001_early radio [1 of 4]

Jackie NeffJune 16, 2007

Dip in Radio Sales from 1926-1927

Despite surrounding years of growth, the market experienced a sharp dip in radio

sales between 1926 and 1927.1 Though potential causes are many, the most likely

motivator was a court's decision in 1926 determining that Hoover, Secretary of

Commerce at the time, had exceeded his authority in restricting Zenith Corporation's

ability to broadcast under a valid license.2 The court held that, although Congress had

empowered the Secretary to oversee license applications through the Radio Act of 1912,

the Act did not grant Hoover discretionary authority to regulate license use.3 Rather, the

Act alone enumerated applicable regulations, and Hoover could not specify additional

wave-length and broadcasting time restrictions as he had been doing.4

Under legal and political pressure, Hoover took a laissez-faire approach for the

following year.5 Congress was reviewing several regulatory proposals.° In the

meantime, Hoover attempted to encourage self-regulation among licensees.' Rather than

spontaneous order, the result was "chaos in the airwaves as the radio stations arbitrarily

increased power, shifted frequency and started up without licenses."8

1 79

2 U.S. v. Zenith Corp., 12 F.2d 614 (D.C.. Ill. 1926). This case was preceded by Hoover v. Intercity Radio

Company, 286 Fed. 1003 (D.C. 1921), which held that the Secretary of Commerce had no discretionary

authority to refuse a broadcasting license.3 Zenith, supra, note 1 at 618.Id. at 617.

5 Hugh G.J. Aiken, Allocating the Spectrum: The Origins of Radio Regulation, 34 Tech. and Culture 686,

705 (Oct. 1994).61d7 1d.'Peter M. Lewis and Jerry Booth, The Invisible Medium: Public Commercial and Community Radio 40

(Howard Univ. Pres 1990); See also supra, note 5 at 706.

Due to the intolerable interference, consumers were wary of purchasing radios.

There was no guarantee that any amount of tuning would result in consistent

programming. During this period, more than two hundred new stations began

-broadcasting.9 In 1927, the FRC (Federal Radio Commission) was created, regulations

soon,aowed, and order resumed.I0 Consumers were reassured, and sales once again

continued to rise.11

Wa,x-

:71?6,1,c;)-e t.

9 Supra, note 5 at 706.10 Id.; See also Frederic P. Lee, Federal Radio Regulation, 142 Annals of the American Academy ofPolitical Science, Supp.: Radio 36, 39 (Mar. 1929).it

Jackie NeffJuly 5, 2007

Q:

Responses to Follow-Up Questions On Radio Memos

In 1927 were there were any important advances in radio receiver design that

further helped tune out interference?

A:

I was unable to discover any "significant" 1927 inventions deterring interference

in radio communication. I did find two patents issued on devices with at least a partial

purpose of blocking wireless interference.' However, neither the patents nor the devices

were ever mentioned in any of the many articles I read on point.2 The general consensus

appears to be that the Radio Act of 1927 was responsible for the diffusion of interference

rather than technological advance.3 Additionally, there was scarcely any mention at all in

any of this or any other literature surveyed that mentioned either of these or any 1920's

inventions addressing interference. This leads me to believe that the inventions were not

terribly significant and did not have a great impact on the functioning of the wireless

system.

Signaling System, U.S. Patent No. 1637404 (filed March 12, 1921)(issued Aug. 2, 1927); WirelessReceiving System, U.S. Patent No. 1633932 (filed April 26, 1923)(issued June 28, 1927).2 See Hugh G.J. Aiken, Allocating the Spectrum: The Origins of Radio Regulation, 34 Tech. and Culture686, 705-08 (Oct. 1994); W. Jefferson Davis, The Radio Act of 1927, 13 Va. L. Rev. 611, 612-13 (Jun.1927); Frederic P. Lee, Federal Radio Regulation, 142 Annals Am. Acad. Pol. & Soc. Sci., Supp.: Radio36, 39 (Mar. 1929); Peter M. Lewis and Jerry Booth, The Invisible Medium: Public Commercial andCommunity Radio 40 (Howard Univ. Pres 1990); Jora R. Minasian, The Political Economy of Broadcastingin the 1920's, 12 J. L. & Econ. 391, 400-03 (Oct. 1969); N.C.B., Radio Broadcasting Under the Act of1927: Status of Operators Licensed Under the Act of 1912, 28 Mich. L. Rev 1032, 1035 (Jun. 1930); HughRichard Slotten, Radio Engineers, the Federal Radio Commission, and the Social Shaping of BroadcastTechnology, Creating "Radio Paradise," 36 Tech. & Cult.950, 953-57 (Oct. 1995); J. Willihnganz,Debating Mass Communication During the Rise and Fall of the International Economy 4-7, A WhitePaper, Univ. Cal. Berkely (1994).3 See id.

