatory curriculums. These schools offer the most directroute to universities, and their curriculumswhich are largely aca-demicare more rigorous than are thOse offered in the Soviet generaleducation secondary schools: Because of this preparatory function,Russian writers often compare Soviet upper-secondary schools withAmerican community colleges.

Binary. British further education schools and Australian col-leges of advanced education are classified as binary short-cycle institu-tions because postsecondary education in both nations is sharplydivided into two separate sectors: (1) academic and theoretical univer-sities and (2) practical and professional schools. Course and credittransfer is virtually nonexistent, but both sectors offer postgraduateeducation. Some attempt is made both in the British schools and in theAustralian colleges to relate to communities through programmati.advisory councils in advanced technologies,, and in both nations the

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founding ini iative comes from local units rather than from the centralgovernment; owever, the two postsecondary systems remain primarilyaloof from community involvement. British further education schoolsare now entering the adult education arena with both credit and non-credit programs.

Dual. In sharp contrast to Britain and Australia, Yugoslaviaand several South American nations combine short- and long-cyclehigher education into single organizations called university faculties.Because of recent provincial legislation, most of the two-year collegesin Yugoslavia, known as Vile hole, are destined soon to become auto-matically affiliated with appropriate university faculties. Developing asa result of economic constraints and quality control concerns, thisamalgamation is both programmatic and administrative; loss of Visehole identity will no doubt result. This dual systein incorporatingshort-cycle technical programs within traditional universities also char-

, acterizes the postsecondary systems in Chile, Venezuela, and Colombia.After a decade of substantial progress, the regional colleges of Chilebecame university centers and then regular university campuses. InVenentela and Colombia, middle-manpower programs are found incolleges or institutes as well as in universities.

The French University Institutes of Technology, as the nameimplies, function as upper-technician-level training schools that offertwo-year curriculums leading to enrollment in university programs.These schools are generally regarded as university-level institutions-.Some now belong to recently formed multidisciplinary, decentralizeduniversities. Similarly, educational reforms in West Germany have intro-duced a blending of university- and nonuniversity-type institutions.The resulting Gesamthochschulen are beginning to offer a diversity ofacademic and vocational curriculums for adult part-time students.

shared short-cycle characteristics

While short-cycle higher, education is not antithetical to theprevailing postsecondary national system, the new colleges and insti-tutes share certain characteristics that are ordinarily lacking or under-developed in universities. Four will be briefly outlined here. A fifthquality low cost may well be more a hope than a reality.

Manpower Training of Paraprofessional S,pecthlists and Workers.Emphasis on technology training, particularly at the midmanagementor middlemanpower level, is probably the foremost feature of short-cycle higher education. It had a dramatic effect in countries/hat weredevastated by World War II, where teachers for the primary gradesand skilled workers were desperately needed, and today the pressure

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for more technicians in industry and government continues in develop-ing countries. The lack of middle-level manpower specialists hasresulted in a type of "brain drain" that newer nations can ill affordthe assignment of technician or paraprofessional duties to profession-als, particularly those in health Sand agriculture fields. Governmentsare turning more and more to short-cycle education to fill the gap.

Open Access and Greater Equality of Opportunity. Demandsfor postsecondary education, escalating in the late 1960s and early1970s, were generally vocalized by leaders of denied groups. Nationalgovernments responded with alternatives to the traditional university.Alternative systems were created or expanded first where mass second-ary education was most highly developed. Both rich and poor nationswere pressured. For example, approximately 20,000 Colombian sec-ond:1,y school graduates applying for further education in 1973 couldnot be accommodated. And in Tanzania, only one sixth of the studentswho fulfilled all secondary requirements were allowed to take theNational Polytechnical University entrance examination. Expandingpostsecondary, opportunities thus became a uniform goal for short-cycle institutions.

Regionality and Decentralized Decision Making. The determi-nation to regionalize and decentralize postsecondary education is mostpronounced in egalitarian nations where demands for equal op' portu-nity, greater program relevance, and diversification Of services aremost persistent and determined. Decentralizing means transferringmore decision-making power to local authorities and strengthening theinfluence of institutional employees on operational matters. Countriesdeveloping regional and decentralized short-cycle systems (such asNorway) are now searching for a fine balance between local autonomyand national coordination.

Innovation and Student Centeredness. As experiences in cer-tain national settings indicate, short-cycle systems have become leadersin innovation in an otherwise elitist and traditional higher ethication-society. Short-cycle institutions often assume responsibility for changesin curricular planning, teaching methodology, evaluation, and deci-sion making (although they are partially attributable to new energeticand dedicated educators and politicians). The regional colleges ofNt,rway 1,1ve established interdisciplinary courses and, in some cases,reached transfer agreements for such courses with the universitysystem. Students are heavily represented in curricular planning as wellas in the day-to-day practical decision-making process, particularly atAgder Regional College in Kristiansand and Oppland Regional Col-lege in Lillehammer Breaks with extreme conversatism occurring inwork-study programs, correspondence courses, part-time and evening

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study,' and testing and counselingoften appear first in short-cycleinstitutions.

Low Cost. While the new institutions have opened opportuni-ties and,diversified offerings to an expanded clientele, they have notuniformly shown lower operating costs compared with national univer-sities. Governments are encouraged to initiate cost-benefit studies assoon as comparative data can be isolated.

international illustrations

The following brief sketches of short-cycle institutions or sys-tems of institutions have beer prepared by scholars and leaders in thefield; they outline short-cytle development and point toward implica-tions for action in American community colleges.

-Japanese Junior Colleges. Thejapanese-junior college is a by-product-of- post -World War II educational reform. American juniorcollege educator Walter Crosby Eells, who served as advisor on highereducation to the Japanese government during the occupation period,wa4, instrumental in promoting the junior college concept. Althoughnot accorded full legal status until 1964, the first junior collegei werefounded in 1950. Today, Japan supports approximately 515 two- andthree-year junior colleges enrolling 374,244 students.

Despite early American influence, the contemporary Japanesejunior college bears little resemblance to the community college in theUnited States. In the first place, 84 percent of Japan's junior collegesare privately controlled; the remaining 16 percent fall under the aegisof national or local governments. Secondly, although they are sepa-rately chartered institutions, many junior colleges are affiliated withhigh schools or universities. The large majority are located in urbanareas. Most have dormitory facilities, although many students com-mute. Enrollment at individual schools is small, averaging 725 stu-dents. And more than half of all faculty teach parttime.

Acceptance into Japanese junick colleges is based on anentrance examination. Approximately 91 percent of all junior collegestudents attend privately controlled institutions. The majority of thesestudents (88 percent) are women; in contrast, women comprise only-22`percent of all university students in Japan. Among women junior col-lege students, 31 percent major in home economics, 28 percent in -

teacher training, and 23 percent in the humanities. Graduates ofteacher training departments qualify to teach at the nursery, kinder-garten, and elementary levels. Among men students, technical pro-grams are the most popular. Both day and eveni g programs exist, butnearly all women students (97 percent) attend1e former. Approxi-

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ifiately half of all Male students are enrolled in government-sponsorednight schools. Only 3 percent of 1977 graduates transferred to four

\year colleges and universities, and 71 percent entered the work force.

Junior colleges play a clearly defined dual role within Japanese+ ociety. They provide short -term (1) general higher education pro-

\grams for women and (2) specialized terminal career-oriented pro-ams for men. Japan also has a network of sixty-five five-year techni

c I colleges serving 46,762 students. These schools provide the equiva-le t of three_yearof high school and two years of junior college educa-

in the United_atates (see oter°, 1975).---Iftliammunity College Movement. Many countries today

are developing new community-based, short-cycle institutions devotedto eCtication for personal development and community, renewal. Onesuch effort was launcned in India at Delhi University with (he openingof the\ College of Vocational Studies in 1972. The declared purposes forestablishing the college were (1) to bridge the gap between static uni-versity ' ducation and the changing social environment,, (2) to success-fully in erweave general and work-oriented education, (3) to diversifyeducati p with a view toward providing not only knowledge but alsosome skill that may lead to gainful employment in middle-level occu-pations, (4) to relate classroom experiences to practical work experi-ences, an4 (5) to involve trained professionals in designing and prepar-ing curriculums. The long-term objectives are (1) to carry the messageabout these new plans throughout India, (2) to encourage short-cycleand nonformal education, and (3) to develop lifelong learning and thekind of ed,cation that combines the 'Worlds of learning and work..Within the next few years, the college plans to consolidate the study ofdiversified, nontraditional, and vocational subjects. Another impor-tant activity tvill be training vocational teachers for schools at thetwelfth year leVel. The institution will also attempt to develop resourcecenters for suci training (see Malhotra, 1978).

Community Colleges in New Zealand. When Hawke's BayCommunity College began operation in February 1975, it had nodetailed blueprint to follow; thus, its director and its community-ekcted governi4 council were given considerable freedom in inter-preting the provisions of the Education Act. This act stipulated thatcommunity colleges initially were to be established in provincialregions not serviced by universities and technical institutes and thatthey were to be the younger siblings of the technical institutes. Thelleachers colleges and universities remained as separate systems. Now,everal years later, two more new community colleges have been estab-ished and one technical institute has been converted. The pattern

,,established at Hawke's Bay has provided a basic stimulus and idea poolU

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for the new colleges, but each will take on its own character in responseto the community it serves.

Hawke's Bay Community College provides basic vocational train-ing for various trades and professions as interest warrants. In NewZealand, trade training is restricted to an apprenticeship system; thestudent must secure employment before training can begin. Engineer-ing (both mechanical and motor), carpentry, electrical wiring, andhairdressing are all taught at the college. Other programs leading toformal qualifications are offered in accounting, management, and sec-retarial studies. Through cooperation with the appropriate indUstrytraining boards, a variety of short, intensive courses are offered in suchfields as agricultUre, farm servicing, retailing, and food hygiene. Someemphasis is also being 'given to the in-service training of supervisors.

The courses and seminars offered at Hawke's Bay, taught pri-marily by part-time employees, are as diverse as Pare human needs.Some are specifically'aimed a( the Mioti'Ciiimunity,\which makes upHawke's Bay's major ethnic minority. A number of seminars and shortcourses are run in association with other community org-anizazions,and considerable priority is given to providing a format and teachingstyle appropriate for the community constituency. The community col-lege in New Zealand is not intended to be a junior university nor does itgive priority to preparing students for more advanced study, It aims atproviding bursts of education throughout an individual's life that arerelevant to his or licr interests and capabilities at any particular time.Few can afford the luxury of prolonged full-time education; conse-quently, of the 5,000 or so students enrolled in 1978, only about 200wel-e full-time (see Harre, 1978).

Darwin Cemmun* ity College: An Experiment in AustralianEducation. Darwin Community College is located in the remote North-ern Territory of Australia. One half of the inhabitants of this regionare either Aborigines or migrant residents, and 81 percent of NorthernTerritory adults have only reached ninth grade or1ower at school andhence do not have leaving or matriculation certificates. Approximately78 percent of these adults have no postsecondary qualification and 84percent of the Northern Territory work force re in clerica , sales,farming, or blue collar occupations. Thus, in order, to provide educa-tion for such a remote community, the college must cove? the 11 r-tical spectrum of programs from subtrade to degree, which resu s in awide range of staff originating from many parts of the world. 0 r tennationalities are represented. The college was opened in March 74but was substantially damaged in December of that year by cyclon"Tracy." Nevertheless, by 1977, ten thousa,nd students were enrolled atDarwin in programs ranging from recreation to full-time academicwork.

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Darwilg%fiividea into several schools: general studies, includ-ing teacher training, anthropology, and sociology; creative andapplied arts, trades; technology and science; business arid management;and Australian linguistics.. The Alice Springs Center is located 1,000miles from Darwin; other outlying instruction centers include Nhulun-buy, Katherin,tTennant Creek, and Batche:or. One full -time staff-member acts as registrar in the smaller centers, operating with locally .

recruited part-time staff and secondary school buildings. When localsupport staff cannot be recruited, external studies instruction is pro-vided by Darwin through correspondence notes, tape recordings, andvideo materials. If not available froth Darwin, such instruction is nego-tiated through other centers, such as the University of Queensland (seeFlint, 1978). The greatest problem presently confronting Darwin Com-munity College is obtaining resources. Australia's tight economic situa-tion places severe limitations on the growth of new programs whilebarely providing for a continuation of those that currently exist.

Norway's Regional Colleges. An understanding of the regionalcollege movement in Norway might be useful for those nations contem-plating a, similar system. The basic idea is to decentralize higher educa-tion throughout Norway. We rare concerned about filling undemo-cratic gaps between districts, generationsrand sexes. We are also com-mitted to the notion that regions, districts and local communitiesshould have broad responsibility for, planning and decision making inmatters of importance to there. When these two ideas are linked, webegin to appreciate the role of the regional colleges. And now, with ten

_it colleges established since the initial recommendation by the RoyalCommission for Higher Education in 1969 and four more in the plan-ning stages, we are approaching ,nationwide 'coverage.

Regional college curriculums cover a wide range of fields andmay be offered either as university-level education programs of one tothree years duration or as tw&to three-year degree programs that areboth vocationally oriented and interdisciplinary. The one-year pro-grams normally fit into a university degree program and can serve asfurther education for teachers, engineers, and other professionals. Thevocational programs vary from public administration (with such sub-areas as cultural or health administration and urban and rural plan-ning) to programs aimed at educating people for shipping, tourism,the fishing industry, engineering and petroleum development industries,and other vital' reas of the private sector. Individual courses or "coursepackets" are available to part-time students andaerve as instrumentsfor recurrent education. Full-time students are free to choose studiesthat eithsr neet individual needs or match community requirements.

Tin -ommunity orientation of American community colleges is-echoed in tht. district or regional orientation of the regional colleges. A

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noteworthy trait is that courses alternate between various centers; oftenas many as six or seven locations are utilized to achieve a maximum ofregional coverage. These colleges are also given broad responsibility foradult education on the university level. Many courses for adult part-time students are oriented directly toward practical problems f pri-vate and public administration, such as using lay advisory board andbuilding meeting agendas. Fulltime students are expected t enterregional colleges with either a Norwegian gymnas matriculation or itsequivalent (which would be fou: years of senior high school plus oneyear of college in the United States). However, relevant working exper-ience may qualify stuck :s for acceptance. Students may earn a gen-eral two-year degree or enter programs that are planned as a basis forfurther study either in NOrway or abroad. Completion of a three-yearcourse usually qualifies students for graduate studies in the UnitedStates.

Qualification requirements and working conditions for the aca-demicstaff are the same as those at university campuses. Much like inthe university system, students in regional colleges confer with theirprofessors and decide individually whether the course work should becompleted in groups, through lecture attendance, or taough individ-ual study. At present, approximately 18,000 (30 percent) of all Nor-wegian higher education students are enrolled in regional colleges (see

. Hanisch, 1978).The Community College Concepin Latin America and the

Caribbean. Governments in Latin America and the Caribbean tend todivide their educational objectives into two main categories. On theone hand, they see education as the prime instrument in the overalldevelopment of the society. Education is intended to train manpowerin the various skills and professions necessary for programs of socialand economic development;, thus they see education as an investment.On the other hand, Latin American and Caribbean governments alsosee education as a "good," an end in itself. Viewed in this_light, educa-tion is more consumption-oriented than investment-oriented; politi-cians' cannot fail to recognize the demand for education by the peoplewho want it for their own individual use or satisfaction. Communitycolleges are particularly well-suited to the first kind of objectiveproducing manpower for economic development, especially middle-level or semiprofessional workers. Although most countries in LatinAmerica and the Caribbean are in short supply of professionals, scien-tists, and technologists, their lack of middle-level technicians,engineering and scientific assistants, and the like has been identified asthe major constraint on economic development.

Several kinds of Latin Attie' ican institutions are very similar tocommunity colleges in the Ui iced States, including colegios regionales

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(regional colleges), institutos tecnologicos (technical institutes);, andinstitutos universitarios (university institutes); their counterparts in theCaribbean are polytechnics and technical schools. In some countries inLatin America (Colombia, for example), the model of the Americanjunior college and community college had a direct Influence on thedevelopment of the institutos universitarios, many of which wereconversions of existing institutions. In Barbados, for instance, twopostsecondary institutions have recently been amalgamated to form acommunity college that in many respects resembles the typically Amer-ican version. However, the association of the English-speaking countries of the Caribbean (for example, Jamaica and Barbados) with theUnited Kingdom has result( u in the development of postsecond4ryinstitutions patterned more on the British model.

With the same intention of providing technician-level and semi-professional manpower, Trinidad and Tobago have recently estab-lished a National Institute of Higher Education, which will rationalizeand coordinate all training of midlevel manpower, whether it be in thepublic or the private sector. There will be many similarities among thespecialized training schools of the National Institute of Higher Educa-tion in Trinidad and Tobago, the community colleges of the UnitedStates, the polytechnics of the United Kingdom, and the institutosuniversitarios of Colombia:, they all play basically the same role in theirsocieties taking charge of training midlevel manpower.

Despite the need for certain types of training that can aid theeconomic growth of a countrY: the educational qualifications or certifi-cates earned by such training may not have the same market value,social preitige, or general reception in the society as other degrees ordiplomas. This may be the reason why. for example. attempts in Chilein the 1960s to set up regional university colleges along the lines of theAmerican junior and community colleges were converted into five-yearacademk institutions.

The critical shortages of the intermediate-level manpower, thehigh unemployment rate, and the lack of postsecondary facilities formasses of eager young people all indicate that there is an importantplace for institutions like cor,munity colleges throughout Latin Amer-ica and the Caribbean. But the introduction and development of these,institutions will be subject to an interplay of elusive factors that influ-ence educational decision rnaking in developing countries (see Alleyne,1978)4

implications for action

The community college concept continues to attract nationalleaders who are responding to demand for equal access and lifelong

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learning opportunities, as well as other issues associated with the shiftfrom elitist to mass postsecondary education. Visitors are increasinglyseeking advice from American educators, who despite several decadesof progress, still face problems in setting goal priorities, planning andcoordinating services, continuing local control, and maintaining finan-cial stability. While individual consultants can and do provide valu-able services, consortium efforts by groups of institutionsor individualsshow promise in planning various kinds of long-term consultation rela-tionships (Shannon, 1971).

Learning experiences are seldom unidirectional; both commu-nicating parties benefit both positively and negatively. Since otherchapters of this volume concentrate on American contributions, weshall briefly suggest what the American community college movementcan learn from similar efforts in other societies. As short-cycle highereducation in other nations matures, observations of new approaches tocommon problems can be of strategic value to American educators.The British system of part-time, noncampus education, for example,has already influenced the direction of postsecondary education in theUnited States (as is particularly noticeable in the dramatic growth ofexternal degree programs). We should also study Norwegian attemptsto balance the decision-making roles of administrators, faculty, andstudents (Hanisch, 1977; Kintzer, 1974). And we should give closeattention to developments in Canada, particularly the performance-oriented instructional approach called Self-Training and EvaluationProcess (STEP) featured at Holland College, Prince Edward Island(Coffin, 1974), and recent events in collective bargaining centeredpriinarily in the eastern provinces (Carrigan, 1977).

The several technical short-cycle institutions in Singapore offerhighly developed work-study programs and, perhaps more signifi-cantly, provide nonschool youth vocational training outside the univer-sity and college system or through adult education delivery systems(Medsker, 1972). The federally funded CETA program is a roughcomparison in the United States, but communication between adulteducation and regular postsecondary state systems is apparently not asflexible.

As described elsewhere in this volume, stude-t and instructor'exchange can be a valuable component of the greatei- responsibility ofinternationalizing community colleges in the United States. Interna-tionalizing the curriculum is a related dimenion of strategic impor-tance. Such revitalization, now well underway, is beginning to returnrich dividends as American institutions build multicultural compo-nents into a wide variety of offerings. Even a brief on-site overseasexperience in short-cycle higher education, if carefully planned. can

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bring long-lasting dividends. Those wanting to visit a foreign short-cycle system or institution might do well to consider these suggestions:

1. A wide variety of organizations and agencies can help inchoosing the nation to be visited and in establishing con-tacts. These organizations include the American Associationof Community and Junior Colleges (Seymour Fersh, directorof international services); international Linkages (Fred Har-rington, director); the: U.S. Office of Education (EdwardMeador, director, division of international education); theInstitbte of International Education (Peter D. Pelham, vicepresident); anal the American Association of Collegiate Reg-istrars and Admissions Officers (Douglas Conner, executivesecretary).

2. It is advisable to contact the appropriate desk in the Depart-ment of State (Washington, D.C.) for political advice con-cerning the country to be visited. Ask about any particularproblems that you may encounter related to internationalrelations and language requirements. Master a few appro-priate words or phrases; people in the host country willrespond cordially to your attempts to communicate in theirtongue.

3. Overseas inquiries should be' directed to the responsible offi-cial in the foreign government; indicate your precise inten-

-, tions, including professional purposes and personal sched-ule. An exchange of letters or a telephone converation witha gtvernmental or institutional official in the host country isalso advisable in order to arrange additional contacts.

4. Colleagues and students at your institution or at a nearbyschool should be able to offer tips on travel, housing andtouring possibilities.

references

Alleyne, M H. "Educational Objectives in Latin America and the Caribbean and theRole of Community Colleges." Paper presented at Conference of PostsecondaryEducation in the International Community, Orlando, Fla., February 1978.

Carrigan, D. 0. "Unionization in Canadian Universities International Journal ofInstitutional Management in Higher Education, 1977, 1 (1).

Coffin, L. Clientele and Community The Student m the Canadian Comr unity Col-lege Willowdale, Ontario. Association of banadian Community Cdlleges, 1974.

Flint, J. "Darwin Community College. An Experiment in Lustralian Education."Unpublished manuscript, University of California at Los Angeles, 1978

Hanisch, T. E Education in Regional Development Policies Paris Organization forEconomic Cooperation and Development, 1977.

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llanisch, -r. E. "Norway's Regional Colleges.- Unpublished manuscript. University ofCalifornia at Los Angeles. 1978

Harre. J. "The New Zealand Communit!, College Unpublished manuscript, Univer-sity of California at Los Angeles, 1978

Kint7er, F. C Higher Education Amsterdam Elsevier Scientific No 3, 1974.Malhotra, P. L "Community College Movement in India Unpublished manuscript.

University of California at Los Angeles, 1978.Medsker, L. L. The Global Quest for Edacational Opportun p Berkeley ,,Calif Cen-

ter for Research and Deve.lopment in Higher Education. 1972Shannon, W G "International Dimensions of the Community College Pea bodyfour-

nal of Education, 1971, 48 (4), 300 303.Totem, S The Junior College in Japan Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Nova

University, 1975.

Frederick C. Kintzer is professor of higher educationand director of the community college leadershipprogram at the

andof California at

Los Angeles and has .served as a consultantin junior college education to Kenya and Ceylon.

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Community and junior colleges must exploreextensively the dimensions of available

federal support if they are to contributesubstantially to internationalizing eduiation.

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taking the word.to Washington'

rose I. hayden

All who have 4 stake in what the federal government of the United Statesregulates and supports doctors, businessmen, farmers, labor union-ists, and yes, even educators attempt to influence the policy-makingprocess and seek legislation and funding favorable to a particular con-stituency or cause. Deeply rooted in tradition, pressure groups are aninherent part of the American political system, which guarantees peo-pie free speech and the right to petition their gtwernment under thefirst Amendment to the Constitution. Although it is often an uncomfort-able truth for the more insulated members of the academy, bringingthe word to Washington is not only an acceptable and common prac-tice but an expected and essential o e. Increasingly, political apathy orinnocence on the part of educator buys a one-way tick t to oblivion inwhat can only be described as the greatest political show on earth theWashington policy making arena.

No one can deny that the federal government, d pite myths tothe contrary in the form of Article X of the' Constitution, ays a criti-,cal role in virtually all educational areas. Over a hundred c egoricalprograms, administered by more than forty agencies, will istributenearly $23 billion this fiscal year alone to finance educationally linked

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projects at all levels. This represents an 8 percent federal share of alledikational outlays in the United States.

Naturally, this epic involvement has spawned a host of educa-tional agencies, associations, and institutions that purport to speak forthe third of the American population (over 70 million people) that isdeeply concerned with and involved in the educational enterprise. In

dr his recent investigation, Stephen K. Bailey (1975, p. 6) my !s that"dependent upon definition, there are somewhere between 230 and300education associations, organizations, and institutional representa-tives located in or near the nation's capital." His categorical overviewby type of representation includes umbrella organizations (such as theAmerican Council on Education); institutional associations (the Amer-ican Association of Community and Junior Colleges); teachers' unions(the National Educational Association); professional, field, and disci-plinary groups (the American Political Science Association); librarian,supplier, and technologist associations (the College Entrance Examina-tion Board); religion, race, and sex representatives (the AmericanAssociation of University Women); liberal/labor lobbies (the AFL/CIO);institutions and institutional systems (the New York State EducationDepartment); administrators and boards (the American Association ofSchool Administrators); and miscellaneous (the National StudentLobby). This panoply of political interest groups seeks to protect vari-ous clientele from regulatory harm, procures favorable rules and ade-quate funds, and guarantees that professional educational concernsare recognized and treated by all three branches of the federal govern-ment the administration, the Congress, and the courts.

a political primer. i

Getting a fair share of the federal funding pie for edufation is aperennial problem. This is especially true in seeking support for inter-national education programs, as these lack strong political constituen-cies and wide public appeal. Caught between persistent isolationists onthe right and domestic skeptics on the left, and inexorably enmeshed inthe larger controversies of the overall educational scene (such a declin-ing basic skills or taxpayers' revolts), international education, research,and exchange programs face substantial opposition, indifference, orworse in the federal policy-making and funding marketplace. Unfor-tunately, the situation is unlikely to change drastically in the immedi-ate future, despite hopes that the proposed president's commission onforeign language and international studies or the long-awaited emer-gence of a cabinet-level department of education will save Paulinefrom the cliff once and for all. This discussion is not meant to be a pes-simistic assessment; rather, it is intended as a realistic interpretation of

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how Washington actually functions. Furthermore, these fundamentalfacts of political life underscore the vital necessity attached to the chal,lenge of effectively bringing the word to Washington. Whether theyhail from New Jersey or New Mexico, desire area studies or technicalassistance funds, or represent foreign student or study spokespersonswho fully understand the political process and design appropriatepolitical influence mechanisms will be effective in furthering interna-tional education policy and funding goals.

Technically speaking, proponents of international programsmust exercise much caution in bringing the word to Washington so asnot to run afoul of federal tax codes that prohibit tax-exempt, non-profit organizatios from lObbying. From as early as 1907, controver-sies over the activities of educational representatives in _Washingtonrepresentatives have spurred a series of legislative actions designed toregulate and control lobbyists. The very term "lobbying" conjures upthe image of a scrofulous crew of cigar-smoking undesirables grabbingat hapless congressmen as they pass through the Capitol's halls or lob-bies on their way to vote on matters of critical national import: As aconsequence of public concern and other pressures, the 1946 FederalRegulation of Lobbying Act was passed,, requiring paid lobbyists toregister with the House Clerk. Loopholes areinany, however; to date,there have beeg only four prosecutions and one real test case in allthirty-plus years of the act's existence.

More recently, a visible tightening up is apparent;, it dates fromthe passage of the 1969 Tax,..Reform Act, which was designed pur-posely to restrict the_political activities of tax-exempt entities, princi-pally foundations. For the first time, largely as a result of their visiblerole as liberal activists, private foundations were separated from othercharitable groups exempted under the relevant section of the InternalRevenue Service Code. At the time the act was signed into law inDecember 1969, it applied to some 30,000 foundations. As a conse-quence, Washington representatives and their constituents must walka very fine line indeed between "informing and influencing" as opposedto "lobbying" the Congress if they serve Section 501 C-3 (tax-exempt)organizations.