1

Q: What happened after Crosley "had become the world's largest radio seller?" How

long did Crosley's business thrive? Please explain Crosley's "efforts in high-power radio

broadcasting," "Cincinnati," and "WLW"?

A: Intending to propel his success further, Crosley built his own transmitter in his

home and procured a license from the Secretary of Commerce, Herbert Hoover on July 1,

1921.4 He commenced merely by playing the same record over and over in his "studio"

with intermittent advertisements for Crosley's forthcoming radio set.5 These amateur

advertisements propelled Crosely Manufacturing into the limelight as the number one

radio producer in the world by 1922.6 Although faced with increased competition, the

radio giant was still the fifth largest manufacturer of radio sets in 1954 and would remain

a major industry player for the next thirty years.7

Verifying that his broadcasts were heard over the airwaves, Crosley began playing

a variety of music and programs.8 However, the chaotic airwave mess mentioned above

was commencing as more and more amateurs tried their hands at broadcasting.9 In 1922,

Hoover ordered individual amateurs to cease all broadcasting and in response, Crosley

applied for a commercial license.10 Crosley Manufacturing began broadcasting under the

name "WLW."11

4 Rusty McClure et al., Crosley: Two Brothers and a Business Empire that Transformed the Nation 129

(2006).5 Id at 129-30.6 Lawrence W. Lichty, WLW, 3 Museum of Broadcasting Communications Encyclopedia of Radio 1538,

1539 (2004).7 Lawrence W. Lichty, Crosley, Powel: 1886-1961, US. Inventor, Manufacturer and Broadcaster, 1

Museum of Broadcast Communications and Radio 420, 421-22 (2004).

8 Id.9 Supra, note 4 at 135.I° Id. at 136.II Id.

2

Crosely's success in the sale of radios continued to improve as he used WLW as

an advertising outlet.12 Although WLW enjoyed wide listenership, its success was

essentially restricted to the Cincinnati area because Crosley's mass production was based

upon an inexpensive less sensitive radio receiver.13 To disseminate his programs further,

Crosley increased WLW's power to 500 Watts in 1923 and to 1,000 Watts in 1924.14

When the FRC began intensely regulating licensing in 1927, Crosley applied for a high

power license.I5 The FRC assigned the 700 KHz band exclusively to Crosely, rendering

WLW a "clear channel" station.16 WLW continued to expand and the FRC authorized

the station to broadcast at 50 Kilowatts in 1928.17

In 1932, Crosley Broadcasting Co. argued to the FRC (Federal Radio

Commission), that a license grant for transmission at a higher power level would lead to

more penetration of rural areas.I8 On the basis of this contention, the FRC conditionally

approved a ten month experimental license for an additional 500 kilowatts of power to

Crosley on April 17, 1934.19 As of 1937, the company was the first and only station

broadcasting at this high-power leve1.20 Although other stations caught on and began

high-power broadcasts, WLW maintained its market domination through its quality

programming, consistently rated higher by listeners than other high power stations.2I

12 Supra, note 6; supra, note 4 at 136.13 Supra, note 6.14 Id.15 Id.to ld.

'71d.18 Jeffrey H. Smulyan, Power to Some People: The FCC's Clear Channel Allocation Policy, 44 S. Cal. L.Rev. 811, 822 (1970-71).19 Id.29 Id.; O.W. Riegel, New Frontiers in Radio, 1 Pub. Opinion Q. 136, 139 (Jan. 1937).21 Supra, note 6 at 1540.

3

However, the wide-ranging broadcasts interfered with Canadian broadcasts

leading the now FCC to warn Crosley that its license would not be renewed upon

expiration.22 Persistent in its desire to continue broadcasting at high-power, the company

created a "directionalized antenna" that reduced interference to a level deemed acceptable

by the FCC and was allowed to continue superpower broadcasts.23 In 1939 political

concerns surfaced and the FCC revoked Crosley's high-power license.24 The

Commission however gave a relatively opaque reason for denying renewal noting that the

use of high-power did not result in "any substantial contribution to the radio art" and the

"public interest convenience and necessity will not be served by the granting of the

application."25 Crosely appealed the decision, but the case was dismissed on the grounds

that the "experimental license" amounted to a contractual agreement revocable at will by

the Commission.26 It is generally seen as an anti-monopolistic tactic to quash Crosley's

overreaching market influence.27 Despite this setback, WLW went on to found Mutual

Broadcasting System, and to engage in short wave radio.28

In 1934, Crosley purchased a controlling share of the Cincinnati Reds baseball

team in order to keep them from fleeing the city.29 The Reds' playing field still holds the

name Crosley Field.30 Crosley led the team from a financial slump following the Great

22 Id.

23 Id.24 Id.

25 Report of Committee on WLW's Application for Renewal of Experimental Authority, 3 Fed. Comm. B.J. 5(1938-1939).26 Harry P. Warner, Subjective Judicial Review of the Federal Communications Commission, 38 Mich. L.