Specifically, if an organization is involved in any or all of, thefollowing activities, it is considered to be an "action" oronization andas such does riot qualify for tax exemption under the Internal RevenueService Code. The restrictions that apply. prohibit tax-exempt bodiesfrom (1) carrying out any propaganda or other lobbying campaign thataffects legislation; (2) undertaking any actions designed to influencethe outcome of public elections or of legislative drives; (3) mountinggrass-roots campaigns to affect the opinion of the general public; or(4) influencing legislation through communication with members of

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,iany legislative body or other government officials involved in the legis-

lative process except for the provision of technical advice or assistanceprovided to a governmental body or committee in response to a writtenrequest.

Yet, just as beauty is in the eye of the beholder, so is lobbyingopen to subjective, often disparate definition. The Internal RevenueService has itself, through rulings, determined the percentage of a Sec-tion 501 C-3 organization's budget that can be applied to lobby-ing activities. In addition, while lobbying is clearly a no-no, pnrvey-ing timely and pertinent information to the Congress as requested isnot. Congressmen and their staff members expect to be provided withsuch information and, in fact, depend on it in many instances. Thus,the reatlssue is not whether educators should enter the realm of policy-making, but rather at which points in the process and in what fashionthey b.-I. ould enter it. Some critics justly accuse Washington representa-tives of being unduly unnerved by the 1969 Tax Reform Act and ofgeneral ineffectiveness in representing educational concern, especiallyin the executive branch, where the code's restrictions do not apply.

shaping federal policies

A brief process overview of recent efforts in support of increasedappropriations for Title VI of the National Defense Education Act andFulbright-Hays 102 (b) (6)both key pieces of legislation underpin-ning international education programsconcretely illustrates theprincipal points of access and decision making in the ftinding cycle.The first step in the extended chain of events is preparing an agency'sbudget. Based on financial needs as, forecast by the U.S. Office of Edu-cation (USOE) in the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,a budget is drafted that includes figures for the USOE's Division ofInternational Education. This is soon followed.by a review in the officeof Management and Budget to bring budget figures into accord withOle priorities and policies of the administration and the executive officeof the president. In this phase, it is absolutely critical that budget offi-cials be both sympathetic to the cause pf international education andwell-informed about the merit of activities in this area. Such officialsmust understand the nature of the programs under review, the relationof those projects to current federal priorities, and their reliance on fed-eral support. ,

About a week after the president's State of the Ur.ion Address,the administration's budget is presented to the Congress. Key actors onthe congressional scene are members of the House and Senate appro-priations subcommittees in the Department of Labor and the Depart-ment of Health, Education. and Welfare, plus their legislative staff

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assistants in the education sector;, in both the House and the Senate,members of the administration and invited public witnesses testifybefore these key subcommittees. Here the case must once again bemade for federal support of international education. While testimonyitself is more often than not a forrriality, congressmen and their staffseizrect to be supplied with both statistical and conceptual data of somepolitical and analytical worth. During this stage in the process, lettersfrom constituents, as well as personal visits with congressmen, are stan-dard and extremely important ways in which interaction occurs onCapitol Hill. All formal testimony is subsequently published in a vol-ume that is available on request to any interested person. This vitalphase of activity, of which actual testimony is but a small part, gener-ally stretches over several months. Often September is waning by thetime both houses of Congress have voted bills that contain the amountsmarked up (or set) by their respective full committees on'appipopriations.

As a pent timate step, both houses appoint what is,known as aconference committee to iron out discrepancies betls. Len the amounts'barked up by the 'louse and Senate. A compromise figure is then set,

itboth houses vote to approve a conferenceeport; the report is thenarded to the president, who has ten days to sign or veto it. A two-

thirds, vote in both houses is required to override a presidential veto.No paiticipant in the process is at all comfortable with the threat ofpresidential vetoes or the impoundment of funds. In times of smoothrelationshipg between the president and Congress, reason prevails overantagonism and the process that began in the past fiscal year begins allover againnamely budget setting, budget hearings, budget presenta-tion, congressional hearings, markup, conference, and final approvalof appropriations.

On the bureaucratic (as opposed to the legislative) side of the,fence, he rhythm of events is determined by the nature of the individ-ual pr grams themselves And, all too often, neither respects nor reflectsacad is semester cycles'. Guidelines for submitting propoials plusde lines for their actual submission are published in the Federal Reg -

ss Because international education consists of a variety of functionalspecialtieslanguage and area studies, advanced foreign area research,and technical assistance programs and exchanges, to name but a fewfunds are spread throughout a wide array of federal agencies, the prin-cipal loci being the USOE, the State Department, the InternationalCommunication Agency, the National Endowment for the Humani-ties, the Agency for International Development, and the National Science Foundation.

While it may seem somewhat difficult to accept at face value,many bureaucrats complain that they do 'not receive timely, qualityproposals from the academic community. At times, funds are not

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expended because of a lack of appropriate proposals. More often thannot, however, competition for scarce funds is keen, which argues for acareful reading of guidelines, an equally thoughtful preparation ofproposal drafts_effective conversation with the appropriate bureaucratic program officers, and timely submission of proposals. Manypotential federal dollars are lost because adequate preparation of qual-ity proposals is accorded low priority by individual faculty memberswhose ability to translate Provencal is somehow unequal to the task ofinterpreting federal guidelines.

implications fur action-

Clearly, community and junior colleges have an increasinglyimportant role to play in the process of internationalizing postsecond-ary education in the United States. Given this overview of legislativeand bureaucratic processes, it is not difficult to posit steps for actionthat can make a crucial difference between successful and ineffectiveWashington involvement. Community and junior college practitionerswith international cducation interests can and have made a differencein the Washington context. Luckily, the universe is manageable, andmany key elements of the process already exist. In a nutshell, theseobs':rvations come trimind and hopefully provide an overview of thebasics of "bringing the word to Washington."

Campus-Level Action. All too often, one hand does not knowwhat the other is doing in the area of international education. Crossdepartmental and intrainstitutionai communications are vita; to thesuccess of designing effective international dimensions in any institu-tion. While there is no one ideal administrative structure for interna-tional studies those persons regularly involved in language and areastudies, in managing foreign study programs, in counseling foreignstudents, and in implementing technical assistance projects shouldconstitute a critical action mass on the campus. Someone ultimatelymust be in charge; for the buck, if there is to be one in the institutionalsense, must land somewhere. A point of contact for news relayed fromWashington about grant, proposal, and. contract opportunities is amust. Also, this campus liaison point is critical when Washington Iep-resentatives reach out for --s, visits, programmatic ideas, and basicdata needed for policy and propriation input.

There are no substitutes for a quality education program oncampus, the commitment of counterpart administrative and fiscal sup-port by administrators, and faculty, and authentic participation by awide range of students. Relationships between individual institutionsand community leaders, regional consortiums, professional associa-

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tions, foreign alumni, and Washington officials require constant atten-tion and can even be fun.

National-Level Action. The American Association of Community and Junior Colleges maintains an excellent international officeAose job it is to plan conferences and special events, coordir eexchanges, serve as an intermediary in the information symbiosis, grand meet distinguished foreign educators, generate grass-roots politi-cal support, appear at congressional hearings, serve on agency taskforces, and so on. Campus personnel should make it a point to main-tain dose and thoughtful contact with this office and to absorb andrespond to requests and communiques with interest 7.nd dispatch.This, of all ties, is the one that binds.

Congressmen like to hear from the folks back home. All toooften', educators do not involve themselves with their'own best friendson the hill, namely their own elected officials. The added strength ofcommunity leadership can be brought to bear as well. Visits, letters,and sustained contacts with congressmen and senators are expected. Ifthese are not forthcoming, elected representatives believe, and withjustification, that international studies, exchanges, and research aresimply not a down-home priority. Bureaucrats are people, too, andthey work against incredible odds to manage a political system that isthe world's most complicated in terms of numbers, dollars, and regula-tions. We must learn to under,stand their instructional contexts; do ourhomework, and best of all, present them with factual and innovativeproposals that meet their guidelines and reflect our own best profes-sional interests. And we must remember that federal funding for edu-cation, in general, reflects national needs, not campus idiosyncrasies.Education is a means and not an end in Washington, and it is utilizedto further such fundamental federal concerns as national security, anti-poverty and civil rights programs, veterans benefits, and labor andchild welfare goals. What we seek at the campus level and what thegovernment desires for overall social good must work together if corn-munity and junior colleges are to compete substantively and politicallyfor the few dollars in the federal till allocated to international ratherthan domestic pursuits.

Despite the prevailing pessimism, no part ular bias againstcommunity and junior colleges exists with he federal structure thatdeals with international education. Admittedly, the field is a very lowpriority within the USOE (for example, it represented only .002 per-cent of the USOE's budget for fiscal year 1978), but, in a relative sense,community and junior colleges have fared as well as other institutions.Indeed, in some cases, proposals submitted by the smaller colleges havehad a higher rate of acceptance than have those from larger colleges.

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For r.(ample, in 1978, the Strengthening Dimensions program of TitleVI of :he National Defense Education Act (administered by the USOE)approved four of the six pi-oposals submitted by community and juniorcolleges one of the highest degrees of success of any academic group.In contrast, of the fifty-nine proposals submitted by all other institu-tions, only nine were accepted,

A substantial amount of federal funding exists for internation-ally oriented projects administered by community and junior colleges,although the smaller institutions traditionally do not participate insuch projects to-a major degree. The development of international,non-Western studies and humanities in the smaller colleges, for exam-ple, is one of the top four priorities of the National Endowment for theHumanities (NEI-1); its division of public programs' State-Based Pro-gram provides funds to local organizations, institutions, and groups,and its Challenge Grants program supports community-oriented pro-grams and provides general operating,-xpenses. The response of si callerinstitutions to the opporatnitiCs.provided by the NEH, however, is low,and bureaucrats complain that they receive few quality propos Is fromcommunity and junior colleges. By keeping informed of and in lved

2\0

in federal funding activities, community and junior colleges. can reapsignificant benefits. While it may seem obvious, no proposals mean nomoniesno ticket, no laundry.

.

An unofficial but pervasive political aspect exists in the world offederal grantsmanship, and international education is no exception.The fact that community and junior colleges submitted only six pro-posals to USOE'5 Strengthening Dimensions compared with fifty -ninesubmitted by larger institutions, gives an advantage to future proposalsfrom the smaller college4,: Federal administrators realize-that they mustnot be perceived as favaing any one group over another, but they maygive special consideration to:proposals from community and junior col-leges in .order to hiladen the distribution patterns of their grants. Fur:thermore, regional preference is also taboo for fezi.:ral administrators;hm..ver, unofficial but special consideration ,nay be given a proposal

iby a community college in M^rtana, for example, simply becauseWashington rarely, if ever, receives an international education pro-posal from Helena..

i . I

Unfortunately, the community and junior colleges have notexplored- extensively the4limensions of federal support for interna-tional education. O.verall, their proposals have a high accei fiance rate,but the total number sub itted is quite low. Consequently, any lack offederal funds for smaller institutions is not due to federal prejudice butto apparent apathy on the part of these colleges as reflected in thedegree of their participation in the grant-getting process.

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conclusion1

..

Washington is neither as mysterious nor as contentious as manyportray it to be. Rather, it is a complicated nexus of policy, polit'ics,and people, whose net otatiluts are only as good as the dm!, intelli- :,gence, and resources invested. This is not to 'excuse abuse, incompe-tence, or mismanagement; on the contrary, only a knowledgeable andinvolved constituency can cm') such evils ant: work to make the systemfunction properly. i

Life will never be easy for Washington representatives uho workagainst the considerable odds of low professional status, lack of finan---

,cial support,.membership apathy, primitive nationai networks, publicdisenchantment with educators, .inflation, and competing prioritieswith far greater political appeal thaninternational programs in post-secondary eeucatio . No one ever said it would be easy. But by bring-ing the word to Iii/ hington through effective organizitionat channelsthat link practitinntrs and policy- makers, the many dedicated admin-istrators, faculty,*d students of this nation's community and junior.collegei will conAute substantially to meeting the immediate chal- ,

lenge of internationalizing education at all levels; they will als.S enhance.this nation's prospects for successfully navigating her ship of statethrough the perilous interdependent cul lents of an emerging global 'age.

reference

Bailey S. K. Educati Interest Groups in the Nation's Capital Washington.An: scan Council on Education. 1975.

Rose L. Hayden is assistant director of the LatinAmerican division, of the Peace Corps and former

director of international programs for theAmerican Council on Education:i

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Each state education board must soon take a standpro or conabout international education in its

own community colleges if the balance amongcommunity, state, national, and world

educational interests is to be maintained.

com ity collegestate oards and

international, education

john c. mundt

While the world is becoming a single great global community,it retains attitudei and habits more appropriate to a differenttechnical hge. . . . Before long, humanity will face many gravedifficulties that can only be solved on a global scale. Education,however, as it is presently conducted in this country, is not mov-ing rapidly enough in the right direction to pr )duce the knowl-edge about the outside world and the attia tes toward otherpeoples that may be essential for human survival within a gen-eration or two (Reischauer, 1973, pp. 3, 4).

Primary reiponsibility`for formal education in the United Statesrests squarely with the fifty states and their respective units of local gov-0ernment; state education boards should actively address .the policy

questions of international and intercultural education in the commu-nity colleges. Hoviever, the constraints of the culture, business climate,and political framework surrounding each community college providean environment not only complex but also essentially parochial in out-look. State boards for community college education must chart an

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intricate trail within this environment if they are to be effective indrafting and implementing international education policies. But this isalmost too much to expect, for how can such aninternational emphasisevolve in an educational environment that is constrained by stateboundaries? In some states, such an emphasis hassurfaced in commu-nity colleges; as yet, however, this is the exception, not the rule. It ismy hope that between now and the year 2000 Reischauer's sentimentwill become operational in community colleges throughout the country.

constraints facing international education

Two-Year Institutions. A degree of trauma has spread through=out community and junior colleges during the past fifteen years as,stategovernments have wrenched from them their historical identity aslocally based institutions ,and corralled them into state and regionaleducation systems. In many instances, the designated roles and pre-scribed authority of the-new governing agencies that were set up, ascompared with the local college administrations, were not preciselydefined. Slowly, however, state dimensions have come to be under-stood and accepted; only the most venturesome institutions haveunderstood and accepted the international dimension of their role andmission as well.

The principal reasons for the failure of Community colleges totake an international step are (1) conceptual and (2) economic. First,community colleges are considered local institutions. And, second,they are supported almost entirely by a combination of local and statetax sources and student tuition. Generally speaking, community col-leges have not been strikingly successful in acquiring support for opera-tions from federal sources. Nationwide, less than 10 percent of operat-ing incomes are obtained from the federal government and privatesources other than students. Pressures on local and state governmentsare causing them to be increasingly critical of requests for communitycollege support, as they are of higher education requests in general.Local _educational requirements come first; the instinct of boardmembers is to feel that international education has nothing to do withthe 'community college mission. In addition, financial crises in the1970s caused by rising costs, leveling enrollments, and diminishedpublic confidence in higher education have caused institutions to con-sider international education an extra rather than an essential to theirbasic missions. Latecomers to international education, such as statecommunity college officials, have found it difficult to build new pro-grams in the absence of outside funding.

Four-Year Institutions. In contrast to the community colleges,the major research universities throughout the United States have, byand large, retained their self-contained governance systems. Some

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hive even been delegated the responsibility for supervising and con-trolling all postsecondary education within their states, including thecommunity colleges. Rarely is a new structure superimposed over theoriginally established board of regents of a research university; thismay be due in part to the regents' lobbying expertise and long-established liaisons with influential state legislators. The regents ofmajor universitiesare appointed on the basis of their,prestigeand theirability to bring endowments into the university; these citizens arewithout question among the "movers and shakers" in their respectivestates. International education in the university has long been encour-aged, and it is looked on by regents as a means of enhancing their uni-versities' status. The incorporation of four-year colleges into systemsgoverned.by the regents of research universities has not dramaticallyimpaired the ability of four-year colleges to engage in a variety of inter-national programs and exchanges. In fact, their involvement has otca-sionally increased because of the emphasis given to it by universityregents. However, the international experience of four-year institu-tions contrasts directly with that of community colleges, in which the

7 international dimension is valued less. Only recently have communitycollege educators here and there begun to sense an opportunity for ser:vice to developing nations. As the emphasis in these nations shifts awayfrom elitist education Anil training doctors, lawyers, and engineers,they look with greater interest toward the more vocationally orientedmodel of the U.S. community college.

legislat.ve influences

The opinions of legislators are diverse among and within the fiftystates. The conceptual and financial constraints cited earlier weighheavily in a state legislature's decisions. Some legislators feel that thecommunity college should concentrate its efforts on meeting the needsof residents of the immediate district. And because community college

estate systems are "new actors," state boards have not yet fully orches-trated the syStem's policies and procedures into role and missionstatements that are meaningful to legislators. This is not to affix blamein either case, however. A new actor must of necessity serve an appren-ticeship for a time before completing a comprehensive interpretationof the enabling legislation.' At the same time, a legislator will hesitateto encourage new directions in the absence of such interpretation andin the face of diminishing resources.

administrative influences

Although it has been virtually impossible to produce sufficientsurvey response on which to base conclusive judgment, those commu-

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nity colleges governed by university regents seem to have become moredeeply involved in international education thus far than have thosegoverned by K-12 agencies, state community college boards, and statechancellorships. The board of trustees of the grate University of NewYork, for example,,which has general supervision over that state's com-munity colleges, published the following recommendation irithe master plan it adopted in 1976 (p. 45):

The university will expand international education among two-year colleges'and increase regional and statewide intercampuscooperation as well. sr

New York is also in the forefront in stressing the study of world culturesat the K-12 level (Fersh, 1978, p. 15): ,

Since 1965 about 300,000 ninth graders annually study the cul-tjires of Asia and Africa. Most often, the approach combinesacademic disciplines such as history, political science,geography, economics, and anthropology, so that the culturescan be understood as integrated societies.

Communitl. cc Ilege operations involving some aspect of in: _.-national education have been approved by educational boards inAlabama, California, Colorado, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii,Iowa,- Kenfucky, Michigan, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, and Wis-consin. Exceptionally large numbers of foreign students enroll in thecommunity colleges of California, Florida, Hawaii, and Nevada.There seems to be no explanation as to why this occurs in some statesbut not in others; no doubt the leadership of a few individuals makesthe difference in most cases.

The state of Washington, with its community college board,has moved deliberately but slowly and cautiously. In 1973, the stateboard adopted a policy for autlu rizing out-of-state educational pro-grams in conjunction with the desires of Big Bend and Olympic corn'munity colleges to administer a Predischarge Education Program(PREP) for military servicemen in Europe and the Pacific. In Decem-ber 1975, the board.adopted a resolution authorizing district boards tooffer English as a second language to southeast Asian refugees for aspecial reduced fee. Also in 1976, the board authorized the engage-ment of its state director of community colleges in foreign educationalactivities "separate and apart from his function as state director, suchactivities not to involve the use of state funds, and all properties andmonies to be handled entirely on an annual leave or consulting timestatus" (Washington State Board for Community College Education,

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1976, p. 4). This has fostered assistance to the state of Trujillo, Vene-zuela, in developing a community.college-type facility and program.Finally, in 1978, the board authorized one of its members and the statedirettor, who were part of a community college delegation to the Peo-ple's Republic of China, to extend an invitation for a return visit byChinese educators in an effort to establish educational contact withpostsecondary institutions in that country. The Washington stateexperience is, I believe, typical of several other states with comparablepolitical structures.

Let me quickly point out that Ido not believe the answer toexpanding international education at the community college level isplacing all two-year institutions under the jurisdiction of a researchuniversity. Even in New York, for all the bold pronouncements of the1976 Master Plan, "until quite recently few of the thirty-six two-yearcolleges in the system have given much attention to international edu-cation" (Putnam, 1977, p. 23).

support for internationalizing education

It is possible for those state directors of two-year college sistemswith leaderihip and enthusiasm for the international dimensioneffectively supported by their legislators, college boards, college consti-tuents, business communities, and capable instructors to embark ona variety of international educational relationships and activities;,how-ever, they must also articulate local sentiment, and that is all too oftennegative. The following attitudes reported by a number of state direc-tors express the negative point of view (Mundt, 1978):

There is an unwritten policy that has been in effect sincewe began . . . that we prOvide education only for

Several years ago, several of our universities worked withsome of the private institutions and with a national group todevelop progritms and proposals for foreign students. . . . thecommunity colleges were invited to participate . . . but I donot .believe many attended the conferences.

My . . . opinion is that many would share the attitudethat significant expenditures of state money in this area wouldbe questionable.

Our board has taken a very tough position concerningout -of- district course offerings by community colleges, and itwould doubtless take an even stronger stand against interna-tionalizing the community colleges in

The foregoing would seem to bear out a conclusion cited byThomas Diener, director of the Institute of Higher Education Research

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and Services at the University of Alabama,. and Lornie Kerr, dean ofstudent services at Northwestern Michigan College (1975, p. 14) whosuggest:

Many community, colleges in the U.S. seriously 'question whetherthey should be involved with foreign students or with interna-tional education at all. The rationale usually given is that theyare locally based educational institutions with local financiilsupport and therefore should not expand their responsibilitiesbeyond this scdpe.

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However, there are.positive (and courageous) supporters for an inter-national emphasis in other states. For instance, the associate chancellorfor community colleges in New York, Cornelius Robbins (1978), says:

I am convinced of the vital importance of international,education to the community colleges. Our shrinking world -

requires that we expand, our definition of community, and wemust expel the thought that community colleges are too local tolook beyond their sponsors borders.

The cultural advantages of foreign students on our cam-puses are clearly evident. As for our students profiting fromoverseas study, witness the fact that one of our colleges, Rock-land, has such an interest among its students that over 5 per--cent of its enrollment is now abroad in England,. Israel, andother countries.

And across the country in California, William Craig, the recentlyappointed state director of community colleges, states (1978):

An international experience has become an importantpart of a complete education for the Seventies.

Today' college curriculum is deficient without an inter-nationa dimension which moves students to other countriesand makes the reciprocal possible. The exchange of ideas andthe opportunity to communicate in a different language raisesour horizons and expands a learning in all the disciplines.

Hence, we find a difference of opinion.; with two seaboardstates, New York and California, taking the read in voicing support fora more cosmopolitan future for community college education.

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Every state board will also inevitably face tht question: Is inter-national education a proper direction for a system of community-basededucational institutions? S. V. Martorana, professor of higher educa-tion and research associate at the Center for the Study of HigherEducation at Pennsylvania State University, poses a role question(1978, p. 49):

Looking at the constraints that stem from . . . political andpublic policy decisions, the fundamente is the extent towhich community and junior colleges seek to be instruments forcommunity and social reform. Do the leaders in these institu-tions really mean it when they state that community collegeeducation should actively contribute to the general improve-ment of the social order? Can essentially conservative commu-nities (those in which most community colleges are found) begently but firmly moved to social and cultural attitudes andperspectives more conducive to service that has an internationaldimension?

It has always been interesting to me that in the state of Wash-ington two rural community colleges (Big Bend and Yakima) have twoof the most robust foreign programs of the twenty seven colleges in oursystem. Big Bend -even has an active Japanese alumni association inJapan, thanks to its program for Japanese agriculture and aviationstudents. At Yakima, an energetic grantsman succeeded in bringinglarge contingents of foreign students from South America, the Arabcountries, and elsewhere. The cosmopolitan atmosphere of urbanareas, of course, should contribute to the establishment of intercul-tural programs in those areas (such as Miami, Los Angeles, and SanFrancisco). Yet inevitably, even in urban areas, I suspect it comes backto individuals with a Richard Halliburton glint in their eyes, who arewilling to provide leadership despite local mores militating in favor ofthe status quo. However, a time of taxpayer revolts is not the most pro-pitious for such glints in the eye.

Nevertheless, leadership is very necessary as the globe continuesto shrink. Dare a state board say, "No, it is not community collegebusiness" to a People's Republic of China seeking assistance in scienceand technology, to a Nigeria seeking thousands of places for itsstudents in U.S. postsecondary institutions, or to additional thousandsof students from oil-rich Venezuela? I contend that it is the Ilusiness of ,

community college education to allocate state resources for these pur-poses; we must convince governors and legislatures that such a courseof action is in our best interest.

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implications for action

Without board policy, international education activity andenrollment will occur only as a coincidence rattier' than as a fulfillmentof the board's goals and objectives. As all experienced board membersknow, the boaid is admonished by le&islators to be accountable for theactivities of its colleges, regardless of whether or not those activities arecodified in the board's policies and procedures. In studying the prosand cons of an international education emphasis, any board would dowell to ask its director to prepare a well-researched and Thoughtfullyanalyzed discussion draft addressing the elements and constraints ofinternational education, In general, these should include the followingquestions:

1. What are the legal constraints and attorney general opinionscovering state. statutes on operation of outofstate pro-grams, financing of such programs, consulting time of thestate director and/or staff, participation of the state directorand/or staff in out-ofdistrict activities,, foreign travel, andso on?

2. Relationships with other institutions:a. Shall the community colleges enter into relationships

through consortiums, cooperation with a research uni-versity, linkages with foreign institutions, and technicaassistance to less-developed countries?

b. What are the considerations for entering into such rela-tionships effectively?

3. Internationalizing the curriculum:a. What will the board decide and what will the local insti-

tutions be free to decide?b. Shall credits in area studies and foreign languages be dis-

tribution requirements for the associate degree?c. Shall staff of the community colleges be involved with

university research in area studies and in foreignlanguage teaching effectivenesl?

4. Expanding international education among two-year collegesand increasing regional and statewide intercampus coopera-tion:a. Shall regional and intercampus cooperation with respect

to international education be encouraged?b. Shall the allocation process include incentives to expand

an international education emphasis (as has been theecase with some legislatures and boards in advancingminority and disadvantaged education)?

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5. Enrolling foreign students in community colleges:Ai

a. Shall the enrollment of foreign students be encouraged?Shall such students be recruited?

b. Shall reciprocal tuition agreements be sought betweencommunity colleges and foreign institutions?

6. Shall study abroad and exchanges of faculty and students bepermitted? encouraged?

7. Shall community colleges. offer eaucational programs out-side of the United States?

8. Shall the state director and staff respond to and/or seekrequests. tot consulting services from foreign countries andseek alternatives for financing and staffing such consultingservices? .

The Washington state community college board, now com-pleting its tenth year, initiated early in 1978 a major review of existingand needed policies. In that review, the subjects of "role and mission" .

and "international education" appear separately, with the latterscheduled for consideration later. The basis for this separation of tworelated items is the premise that state legislators will react more fav-orably to a new educational direction if they first are assured that exist-ing legislative concerns have been satisfied in the board's basic role andmission statement. This strategical guideline may prove helpful to statedirectors whe wish to influence their boards toward adopting an inter=national education emphasis.

conclusion

I am, without question, an unabashed advocate of an interna-tional dimension in community college education, and I am convincedthat we Americans must have the courage of our convictions in thesematters. With skillfully developed policies and procedures, communitycollege systems merit and can obtain the support of their legislatorsand communities for more international prograrn. Such programs cancontribute substantially to the welfare of the world community bydeveloping educAtional and cultural linkages with developing coun-tries in vocational education, adult continuing education, short-cycleeducation, and other service areas related to the amocratization ofeducational opportunity. It is difficult for the United States to developintellectual and cultural ties with foreign nations (within the hemi-sphere, we are, to many, still the colossus of the north); communitycolleges are the American educational institutions best equipped toforge such ties.