Rev. 632, 662 (Mar. 1940); Crosley Corp. v. FCC, 106 F.2d 833 (App. D. C. 1939).27 Supra, note 6.28 Supra, note 7 at 422.29 Supra, note 4 at 279; Barry M. Horstman, Powel Crosley, Jr.: Innovator, Sportsman Dreamed Big,

Cincinnati Post (Apr. 18, 1999), available at http://www.cincypost.com/1iving/1999/peros040999.htm1

3° Horstman, supra note 29.

4

Depression to economic success by implementing night games.31 WLW aired Cincinnati

games while continuing to expand its programming to include country music and new

talk shows.32 These and other programs initially earned WLW the title "The Nation's

Station" and later "Cradle of the Stars."33

The government confiscated the station in 1942 to broadcast wartime

propaganda.34 Post-war, however, WLW reclaimed its glory and continued to adapt to

market demands as FM radio was introduced.35 Its adaptability has led it to remain in the

top twenty "full service radio stations," in the United States.36

'I Supra, note 4 at 289-98.32 1d. at 301-04.33 Id.34 Supra, note 6 at 1540.35 Id.36 1d. at 1541.

5

To: Clay T. Whitehead; Susan BurgessFrom: Wendell BartnickDate: May 20, 2007Re: Radio Manufacturing Industry

Question

Did the creation of the Federal Radio Commission ("FRC") result in dramatic changes tothe spectrum assignments that existed before its creation?

Answer

Not really, when the FRC was created, "it immediately grandfathered rights for major

broadcasters, while eliminating marginal competitors and all new entry.. . . The FRC

restored order out of chaos by ordering stations to 'return to their [original Commerce

Department] assignments'"1 The FRC decided not to widen the existing broadcasting

band.2 The FRC also adopted the same standards, (e.g. priority-in-use rights), for

determining which entities got which frequencies and power levels as the DOC used

before the FRC was created.3 However, the FRC did thin out some spectrum use by

failing to renew 83 broadcast licenses in July 1927 and gave reduced power and time

assignments to nonprofit organizations.4 Basically the 1927 Radio Act cemented what

was occurring before the legislation by creating the mechanisms to assure commercial

broadcasters dominance of broadcasting.5

Thomas W. Hazlett, The Rationality of U.S. Regulation of the Broadcast System, 33 J.L. & ECON. 133,

154 (1990).21d. at 155.3 1d. at 166.4 1d. at 167.5 1d. at 173.

To: Clay T. Whitehead; Susan BurgessFrom: Wendell BartnickDate: May 27, 2007Re: Radio Manufacturing Industry

Question

After the Davis Amendment, did the Federal Radio Commission assign any licenses toentities for a future station?

Answer 1z.

Yes, General Order 40 appears to have jeff construction permits to two new stations,listed in Table 1. It also gave permits to some existing stations allowing them tobroadcast with more power and those stations are listed in Table 2. Finally, Table 3shows the much larger number of construction permits given to stations in the year priorto General Order 40, most of which had been built-out during that year.

After General Order 40

Table 1The following stations have construction permits on September 10, 1928 pursuant toGeneral Order 40. However, these stations did not exist before this time.

Location Station Permit Power FrequencyPA, Philadelphia WCAU 5000 1170WV, Clarksburg WOBU 65 1200

Table 2The following stations were in existence when General Order 40 was announced on1-Septetrib—e-r1ni,77213)but were issued construction permits allowing them to broadcast74viir-more power pursuant to General Order 40. 1

Location Station Power Permit Power FrequencyAL, Auburn WJAX 1000 5000 1140AR, Hot Springs WBAP 1000 5000 800CA, LA KFI 5,000 50,000 640CT, Hartford WBAL 500 50,000 1060GA, Atlanta WSB 1000 5000 740KY, Louisville WHAS 5,000 10,000 1020LA, New Orleans WWL 500 5000 850NC, Charlotte WBT 5,000 10,000 1080NC, Raleigh WPTF 5,000 10,000 1080

1928 Fed. Radio Comm'n 2d Ann. Rep. Appendix G (1) at 170-91, available athttp://www.fcc.gov/mb/audio/decdociannual_reports.html.