Specifically, the modern American community college is in a

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position to make a unique contribution to less-developed countries inthe area of technical assistance; state policy should deliberately and).specifically encourage this. Developing countries havt historically goneto one of two extremes they either Emphasize educating blue collarworkers or stress university programs that educate professionals. Conversely, they have given inadequate attention to preparing the techni-cians, paraprofessionals, and skilled workmen who are. needed in thebroad area between blue collar workers and professionals. Communitycollege preparatory and supplementary vqcational programs areadaptable to these needs in many nations. I stress the word adaptable,fOr we Would be arrogant to think, for example, that we could take the

A 600 vtigetional courses in the, Washington community college systemand install them overnight in Traji llo, Venezuela, without change. Butmuch that we have !earned wduld be of use to educators in 'Trujillo.American and Vene,zuelan educators, working together with sensitivityand understanding. could develop on a hybrid baiis postsecondaryinstitutions and programs of immense value to Venezuela. Venezuela,like many other countries, officially has become committed to thedemocratization of educational opportunity; the community collegeopen door policy is consistent with that national goal. State officials idthe United States would be wise to recognize the opportunity for blend-ing such common principles.

I will not go so far as to insist that boards are delinquent in theirduties if they do not implement immediately an international focus. Aspointed out earlier by Martorana, a board's decision to be either reac-tive or active in any area must be sensitive to many situations.However, to ensure a desirable balance of community, state,, national,and world interests, it is urgent that each state education board soonbecome decisive pro or conabout international 'education as' itrelates to its own community colleges. A board that indefinitelyneglects this policy question will abrogate fly default its decision-making authority to other agencies and interest groups, for betteii orfor worse.

In making policy decisions regarding an international dimen-sion for community college education, state boards will have to takestate legislative views into account. The following two statements arepositive and forward looking; they represent legislative attitudes thatwill be needed during the remainder of this century. First, PhyllisErickson. chairperson of the House higher education committee of thestate of ; Tashington, says (statement of position prepared at author'srequest, 1376):

1The importance of international education cannot be overem-phasized in our current age of highly sophisticated and sensitive

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political and business issues of an international nature. An thepostwar years, foreign countries have looked to America to helpin-educating their students, and .we have gladly assumed thatresponsibility: We must be sure, however, that we reap as much,benefit from opportunities for our (In students to trainabroad, encouraging a broad range of experience. It is the dutyof the policy: makers, legislators, .eind boards of trustees toensure that conditions exist which encourage an internationalapproach to education.

And H. A. Goltz, chairman of the Senate higher education committeeof the state of Washington says (statement of position prepared atauthor's request, 1978):

The founders of the United States of America recog-nized and expressed the belief that an enlightened and edu-cated citizenry is essential to a democratic form of government.It follows that, in a time when our people interact with and areimpacted by international forces and events on a daily basis,our educational sysxem must reflect this worldwide relationship.Not to do so leav -s a vacuum of ignorance wherein democraticdecision making and policy determination become confusedand faulted.

The traditional years of public education through highschool are too short, the breadth of offerings too narrow, andthe depth of understanding too shallow to provide sufficientinternational educational understanding to meet the require-ments of our body politic in these complex times. This responsi-bility has increasingly been assigned to'the postsecondary edu-cational institutions and, fortunately, increasing numbers ofyoung People go on to college, and more and more older adultsare returning. . . .

For many people (and in increasing numbers), commu-nity college may be the only experience in higher educationthey will have. This being the case, the question is: "To whatextent will their education be complete if it does not involve anunderstanding of the world and of people outside their owndistrict?" ,

It would seem important that each community collegecurriculum should have an international emphasis. We shouldencourage the attendance of foreign students at least to someminimum extent to provide a more cosmopolitan campusatmosphere and assure that broader'perspective. There shouldbe student and faculty international exchanges, improved

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library resources, and other program efforts at internationalknowledge and understanding. . .

Counter to this view is a possible legislative attitude thatcommunity colleges are for "students near home," "students ofthe community." Times of austerity encourage such an atti-tude, but it is essential to krrow what is important to be taught

well'as.who is to be taught.If there are doubts, efforts should be made to test the

validity of the international dimension of education-in our com-munity colleges. It would 'be a legitimate legislative function toprovide for a..befOre and after student attitudirial study of reac-tions to internationalizing the community college cuiriculum,having foreign students, and otherWise stressing internationaleducation. .

The dangers and pace of world events demand, how-.

ever, that we not delay stepping up our international educa-` tional obligation to our citizens. The increasing role of.our com-. munity colleges suggests this would be a likely place to make

that effort.

references.

Board of Trustees of State University of New York. Internatiohal Education in the State ,University of New York. Albany: State University of New York. 1977.

Graig. W. Personal communication, May 1978.Diener, T. J.. and Kerr. L. "Two Year Colleges: New Pioneers." International Educa-

( ctionatand Cultural Exchange, '1975. 10 (4), 12-1U,Fersh. S. Asia. Teaching About /Learning From. Ne4 York: Teachers College Press..' 1978.

Martorana. S. V. "Constrolints and Issues in Planning and Implementing Programs forForeign Students id .Commthiity and Junior Colleges." In E? J. Gleazer. Ir.. andothers. (Eds ). The Foreign Student in United States Community andfurizor Colleges.New York: College Board. 1978. ,

; Mundt. J. C. "Survey .of StattDiiectors of Cominunity and Junior Colleges." Unpub,lished paper. Olympia: WAirfigton. March 1978.

Putnard. L. Jr. International Educationsin the State University of New York. 'Albany:State University of 1ew:York. 1977.

Reischauer. E. 0. Thwart!" the Twenty -First Century. New York: Knopf. 1973.Robbins. C. Personal communication, October 1978.Washington State Board foi Community College Education. Minutes of the Meeting of

o June 23, 1976 Seattle. Washington State Board for Community College Education.1976. t

John C. Mundt is former state director of communitycolleges for Washington and serves as an officialConsultant th'e Venezuelan Ministry of Education.

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Our prosperity depends, in large part, on linkages withother parts of the world; educational cooperation

can and must play a major role in enhancinginternational communication and understanding.

international linkages:the community'college role

fred harvey harringtonshirley clarkson

2IUIn theyears since World War II, American higher education has acquireda greaideal of experience in international education;, a field of increas-

eing ifripoitance to our nation and to both 'developed and developingcountries overseas, it requires the attention of all American collegesand universities and their counterparts abroad. For American institu-tions, there is a double urgency: first, on our campuses, students musthave an opportunity to learn more about the -world than they havelearned in the past. If there is to be peace in the future, the UnitedStates, as a major power, must make a substantial contribution toimproving international understanding; in our democratic republic,this means that our citi4ens must be well-informed about global prob-lems and attitudes. It is encouraging to see that American higher edu-cation has maXedly increased its offerings in internationalttopics dur-ing the past three decades not only for undergraduates and graduatestudents on campus but also for credit and noncredit students off cam-pus (including the adult and special students who are a growing pail ofthe higher education total). It is also encouraging to note the rise instaff expertise concerning foreign languages, areas, and cultures.

New Directions for Community Colleges, 26, 1979 1 (,9 101

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Whereas only a handful of academics were acquainted with the moreremote parts of the globe in 1940, we now have many such specialists(though, granted, not yet enough).

Second, we are coming to see that the welfare of every part ofthe United Stateseach region and community depends on contactswith the whole world. It is no longer possible, if ever it was, for a com-munity to be isolated. Economic prosperity is associated with overseasmarkets and with imports from abroad, as well as with complicatedand changing arrangements with foreign countries in the Americas,Europe, Asia, and Africa; thesL affect not just the citizens who special-ize in international matters but every American man, woman, andchild.

requirements for international education-,

Given this background, it is essential to recognize three things:(1) that every postsecondary institution in the United States must becomeinvolved in international education;, (2) that there must be significantlong-range linkages between American colleges and universities and

,colleges and universities overseas, in addition to whatever relationsmay exist between governments; and (3) that these linkages are compli-cated, time-consuming, and expensive and thus more than casualattention is required if they are to succeed. In the remainder of thischapter, we will examine these three points in detail.

General Involvement of American Postsecondary Institutions.In the past, much of our international education activity, both onAmerican campuses and overseas,, has been concentrated in relativelyfew institutions. Included here are the public and private prestige uni-versities that handle the bulk of doctoral and postdoctoral teachingand research in foreign areas and provide advanced training for foreignstudents in engineering, science, and other specialties. Also includedare the land-grant colleges and universities that have strengths in suchfields as agriculture and extension services and a traditional interest inapplications as well as theoretical research.

It is only natural. that the United States government and foun-dations interested in work abroad turned to those institutions in thepost-World War II era, when we were just getting started in interna-tional education and when was necessary to mount programs in ahurry and get quick results. It was natural, too, that foreign countries,particularly developing countries, should look to such institutions fortraining and for advice and collaboration in the field. After all, thesewere the "name" institutions, the places where their American-trainedleaders had obtained their advanced .!durations. Obviously, these insti-tutions will continue to be leaders in the international field, but they

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cannot bear the total responsibility; the task of international educationis simply too large. Everyone must get into the act if we are to reach allAmerican citizens and establish and maintain the necessary ties to post-secondary education abroad.

Fortunately, this needed expertise is no longer limited to a fewAmerican colleges and universities. Because of the broadening trendsof recent years, many Americans now have overseas experience, as is evi-dent in every one of the 3,000 American institutions offering postsec-ondary education. What is more, in each of these institutions, there isa growing awareness of the importance of international education off-springs, the value as well as the burden) of having foreign studentsand faculty on campus, and the usefulness of overseas contacts achievedthrough faculty and student travel and study abroad, institutional andmulti-institutional projects in other lands, cooperative training, andjoint research projects for mutual benefit. Community and junior col-leges have special importance in this international trend, because alarge percentage of the young people in the United States begin (andoften end) their postsecondary education in these institutions, whetherin terminal liberal arts or technical training programs. These two-yearinstitutions act as adult centers, too. In addition, they eduPate a sub-stantial percentage of the foreign students who come to the UnitedStates. Thus, if there is any desire at all to internationalize Americanhigher education to prepare citizens to understand world problems inthe futuremuch of the work must be done right here.

At the same time that community colleges are adding globalmaterials to their campus curriculums, they must also be active over-seas in study abroad programs for their students and faculty, in exchangearrangements, and in helping foreign countries improve their man-power training. This is important everywhere in the developed.coun-tiles of Europe and japan, in the advanced countries of Latin America,and in the less-developed nations. The really crying need is in the devel-oping countries. Most of the newly independent nations of Asia andAfrica and some long-independent parts of Latin America have a sur-plus of highly-educated manpower (engineers, physicians, lawyers) anda critical shortage of trained personnel in the supporting specialties(technicians in the health professions, draftsmen, foremen, computerand data specialists, trained farm extension agents, and so on). TheAmerican agricultural and industrial structure rests on the base pro-vided by these men and women, who outnumber our scientists, engi-neers, and physicians four or five to one. The developing countries arebecoming increasingly aware of their needs in this sphere; in order tomove forward, they are already looking fo and beginning to get helpfrom community colleges in the United ates.

Long-Range Linkages. Interg vernmental relations are neces-

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sary in international education, for both financial and policy reasons.Experienee has shown, however, that disaster looms when all decisionsare made by government bureaucrats. Educators must be involved atevery point deciding what should be taught, setting up faculty andstudent exchanges, and working out plans for cooperation in trainingand research. Thii is essential for quality education at any time. Whatis more, establishing college-to-college contact makes possible continu-ing educational cooperation even when the countries involved havediplomatic differences. Exchanges or joint projects administered bygovernments are likely to grind to a halt during periods of policy dis-agreernent; however, if educators are in charge of arrangements, itmay be possible to continue operations during times of political strain.

We know that linkage., work. The record of the last generationproves this, as was evidenced by the building of agricultural universi-

ty in newly independent countries after World War II; Asian andAi' -ican faculty members were trained on campuses in the UnitedStatic, while educators from those same American universities wentabroad to help set up the institutions that would employ the trainedAsians and Africans upon their return. Unfortunately, however,, the

job was oaten considered complete when the colleges, universities, andinstitutes were in operation in the developing countries. What wasneeded, actually, w_ere continuing relationships that would assist thefurther growth of the emerging institutions.

Continuing linkages are of particular importance in newlyemerging fields, such as middle-manpower training, which is at theheart of the community college effort overseas. But there are specialproblems here, some on the American side and more abroad. In theUnited States, few community colleges are large enough, well-staffedenough, or sufficiently well-financed to take on institution -to- institutioncontacts by themselves, let alone develop broad long-range relation-ships. The solution, of course, is to band together. A group of collegesin one community college system (for example, Los Angeles) can forma unit, or colleges and college systems can be tied together in consor-tiums.

The difficulties are far greater overseas. In many countries,technical training is entirely separate from college and university edu-cation. Often it is lodged in a ministry that is unaccustomed to workingwith educators or foreign partners and that is dispo-ed toward insistingon handling all negotiations at the governmental rather than the cam-pus level. Or, in countries in which manpower planning is new, theremay be. po institutions that can serve as linkage partners. Again, thosein charge.of new technical training programs in developing nations areless likely to be foreigntrained than are our university heads. Thisadds to the ever-present problems of understanding and communita-

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tion, which are often compounded by language barriers as well. Allthis only underscores the need to establish linkages and to keep thoselinkages alive as long as possible.