TX, Dallas KRLD 5,000 10,000 1040TX, Dallas (part-time) WFAA 5,000 50,000 1040TX, Fort Worth WBAP 5,000 50,000 800UT, Salt Lake City KSL 1130 5000 1130VA, Richmond WRVA 1000 5000 1110WV, Wheeling WWVA 250 5000 1020

Prior to General Order 40

Table 3

List of construction permits granted to broadcasting stations between July 1, 1927 andJune 30, 1928. (before General Order 40)2

Zone Location Station Permit Power Frequency

1 NH, Manchester WRBH 500_

TBD

1 NY, Saranac Lake WNBZ 10_

1290

2 WV, Clarksburg WQBJ 65 1250

2 VA, Roanoke WRBX 1000 TBD

2 OH, Shelby (deleted soonafter since this wasportable)

WOBR 10 1470

3 FL, Tampa WQBA 250

3 AR, Little Rock KGHI 15 1150

3 TX, Georgetown KGKL 100 1290

3 TX, Goldthwaite KGKB 50_

1070

3 AR, Little Rock KGJF 250 1080

3 TX, Richmond KGHX 50 TBD

3 MS, Gulfport WGCM 15 1350

3 TX, Wichita Falls KGKO 250 TBD

3 MS, Utica WQBC 100 1390

3 GA, Tifton WRBI 20_

1350

3 TX, Breckenridge KFYO 15 1420

3 NC, Gastonia WRBU 50_

TBD

3 AR, McGehee KGHG 50_

TBD

3 GA, Columbus WRBL 50 1170

3 SC, Columbia WRBW 15 TBD

3 MS, Greenville WRBQ 100_

1090

3 TN, Union City WOBT 15 1460

3 NC, Wilmington WRBT 50 1320

3 MS, Hattiesburg WRBJ 10 1200

3 TX, El Paso KGHO 50

4 SD, Pierre KGFX 200 1180

2 M. at Appendix D (2) — D (3) 84-100.

A

5 MT, Billings KGHL 250 13505 CO, Pueblo KGHF 250 14305 MT, Missoula KGHD 5 12905 CA, Inglewood KGGM 1005 HI, Honolulu KGHB 250 13205 CO, Pueblo KGHA 500 1430

A

To: Clay T. Whitehead; Susan BurgessFrom: Wendell BartnickDate: June 11,2007Re: Effects of Federal Radio Commission Creation

Question

Did the creation of the Federal Radio Commission ("FRC") result in dramatic changes to

the spectrum assignments that existed before its creation?

Answer

Not really, when the FRC was created, "it immediately grandfathered rights for major

broadcasters, while eliminating marginal competitors and all new entry.. . . The FRC

restored order out of chaos by ordering stations to 'return to their [original Commerce

Departmer_i_q_ents.'"‘i The FRC decided not to widen the existing broadcasting

i $ t—

band.2 The FRC also adopted the same standards e.g. priority-in-use rights), for,,,...iL, determining which entities got which frequencies and power levels as the DOC usedki

i-4 before the FRC was created.3 Initially, the FRC simply moved stations from congested to

t less congested areas rather than reduce the number of stations.4 However, later the FRC

\ V:,\ thinned out spectrum use by failing to renew 83 broadcast licenses in July 1927 and gave

\ iti t reduced power and time assignments to nonprofit orgiTniZationk5 Basically the 1927

--V Radio Act cemented what was occurring before the legislation by creating the

--

mechanisms to assure commercial broadcasrt s-dominance of broadcasting.°A

' e4rifft,

Thomas W. Hazlett, The Rationality of U.S. Regulation of the Broadcast System, 33 J.L. & ECON. 133,

154 (1990).2 Id. at 155.3 1d. at 166.4 Fritz Messere, The Davis Amendment and the Federal Radio Act of 1927: Evaluating External Pressures

in Policymaking 5, http://www.oswego.edui—messere/DavisAmend.pdf.5 Hazlett, supra note 1, at 167.6 1d. at 173.

•

To: Clay T. Whitehead; Susan BurgessFrom: Wendell BartnickDate: June 1 1, 2007Re: Effects on Stations after Davis Amendment and General Order 40 reallocation

Question

Did the Federal Radio Commission/Federal Communications Commission respond to theDavis Amendment by adding more stations in the South and West while removingstations outside the South and West?