Required Time, Money, and Increased Attention to Interna-tional Linkages. Most degree-granting universities, especially thosewith professional and graduate programs, now have their own interna-tional specialists, both on the teaching front and in administration.They also have graduates stationed overseas in academic and govern-mental posts. Many such institutions have built an international dimen-

--sioninto their campus budgets _using income from, private donationsand from regular state appropriations, as well as from funds from theUnited States and foreign governments. They have also created regionaland national organizations with expertise in making linkage arrange-ments. For example, the international office of the American Councilon Education, financed in part by the Ford Foundation, has helpedensure federal financing for Title VI of the Higher Education Act,which has provided support for campus centers for advanced areatraining and research. The NItional Association of State Universitiesand Land-Grant Colleges has been successful in helping its memberinstitutions form institutional linkages through financing .from theAgency for International Development. In a few cases, these degree-granting universities have worked with state and community collegesand small liberal arts institutions. The Los Angeles area fui-nishes oneexample. But cooperation is rare; time and again the new actors areleft out of higher education delegations sent abroad and conferenceson international cooperation.

With initial assistance from the Kellogg and Ford foundations,the American Association of Community and Junior Colleges hasmoved forward in establishing a permanent international office. Andwe have already noted the impressive work of the various community

college consortiums that have drawn on the strength and substance ofindividual community colleges to promote on-campus internationaleducation, study abroad, faculty and student exchanges, and institu-tional linkages in many parts of the world. The record is good, but sofar government funding agencies both here and abroad have given fartoo little attention and support to the international efforts of commu-nity colleges. The major foundations have also lagged, and communitysupport for international matters has not been all that might bedesired. With sufficient effort, the future should show significantimproveMent. But cooperation among the various types of colleges anduniversities and the associations that represent them is necessary, too.Too often, higher education has presented a divided front and hastherefore failed to obtain the backing it should have; this needs to becorrected.

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The higher education associations have tried to cooperate onthe linkagei front,'with the National Association of State Universitiesand Land-Grant Colleges in the lead. Six associations joined in 1976-1977 to sponsor a feasibility study on international linkages in highereducation. (The six associat*ns were the National Association of Star:Universities and Land-Grant Colleges, the American Association ofCommunity and Junior Colleges, the American Association of StateColleges and Universities, the American Council on Education, theAmerican Association of Colleges, and the Association of AmericanUniversities. A seventh association, the National Association of Inde-pendent Colleges and Universities, joined the original sponsors in 1978,The American Association of Colleges ofTeachers Education-also--made a major contribution to the study.) The study recommendedestablishing a central office in Washington, D.C., that would beresponsible to all the associations and that would assist in developinginternational linkags. This office has not yet been established. Cooper-ation among the associations, never easy to maintain, broke down oversome of the recommendations of the study and the ,question of leader-ship among the associations. Consequently, it has not yet been possibleto obtain either a launching grant from a major foundation or ade-quate financing from government agencies. (On the governmentalfront, the study may have come at an tinfortunate time; it coincidedwith as-yet-incomplete reorganizations of the Agency for InternationalDevelopment (AID), the Department of Health, Education) and Wel-fare, and the Department of State and the formation of the Interna-tional CoMmunication Agency.)

There are indications that at least some of the higher educationassociations will work together on international linkages; at the sametime, there are encou1aging signs in government. Title XII of the For-eign Assistance Act definitely encourages linkages. So will the Founda-tion for International Technological Cooperation, which has been pro-posed by President Carter and is now in the planning state, Our col-leges and universities may benefit front the creation of the Interna-tional Communication Agency; certainly itsleadership favors an expan-sion of international academic contacts. The president's commissionon language and area studies may also yield good results; and we findsupport for iltitutional linkages In the National Science Founda-tion, the National Academy of Science, the Department of Commerce,and elsewhere. Meantime, financing from overseas sources has beenincreasing.

One does not like to end on a pessimistic note. Nevertheless, wemust state that threatened budget cuts may prevent expansion ofopportunities in the near future. And, despite some progress, commu-

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nity colleges have not yet been accepted by the other higher educationinstitutions as full partners in the international field. This exclusion is__pot in the national interest; we must all work to see that this ithportantpart of higher education,is not neglected.

Fred-Harvey Harrington is director of theinternational linkages in lugher education

feasibility study. He is former presidentand current z (as professor, University

of Wisconsin.

Shirley Cla,lison !Is deputy director of theinternational linkages in higher education

feasibility study and former director ofthe Sout lieast Asia Council association

for Eastern studies.

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Are we really fully prepared for the long and risk-ladenvoyage-of iizterria tiOnaridiCa. tion? We must lookcarefully at our prospects of survival and success.

weathering the heavy seasof international education

benjamin r. wygal

The preceding chapters have provided the content and processes forplanning and implementing our international education voyage.Through them we have examined the rationale for international edu-

' cation, the roles'of he various participants in' the effort, the multiplethrusts and benefits of a comprehensive program, and the plethora ofapproaches to implementing this still-emerging community collegefunction. Investigating in detail the prospects of involving the commu-nity college in international education heightens our anticipation; wehave tasted the salt spray, and some of us have even cruised right outinto the sea. The lure of such treasures as an energized staff, anenriched curriculum, and an enlivened and expanded student experi-ence calls us to action.

Our ship is prepared, but are we fully prepared to weather the, heavy seas and unknown risks of international education? In weighing

the payoffs against the pitfalls, we must look soberly at our prospects ofachieving success or even surviving. The purpose of this chapter is tobuild on and round out the preceding chapters by suggesting somepractical approaches to planning and implementing international edu-cation and avoiding related hazards.

New Directions for Community Colleges, 26, 1979 109

1.16

charting the course _

Charti:ig the course for international education developmentrequires clarifying and establishing an appropriate priority for interna-"tional education within the overall goals of an institution. This, inturn, requires the involvement of the president, his staff, and theboard of trustees. Only through such a clarification and prioritizationprocess can friagmentation be avoided and the number and diversity ofprojects be balanced appropriately.

First and foremost, the president must become involved inplanning the international edjcation program, A great deal of his orher time will be consumed !pithe initial stage, which calls for setting.goals and defining the types of activities that constitute internationaleducation:In addition, while there is much to be learned from educa-tors, there is also a great deal to be learned from other sources (such asofficials in the Agency for International Development, the WorldBank, and the Organization of American States). The president would 7

find a study of the goals and objectives of such organizations very bene-ficial in clarifying the rationale for international education in the com-munity college. Another commitment that the president must make atthe'very beginning is;making available "seed money" for travel pur-poses so that necessary information can be secured. The presidentmust also be willing to commit -staff time for international develop-ment; this commitment would strengthen both the program and thestaff's involvement in its progress. In addition, he or she will need astaff member, not necessarily full-tinie, to serve as a formal or informal,director of international education.

Care must be taken, however, that an international educationprogram that- is being promoted by the president does not came to beviewed as "another of ,L president's toys." The international educa-tion program must be institutionalized. For example, Florida JuniorCollege at Jacksonville has a director of international education whoworks directly with the president in planning and development. Thefoul* campus provosts are each assigned specific projects related to theirindividual campuses, and the programs are thereby institutionalized atthe local level. An international education advisory committee has alsobeen developed within the college to provide directional input and tohelp interpret the prOgrams to the entire college.It is very important to"spread around" some of the early projects so that many different indi-viduals among the faculty, staff, and administrators can "buy into" theconcept through. participation.

The college's governing board is extremely important to the ini-tial development of the international education program. Its memberpolicy tn rs, usually called trustees at community colleges, are those

..)

111

to whom the college is actually.accountable. The constituency placesits trust and confidence in the trustees to ensure tha the purposes ofthe institution are fulfilled; the trustees, in turn, are accountable to thecommunity. The acceptance of the idea of international education, aswell as its placement within the institution's priorities by the board oftrustees, *cannot be achieved through a one-time sales pitch;, supportmust be built carefully over'a period of time. This requires that thepurposes of international education as they relate to the college as 'awhole be continually studied, delineated, and verbalized. Programpresentations'at regular intervals at board meetings and in individualconferences and conversations are extremely important. The final suc-cess or accountability of the program will be expressed in terms of thedegree to which the policies, budgets, and curriculums voted intoaction by the trustees support and promote international education.

The community college staff should regularly, not just foraccreditation purposes but as a part of continuing self-renewal,analyze institutional goals. Periodic reviews will provide great opportu-nities for upgrading, integrating, and harmonizing international edu-cation with the various goals of the college. Realistic priorities alsoshould be established for international education, and careful atten-tion should be given to avoiding fragmentation. Obviously,, a greatdeal, of exploration is required in order to build contacts, developdiversity, and expose what might be done. Priorities should be estab-lished according to what can be done and how much effort the collegeis willing to expend in developing international education.

Local industries are a great source of information, input, andperceptions about how international education can best serve the com-munity. Analysis and research, much like needs assessment techniques,may be employed to understand_ clearly how local industries are involved,in international trade and business. (For example, the sea harbor at

Jacksonville, Florida, does over 14,000,000 tons of business annually;imports and exports each represent about eighty different industries.Moreover, literally hundreds of firms conduct at least some interna-tional business.) Once an assessment is completed, contact may bemade with individual businessmen; they then may be asked to serve onlay advisory committees for international education. Obviously, specialinterests thus can be brought to bear on special projects.

Finally, a careful analysis should be made of what the college isalready doing in the area of international education. Most adminis-trators and policy makers, as well as faculty and staff, will probably besurprised at the number and diversity of international activities thatare already taking place. At Florida Junior College at Jacksonville, forexample, an ,initial review revealed that the college enrolls a con-siderable number of foreign students, conducts extensive student study

r11 e

112

and travel abroad programs, encourages-staff attendance at interna-tional meetings, and facilitates staff travel abroad for developmentpurposes.

getting underway

International education development requires proper internaland external climates. During the development of basic priorities andplans, as well as on an ongoing basis, the careful building of the inter-nal climate can be accomplished in several ways. Discussions should beheld with the internal advisory committee to explore very carefully therationale, justification, and budget implications of various courses ofaction. The easiest way to do this is to tie in to some existing activities,such as student travel, courses along the lines of international educa- °tion, faculty development and travel, or student activities that bring .

foreign visitors-to the -campuses. Developing strategies for siringexperiences of foreign students with faculty and students can increaseboth the visibility of foreign students on campuses and interest in inter-national education.

Some early research related to the interest of staff members ininternational education should also be conducted. For example, a ques-tionnaire concerning professional- development might be sent out.Such a questionnaire might assess interest in faculty exchanges or for-eign travel opportunities and thus provide an early estimate of thenumber of faculty members and others who might be interested in inter-national education activities; this approach would help build an inven-tory of individuals win) would stand ready to participate in interna-tional education and thus help build the climate for the programthrough peer groups. Most importantly, international education mustbe seen as atkintegral part of the total college program.

Building the external climate in the rry beginning requiresbasic work itfith selected constituents, including external advisory com-mittees. If a community college has organized an independent founda-tion, the governors of that foundation should be involved in suchefforts as early as possible; hopefully, they will adopt internationaleducation as a priority. However, such priority establishment must bebacked by budget decisions. Early activities in international educationwill require some seed money or up-front funding. Such funding cancome from a variety of sources. First and most obvious is the operatingbu,dget. Hoivever, some states do not consider international travelappropriate for the expenditure of regular college funds; in Florida,for example, the director of the diviSion of community colleges hasexpressed concern relative to spending staff and program developmentfunds for international travel. Support from private foundations or the

113

113

college's own foundation is a second possible source for this seedmoney. A continuing flow of extra funds into the college will be impor-tant in the ongoing development of the pfogram. Third, the collegemay participate in cooperatives or consortiums and may receive moneythroiigh grants from organizations, foundations, or the federal govern.ment. As a fourth alternative, the college may participate with bust=..nesses, governmental units, professional associations, or other organi-zations and individuals in generating start-up money for programs.Leaving no stone unturned will pay dividends for.early successes in theprogram.

As stated earlier,, it is very important to do a great deal ofexploration into all aspects of international education. However, alisting of fifty or more posiible projects sometimes can be a detriment

... I when there are few, or perhaps no actual successes, achievements, orongoing programs to point to with pride. Consequently, it is very

-important to select carefully and receive credit for some of the projectsthat can be undertaken readily.

steady as she.goes

Maintaining a good understanding and acceptance of interptional education programs within a particular institution will requirecontinual exploration and development of public relations strategies aswell as close and careful work with those who hold the purse strings ofthe college (usually the state legislature, and the board of trustees). Ithas been said that good public relations is doing well and getting creditfor it and this is the pme to do well and get some credit. But it is alsothe time to follow a workable system for information dissemination. Acollege's approach to public relations is, characterized largely by theway information about its various programs is.disseminated. The col-

.lege can simply sit back and respond to random questions asked bynews media and others, or it can use an interpretive approach to ini-tiate the dissemination of such information to the news media and tothe public at large. This kind of approach requires the establishmentand maintenance of coordination between the public relations depart-ment artd the international. ducation office. ActiVities to be 'developedand packaged for public relations purposes can thus be timed so thatthey promote a long-range approach to understanding the program.

It is very important to deal with the legislature in a sitnilarfash,lop. It is not enough to passively hope that whAever the legislature dis'covers on its own about the international education program will bepositive. In most cases,' legislatures want to know what is going on intheir community colleges, and they want to understand their pro-grams. They also want to be sure that the community at large under-

114

stands those programs. A good program stands a better chance of receiv-ing legislative support if it is defended logically with a well-researched

mrationale. There is nothing more damaging than for a legislator whoknows nothing about the international education programs of a collegeto read in the social s5stion of the newspaper that a - faculty member'has been in Europe enjoying the beautiful sights: The telephone rings,and the legislator's office inquires about junkets paid for by the taxpay-ers. Legislators niust Understand thC rationale for the internationalprogram; this can be accomplished only by a lot of personal hard work.

the Bermuda Triangleefr

The "domestic backlash issue may be described as the Ber-muda Triangle of international education in the community college.This issue involve's the problems of defining community college bowl-dary limitations (the district versus the world as a community) and, of -"-course, the idea of the junket. The way in which the college is able tomeet and overcome these challenges will determine the success of itsinternational education program, or perhaps even its survival on theheavy seas.

Unfprtunately, many policy makers see no farther than com-mitity college district boundaries in relatiOn to decisions regardingstudents,' programs, and activities. We cannot ignore this situation.,Malty a, program has been squelched after a discussion in a boardmeeting or a call frop a constituent claiming that the prografn is notappropriate for a community" college. Careful attention to develop-ing an understanding of the program and its climate will help avoidthis kind of reaction. . .

Proposition 13 in California and the reduction of innovativeprograms throughout the states has caused a great backlash in the tra-

' ditional approach to programming. This domestic backlash can killinternational activities quickly if the college does not plan ahead care-fully. qhapter orie of this sourcebook does an excellent jot) of develop-ing the rationale for viewing the world as a community; it should Jaestudied carefully by all who must defend international education.Theie defenders shoUld include a broad group of faculty, staff, stu-dents,, trustees, and people from the community.' Every trip, tour, or exchange taken by a faculty or!staff membermust be interpreted in terms of its objectives. This will be important inovercoming the junket accusation. Many times glamorizing the trip byusing such terms as exotic and faraway lands cap briug foi-fh accusa-tions that taxpayers' money is being wasted to send people on nicevacations throughout the world. The specific objectives in terms dfprofeisional growth, enrichment of curriculum. and benefits to stu-

'-

11)14,41,

t 11i

dents must be established and kei5t before everyone involved, especiallythe raveler. The travelers should understand what the objectives arear understand the i portance of emphasizing those objectives when

cy talk about their trips with individual and group constituents.

lull speed ahead

We have now charted our course,' looking carefully at the rolesof the president, his staff, and.the board of trustees in establishing andclarifying an appropriate priority for.iinernatiOnc'al education withinthe overall institutiorta, goals. We know that we must avoid fragmen-tation of the prdgram by establishing realistic priorities within it and.)y balancing the number and diversity of projec We also know theactivities involved in getting-underway, including building the climatefor international education both,internally and externally and obtain-ing' seed money from various sources. And we know that we shouldplan carefully for some early successes in the program.

Once the international education voyage is underway, we mustwork carefully on 'good public relations strategies. including an initiastion and interpretation approach to disseminating information. Weroust also work with our legislators in developing an understanding andacceptance of the need for international education. We must be pre-pared to deal with the pitfalls and whirlpogjs of international educa-tion, epecially the domestic backlash issue. And, of course, we mustcontinually be aware of junket accusations and be prepared to meetthem. Thoughtful planning can aid in convincing our congtitncrits thatwe area part of a larger world community:

International edueation is very important and can be amongthe greatesi'means available to improve and energize the staff. It is avery effectiVe way to enrich the 'curriculum and to expand" studentopportunities fin- greater learning experiences. In the future we canlook foiward to the growth and expansion of international educationin the community colleges. There is much to be gained not gnly by thecollege but by educational development worldwide as community col-t-.leges develop their own staffs, students, and programs and help othercountries expand educational horizons for all.

Benjamin R. Wygal is president, Florida JuniorCollege at Jacksonville, and a member of theboard of directors of the Community College

Cooperative for International Development.

es

4,

r.

Additional materials on international educationin the community college are available

from a variety of sources.

sources and informationon the ,community college

in a global, context

andrew hill

This concluding chapter provides additional references pertinent to in-'ternational education and two-year colleges. The list includes books, arti-cles, and reports dealing with every aspect of international education.Howeve lack of-space prohibits lengthy description of these resources.

So des that are followed by an ED number-are in the ERIC sys-tem. These o ents, artless otherwise noted, a.-e available on micro-&he (MF) or paper copy (HC) from the ERIC Document Reproduc-iive Service (EDRS), Computer Microfilm Internation Corporation,P.O. Box 190, Arlington, Virginia 22210. The MF price ocumenunder 430 pages is $ .83. Prices for NC are as follows: 1-2 ages,$1.67; 28-50 pages, $2.06; 51-75 pages, $3:50; and 76-100 pages,$4.67. For materials having more than 100 pages, add $1.34 for each25-page increment or fraction thereof. Postage must be added to allorders. Bracketed publication dates are approximate.

books

Bailey, S. k..Education Interest Groups in the Nation's Capital. Wash-ington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1975.

New Directions for Community Colleges, 26, 1979 117

118

Beck les, M. Teaching Abroad. New York: Institute of InternationalEducation, 1973.

Burn, B. B. Higher Education in Nine Countries: A Conzparative* Studyof Colleges and Universities Abroad. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.

Gleazer, E. J., Jr. This is the Community College. Boston: HoughtonMifflin, 1968.

Gray, A. W. International and Intercultural Education in SelectedState Colleges and Universities. Washington, D.C.: American Asso-ciation of State Colleges and Universities, 1977.

Mead, M., and Heyman, K. World Enbugh: Rethinking the Future.Boston: Little, Brown, 1975.

Medsker, L. L. The Global Quest for Educational Opportunity. Berke-ley: University of California, Cente- for Research and Developmentin'Higher Education, 1972. 96 pages. (ED 071 619)

Miel, A., and Berman, L. M. (Eds.). Educating the Young People ofthe World. Washington,, D.C. : Association for Supervision and Cur-riculum Development, 1970.

Von Klemperer, L. International Education: A Directory of ResourceMaterials on Comparative Education and Study in Another Country.

. Garret Park, Md.: Garret Park Press, [1973].Yarrington, R. (Ed.). International Development of the- junior College

Idea. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Junior Colleges,1970. 300 pages. (ED 045 079 available in microfiche only)

articles

Breuder, R. L., and King, M. C. "The Canadian Connection." Junior. College Journal, 1977, 47 (8), 28-29.

Breuder, and King, M. C. "A Cooperative in the World Commu-nity." Junior College journal, 1979, 49 (6), 24-27.

Duperre, M. "Global Development of the Two-Year College Concept."Higher Education, '1974, 3 (3), 315-329.

Jenkins, H. M. "International Education and NAFSA, 1948-1978."International Educational and Cultural Exchange, 1978, 14. (1),13516. -

'Johnson, B. L. "Is the Junior College Idea Useful for Other Countries ?"junior College Journal, 1961, 32 (1), 3-8.

Kerr, L., and Diener, T. J. "Two-Year Colleges: New Pioneers?" Inter--national Educational and Cultural Exchange, 1975, 10 (4), 12-15.

rF Kintzer, F.. C. "Junior College Movement in Ceylon." International Edu-cational and Cultural Exchange!, 1970, 6 (2), 76-85.

Kintzer, F C. "Educational Reforms in Yugoslavia." Educational Rec-ord, 1978, 59 (1), 87-104.

Leetsma, R. "Global Education." American Education, 1978, 14 (5),6-13.

119 -----_,

Schultz; R. E. "A Focus for Community College Development inEurope." Junior College Journal, 1971, 42 (1). 21.

reports,

American Associatitm of State Colleges and Universities. Can ManTranscend His Culture? The Next Challenge in Education for GlobalUnderstanding. Washington, D.C.: American Association of StateColleges and Universities, 1973. 114 pages. (ED 126 829)

American Association of State Colleges and Universities. The Int-...rna-tional Responsibility of Higher-Education. WashiQgton, D.C:-Ameri--can Association of State Colleges and Universities, 1975. 5 pages.(ED 121 170) ..,

American Council on Education. Education for Global Interdepen-dence. A Report with Recommendations to the Government/Aca-demic Interface Committc4. Washington, D.C.: American Councilon Education,, [1975). 122 pages. (ED 113 263 available in micro-fiche only)

American Council on Education. International Education A Compendium of Federal Agency Programs. Washington, D.C.: AmericanCouncil on Education, 1978.

Ashby, E. The Structure of Higher Education A World View. Occa-sional Paper No. 6. New York: International Council for EducationalDevelopment, 1973. 22 pages. (ED 083 891)

Breuder, R. L. A Statewide. Study: Identified Problems of Interna-tional Students Enrolled in Public Community/Junior Colleges inFlorida. Tallahassee: Florida State University, 1972. 73 pages. (ED062 J977)

Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs. A Human Contributionto the Structure of Peace: International Educational and CulturalExchange. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Educational and CulturalAffairs, 1974. 46 pages. (ED 118 519)

Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs. Directory of Contacts forInternational Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Exchange Pro-grams. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Educational and CulturalAffairs, 1975. 79 pages. (ED 101 651)

Cerych, L. A Global,Approachto Higher Education. New York: Inter-national Council for Educational Development, 1972. 23 pages.(ED 083 943)

.

Cooney, D. T. The Foreign Student Program in Florida Public Com-munity Colleges. Unpublished paper, Florida State University, Tal-lahassee, Florida, 1974. 52 pages. (ED 095 935)

Frey, J. S. A Reviezv of Problems Concerning the Granting of Transferof Credit for Undergraduate Study Abroad Programs. Unpublishedpaper, 1976. 15 pages. (ED*136 168 available in microfiche only)

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120

Gleazer, E. J., and others. The Foreign Student in United States Com-munity and Junior Colleges. New York: College Board, 1978.

Glick, E. L. International Education in the Two-Year College. Paperpresented at the seminar on international education at the 82ndannual meeting of the North Central Association of Colleges andSchools, Chicago, April 12, 1977. 12 pages. (ED 139 469)

Griffin, W. H. International Educational Cooperation and the World's: Future (A Transitional Model of Educational Relations Across

Isidlicmal/Cultural Boundaries, Within the Context of PreferredWorld Futures, and as a Basis for Educational Planning). 13npub:lishidPaper, [n.d.]. 18 pages. (ED 137 250)

Hall, B. L. The Junior College in International Perspective. TopicalPaper No. 8. Los Angeles: ERIC Clearinghouse for Junior Colleges,1970. 42 pages. (ED 035 417)

Harari, M. A Guide to Planning and Funding International _Studies.Washington, D.C.: American Association of State Colleges and Uni-versities, 1976. 30 pages. (ED 125 403 available in microfiche only)

Hayden, R. L. The Policy Imperative. London: Central Bureau forEducational Visits and Exchanges, 1974.

Hayden, R. L. International Education: Putting Up or Shutting Up.Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International StudiesAssociation, Washington, D.C., February 1975. 15 pages. (ED 120043) .

Julian A. C., and Slattery, R, E. (Eds.). Report on the InternationalEducational Exchange: Open Doors 1975-76 to 1976-77. New York:Institute of International Education, 1978. ,

Kerr, L. Foreign Students in Community/Junior Colleges. (Rev. ed.)Washington, D.C.: National Association for Foreign Student Affairs,1978. .

McIntyre, P. K. American Students and Teachers Abroad: Sources ofInformation About Overseas Study, Teaching, Work, and Travel.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of (Health, Education, andWelfare, 1975.

McMullen, W. M. The International Student Program in Texas Com-munity Colleges, 1976-1977. A Status Study. Unpublished paper,Henderson County Junior College, Athens, Texas, 1977. 15 pages.(ED 139 464)

National Association for Foreign Student Affairs. Guidelines:. Respon-sibilities and Standards in Work with Foreign Students. Washington,D.C.: Nationa ) Association for Foreign Student Affairs, 1970.

Perez Ponce, J. lie International Dimension of United States Commu-nity, Junior, and Technical Colleges. Washington, D.C.: AmericanAssckiation of Community and Junior Colleges, 1975.

Perkins, J. A. Int ational Pr °grams of U.S. Colleges and Universities:

121

Priorities for the Seventies. New York: International Council forEducational Development, '1971.

Putnam, I. (Ed.). The Community College Looks to The 21st Century.New York: Learning Resources in International Studies, 1974.

Regents of the State University of New York. Education and GlobalInterdependence. Albany: New York State Department of Educa-tion, 1976.

Sutton, F. X., and others. Internationalizing Higher Education: AUnited States Approach. Occasional Paper No. 13. New York: Inter-,-national Council for Educational Development, 1974. 49 pages. (ED098 890)

Ward, R. E. National Needs for International Education. Washington,D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies at GeorgetownUniversity, 1977.

White, J. F. Foreign Study and the Comiteunity College. Unpublishedpaper, University° of California at Los Angeles, [1975]. 23 pages.(ED 112 962)

unpublished papers

Hayden, R. L. Close Encounters of a Real Kind: Study Abroad andInternational Education. Unpublished Manuscript, 1978. (Availablefrom American Council on Education, Washington, D.C.)

Hayden, R. L. Funding Advanced Foreign Area Research: An UnmetAgenda. Unpublished manuscript, 1978. (Available from AmericanCouncil on Education, Washington, D.C.) -

Hayden, R. L. International Educations What's It All About? Unpub-lished manuscript, 1978. (Available from American Council on Edu-cation, Washington, D.C.)

Andrew Hill is staff research associate at theERIC Clearinghouse for funio)- Colleges at

the University of California at Los Angeles.

1 9

A

AACJC. See American Association ofCommunity and Junior Colleges

Aborigines, Australian, 72 .ACCT. See Association of Community

College TrusteesACCTion Program, 11Adams, V., 1, 10African/American Institute, 5Agency for International Development,

29, 50, 83, 105Alleyne, M. H., 77American Association of Community

and Junior Colleges, 2, 4, 9, 15, 56,77, 105, 106

American Association of Commu'nityand Junior College International/Intercultural Consortium, 4; 5

American Association of Colleges. 106American Association Of Colleges for

Teacher Education.%American Association of Collegiate

Registrars and Admission Officers, 6,77

American Association of State Collegesand Universities. 6, l06, 119

American Council on Education, 6,106, J09

American Host Foundation, 41American Language Institute se. George=

town University Test, 59Appalachian State University, 43Ashby, E., 119Asia, Southeast, short cycle institutions,

67Association of American Universities,

106

B

Bailey, S. K. 80, 87, 117Beckles, M., 118Berman, L. M., 118Big Bend Community College, 17, 92,

95Board of Trustees of the State Univer-

sity of New York, 100

ine -x

Boyer, E., vii, x, 2, 9Breuder, jt v, vii, x, 1'3, 119Brevard Comm'unity College, Cocoa,

Florida, 5, 20, 39, 40, 42Broward Community College. 10, 42Bunker Hill Community college, 20, 23Bureau of Educational and Cultural

Affairs, 119Rurn, B. B , 118

C

Carrigan, D. 0., 76, 77Center for the Study of Community and

Junior Colleges, 57Cerych, L., 119Chu. Y., 35, 36City Colleges of Chicago. 25Clarkson, S.,-vi, 101, 107Coffin, L., 76. 77College Consortium for International

Studies (Tri-State Consortium), 4Colleges of Advanced Education, Vic-

toria, Australia, 65Columbus College, 42Community College Cooperative for

International Development (CCCID),4, 14, 15, 20, 40. 43

Community College and university Con-sortium for International Education,15

Community College of Denver, 25Community colleges, state boards, and

international education, 89-100; ad-ministrative influences, 91-93; con-straints facing international educa-tion, 90-91; four-year institutions,90-91is implications for action, 96-97;legislative influences, 91; support forinternationalizing education, 93-95;two-year institutions, 90

Community College World Studies Pro-gram, 27, 40

Comprehensive English Language Test(CELT), 59

Conner, D.,,77Cooney, D. T., 119Council for International Cooperation

in Higher Education,

123

124

Council on International EducationalExchange..6, 26

Craig, W.. 94. 100Cultural studies, 31- 36; advantages,

32 -34;, becoming our own teachers,35-36; implications of educationalchange, 34-35 -4

Cuyahoga Community College, 25

D'1

Dawson College, 42de Bary, W.. 32. 36de Bono, E.. 32, 36de Chardin, T., 35, 36Delaware Technical and Community

College, 20Delphi feedback methods, 25-Devadutt, S., 24Diener, T. J., v, 49, 93,.100, 118Duperre, M., 118

- E

Educational institutions, short-cycle.65-79 ,

El Congreso Nactonal De Asuntos'Colegtales, 5

El Paso Community College, 5English as second language, 60. 92Erickson, P., 98Eskow, S., 12, 18Essex County Community College, 25ESL. See English as second language

F

Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act,46, 81

Fersh-, S.. v, 31. 36, 77. 100Flint, J.. 73. 77Florence-Darlington Technical College,

20Florida Collegiate Consortium for Inter.

national/Intercultural Education, 42Florida International University, 4Florida Junior College at Jacksonville.

20. 40, 42, 43, 111Ford Foundation, 105Foreign Assistance Act, 106Foreign Policy Association. 6 'Foundation for International Techno-

logical Cooperation, 106Frey. J. S., 119Fulbright-Hays Program, 40, 82

1 ) )11.0 ki

G

Gleazer, E. J , 9, 100, 118, 120Glick. E.'L., 120Golden West College, 25Goltz, H. A. 99Grant. S. R. 19, 29Gray,.A. W. 118Griffin, W H., 120

H

Hall, B. L., 120Halliburton, R . 95Hanisch, T. E., 74. 76, 77, 78Harari, M., 120Haire, J., 71, 78Harrington, F. H., vi, 8. 9, 77. 101Harvard University. 35"Harvard is Debating Curriculum to

Replace General Education," 35, 36Hayden, R. L.. vi, 79, 120, 121Hefferlin, J. L., 11, 18Heyman, K.. 118Hill, A., vi, 117Hodgkinson, H., 13, 18

IInstitute for Higher Education Research

and Services, 56Institute for International Education, 5

41, 77Institutional responsibilities to foreign

students. 49 -56; institutional responsi-bilities, 54-56; institutional responses,53-54; problems, 52-53; why serveforeign students?, 51-52

Interactive forces theory., 13Internal Revenue Service Code. 81International Center in New York, 41International Communications Agency

(ICA), 6, 83, 106International education and staff devel-

opment, 37-46; exchange programs,39; foreign curriculum consultants,40; group study abroad program 39;guidelines, 43-45; host families, 40-41;, implications for action, 46; insti-twes, 43; international options forstaff development. 38-43; potentialproblems, 45-46; teaching abroad,41-42. workshops, and conferences, 42

International education, college andcommunity 11-18; committing insti-tutional resources, 17;, community

college goals and international edu-cation, 14: extra-personal forces in,15-16Linflovation, change, and interactive forces, 13-14; meeting thechallenge, 12-13; personal' forces,14-15; strategies for integrating pio-grams, institutions, and communities,

" 16-17International Foreign Language Insti-

tute, 43International linkages, 77International linkages and the role of

the community college, 101 -107: gen-eral involvement in international edu-cation, 102-103; long range linkages,103-105; requirements for interna-tional education, 102-107: time,money, and attention needs, 105-107

Internationalizing the college curricu-lum, 19-29; "affinity group flights,"26; conferences, 25 -26: exchange andtravel abroad programs, 26-27; for-eign curriculum consultants, 26;recommendations for action, 27-29;;themes, 25 -26: Title VI experiences,20-25; why internationalize?, 20

J .,

Jenkins, H. M., 118Johnson, B. L., 118Johnson Foundation Conference, 10Julian, A. C., 120

k' Junior College Journal, 3

11(

K-12 Agencies, 92Kansas State University, 25Kelleher, A., 23Kellogg Foundation, 105Kerr, L., v, 49, 94, 100, 118, 120King, M. C., v,, vgi, x, 118Kintzer, F. C., vi, 65, 76, 78, 118Kirkwood Community,College, 21Kuhns, E. 13, 18

L

Lancaster University, 43Leetsma, R., 118Los Angeles Community College Dis-

trict, 15

125

M

McIntyre, P. K., 120McMullen, W. M., 120Malaspina.College, 39, 42Malhotra, P. L., ix, x, 71, 78Maori, New Zealand, 72Martorana,S. V., v, 4, 10, 11, 13, 16,

18, 95, 100Massachusetts Bay College, 23Masters, F:, 21Mead, M., 118Meador, E.,, 77Medsker, L. L., 76, 78, 118Miami-Dade Community College, 5,

25, 49Michigan Test of English Language

Proficiency, 59Middleton, L., 57,, 64Midwest Center for Off-Campus Stud-

ies, 4Miel, A., 118Monroe Community College, 24Mundt, J. C vi, 89, 93, 100

N

National Academy of Sciences, 106National Association for Foreign Studeni

Affairs, 5, 56, 58, 64, 120National Association of Independent

Colleges and Universities, 106National Association of State Universi-

ties and Land Grant Colleges, 105National Council for Community Ser-

vices to International Visitors, 41National Council for Staff and Program

Development, 47National Defense Education Act, Title

VI, 20, 82INItional Endowment for the Humani-

ties, 83, 86; State-Based Program, 86;Challenge Grants Program, 86

National Scienr Foundation, 83Navarro College, 20New York University, 5North Shoie Cbmmunity College, 23Northern Virginia Community College,

25Northwestern Michigan College, 56

-O

Orange Coast Community College, 25Organization of American States, 110

lao

126

P

Pelham, P. D., 77Perez Ponce, J., 120Perkins, J. A., 120Peterson, R., 13, 18Pirsig, R., 35, 36Portland Community College, 25Predischarge Education Program

(PREP), 92Putnam, I., Jr., 93, 100, 121

R

Rationale for International Education,1-10, germination, 3-5; global con-nections, 8-9; requirements, 7-8. slowgrowth, 6-7; support and its sources,5-6

Regents of the State University of NewYork, 121

Reinhardt, J E , 6, 10Reischauer, E. 0., 32. 36, 89, 100Robbins, C., 94, 100Robertson, P. F., v, 57Rockland Community College, 5, 14, 42Rogers, R. H., v, 5

S

Schultz, R. E., v, 6, 10, 37. 119Self Training and Evaluation Process

(STEP). 76Shannoh, W. G., v, 4. 5. 10. 11, 16, 18,

76, 78Short-cycle institutions. 67- 79; Austra

Zia, Darwin Community College, 66,72-73; Alice Springs, Community Col-lege. 73; Barbada, 75; Canada, Hol-land College, 76, Chile, 68, 75, China,People's Republic of, 67. 93; Colombia, 68, 69, 75; French UniversityInstitutes of Technology. 65, 68;India, 71; Israel Community ::ollege,66; Jamaica, 75; Japan Community'sCollege. 66, 70, Latin American andCaribbean, 74-75; Mexico, regionaltechnic-'.nstitutes, 66; New Zeiland,Hawke's ay Community College, 66,72; Norway, regional colleges, 66, 69,73-74;Quebec, 66: Singapore. 67, 76;Soviet Union. 67; Sri Lanka, 67; Tai-wan, 67; Tanzania, 67, 69; Trinidadand Tobago, 75; United Kingdom,67, 75; Venezuela, 68, 93, 98; Yugo-slavia, 68

1 -0

Sister Cities International, 5Slattery, R. E., ,120Society for Intercultural Education,

Training, and Research (SIETAR), 63Southeast Florida Educational Consor-

tium, 4State University of New Xork, 92Sutton, F. X., 121

T

Taking the word to Washington, 79-87;campus level action, 8;1; categories ofeducational pressure groups, 80; im-plications for action, 84-87; nationallevel action, 85; political planer, 80-82; shaping federal policies, 82-84 .

Tarrant County Junior College, 25Tax Reform Act, 69, 81Teachers of English to Speakers of Other

Languages (TESOL), 63Teaching English as second language.

E7 -64;, establishing an English lan-guage program, 58-61; evaluation,62; international student advisers, 61;,placement, 61-62; program options,58-60; staffing, 60-61

Terrell, R., v, 37Test of English as a Foreign Language,

59

Third World Literature, 24-25Third World nations, 20, 21, 22, 50, 65-

79, 103Title VI, 20, 82. It15; Strengthening

Dimensions Program, 86Title XII (Foreign Assistance-Act) 106Totero. S., 71, 78

U

U.S. Department of Commerce. 106U.S Department of Health, Education,

and Welfare, Office of Education, 6,77; Division of Internal Programs, 26,40, 82

U.S. Department of State, Bureau ofEducational and Cultural Affairs, 6,83

United States/United Kingdom Trans-atlantic Institute,, 43

University`of Alabama, 56University of Arizona, 47University of California, 5University of Miami, 64University of Queensland. 73

Vancouver Conclave, 8Vincennes University; 16

,Visitor Program Service, 41

Ward, R. E., 121Washington State Board for Community

College Education, 92, 100

'127

White, J F., 121Williamsport Community College, 41Wingspread Conference Center, 2, 12W,anzer, P. A., 4, 10, 16, 18Wygal, B R., vi, 109

Y

Yakima Community College. 95Yarrington. R , 118

132

New Directions Quarterly Sourcebooks

New Directions for Community Colleges is one of several distinctseries of quarterly sourcebooks published by Jossey-Bass. The source-books in each series are designed to serve both as convenient compen-diunis of the latest knowledge and practical experience on their topicsand as long-life reference tools.

One-year, four-sourcebook subscriptions for each series cost $15for individuals (when paid by personal check) and $25 for institutions,libraries, and agencies. Current 1979 sourcebooks are available by sub-scription only (however, multiple copiesfive or more are availablefor workshops or classroom use at $5.95 per copy). Single copies of ear-lier sourcebooks are available at $5.95 each.

A complete listing is 'given below of current and past source-books in the NeW Directions for Community Colleges series. The titlesand editors -in -chief of the other series are also listed. To subscribe, orto receive further information, write: New Directions Subscriptions,Jossey-Bass Inc., Publishers, 433 California Street, San Francisco, Cali-fornia 94104.

New Directions for Community CollegesArthur M. Cohen, Editor-in-ChiefFlorence B. Brawer, Associate Editor

-1973: 1. Toward a Professional Faculty, Arthur M. Cohen2. Meeting the Financial Crisis, John Lombardi3. Understanding Diverse Students, Dorothy Knoell4. Updating Occupational Education, Norman Harris

1974: 5. Implementing Innovative Instruction, Roger Garrison6. Coordinating State Systems, Edmund Gleazer,

Roger Yarrington7. From Class to Mass Learning,, William Birenbaum8. Humanizing Student Services, ClydeBlocker

1975: 9. Using Instructional Technology, C.;eorge Voegel10. Reforming College Governance, F.ichard Richardson

11. AdjUsting to Collective Bargcining, Richard Ernst12. Merging the Humanities, Leslie Koltai

1976: 13. Changing Managerial Perspectives, Barry Heermann14. Reaching Out Through Community Service,

Hope Holcomb .

15. Enhancing Trustee Effectiveness, Victoria Dzuiba,William Meardy

16. Easing the ,Transition from Schooling to Work,Harry Silberman, Mark Ginsburg

133

1977: 17. Changing Instrzictional Strategies, James Hammons18. Assessing Student Academic and Social Progress,

Leonard Baird19. Developing Staff Potential, Terry O'Banion

ft 20. Improving Relations with the Public, Louis Bender,Benjamin Wygal

1978: 21. Implementing Community-Based Education,Ervin L. Harlacher, James F. Gollattscheck

22. Coping with Reduced Resources, Richard Alfred23. Balancing State and Local Control, Searle F. Charles24. Responding to New Missions, Myron A. Marty

1979: 25. Shaping the Curriculum, Arthur M. Cohen

New Directions for Child DevelopmentWilliam Damon, Editor-in-Chief

New Directions for Continuing EducationAlan ,B. Knox, Editor-inChief

New Directions for Education, Work, and CareersLewis C. Solmon, Editor-in-Chief

New Directions for Experiential LearningMorris T. Keeton and Pamela J. Tate, Editors-in-Chief

New Directions for Higher EducationJB Lon Hefferlin, Editor-in-Chief

New Directions for Institutional AdvancementA. Westley Rowland, Editorin-Chief

New Directions for Institutional ResearchMarvin W. Peterson, Editor-in-Chief

New Directions for Mental Health ServicesH. Richard Lamb, Editor-in-Chief

New Directions for Program EvaluationScnvia B. Anderson, Editor-in-Chief

New Directions for Student ServicesUrsula Delworth and Gary R. Hanson, Editors-inChief

New Directions for Testing and MeasurementWilliam B. Schrader, Editor-in-Chief

134