Answer

Partially, yes, many stations in the North and Midwest were terminated, but most

of these were smaller non-profit stations. The Davis Amendnigut,passed_inl-928,._

ordered the FRC to allocate a roughly equal number of broadcast licenses to each of the

nation's five zones on the claim that the South and West were being cheated out of their

fair share of radio stations.' More specifically, the FRC was forced to equalize the

number of assignments and broadcast stations' total power levels in each of the five

zones covering the country.2 Within the five zones, the Davis Amendment also required

the FRC to onsider ani.''population to make their determinations, using the official

census data. Prior to the amendment, the FRC did not want to terminate any of the

existing assignments,4 but the FRC was forced to terminate some to implement the

equalization requirements.5N,

.. •

\\\

111( '''t

(/MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 21; Hazlett, supra note 1, at 161, 168.

2 ROBERT W. MCCHESNEY, TELECOMMUNICATIONS, MASS MEDIA, AND DEMOCRACY: THE BATTLE FORTHE CONTROL OF U.S. BROADCASTING, 1928-1935, at 21(1993); Thomas W. Hazlett, The Rationality ofU.S. Regulation of the Broadcast System, 33 J.L. & ECON. 133, 161, 168 (1990).3 1928 Fed. Radio Cornm'n 2d Ann. Rep. 11, [hereinafter "1928 REPORT"], available athttp://www.fcc.gov/mb/audio/decdociannual_reports.html; 1930 Fed. Radio Comm'n 4th Ann. Rep. 57,[hereinafter "1930 REPORT"], available at http://www.fcc.gov/mb/audio/decdociannual_reports.htrnl.1928 Report, supra note 3, at 218.

5 Fritz Messere, The D m pent and the Federal Radio Act of 1927: Evaluating External Pressuresin Policymaking 10 ttp://www.oswego.edu/—messere/DavisAmend.pdf.

When the FRC was created in 1927, 732 licensed broadcast stations existed.6 On

July 1, 1928, after the Davis Amendment was passed, there were 677 and on November

1, 1929, there were 584 stations.7 In 1929, twenty-eight had been added, but 121 had

been terminated.8 Most of the terminated stations were located in the highly populated

East and Midwest.9 No stations in the South were deleted.10 However, the FRC did not

terminate any stations pursuant to General Order 40, as that order simply reallocated

stations to different frequencies and changed power levels to equalize the power levels in

each region.11 Most of the changes affected only educational and other non-commercial

stations, so the commercial broadcasting industry was largely unaffected by the Davis

Amendment and General Order 40.12 In the years after General Order 40 in 1928, the

FRC made only minor adjustments to the reallocation completed pursuant to General

Order 40.13 For example, in 1931, only 11 new stations were licensed and 20 were

terminated.14 In 1932, only 8 new stations were licensed and 12 were terminated.15 The

location of the stations was varied, with no clear trend of new stations in the South and

terminated stations in the North.16 The FRC did reassign some stations, but that was due

6 1929 Fed. Radio Comm'n 3d Ann. Rep. 15, [hereinafter "1929 REPORT"1, available at

http://www.fcc.gov/mb/audio/decdociannual_reports.html.Id. at 15-16.

8 1d. at 16.9 Messere, supra note 5, at 10.'° Id. at 10.

1929 Report, supra note 6, at 16; Id. at 12.12 Messere, supra note 5, at 18.13 1930 Report, supra note 3, at 56; 1931 Fed. Radio Comm'n 5th Ann. Rep. 19, [hereinafter "1931REPORT"], available at http://www.fcc.gov/mb/audio/decdociannual_reports.html; 1932 Fed. RadioComm'n 6th Ann. Rep. 25, [hereinafter "1932 REPORT"], available athttp://www.fcc.gov/mb/audio/decdociannual_reports.html.14 1931 Report, supra note 13, at 7.IS 1932 Report, supra note 13, at 7-8.16 See 1931 Report, supra note 13, at 13; Id.

to interference issues, not an effort to equalize power and station numbers in regions. 17

The FRC stopped applying the Davis Amendment's dictate n 1932.18

17 1930 Report, supra note 3, at 56.18 Messere, supra note 5, at 21.

Dedication

To all those writers who have set down theirglimpses of the future of world communicationsand to those dedicated enthusiasts who haveturned those visions into reality: Jules Verne,HG Wells, Isaac Asimov, Robert Heinlein,Alfred Bester, Arthur C Clarke, GuglielmoMarconi, Reginald Fessenden, EdwinArmstrong, John Logic Baird, PhiloFarnsworth, William Shockley, Von Neumannand those still too young to be mentioned.

To my family who have remained supportivein the face of an author's obsession.

By the same author

In Marconi's Footsteps 1894 to 1920: Early Radio UNSWPRESS

UN SWPRESS

A UNSW Press book

Published byUniversity of New South Wales Press LtdUniversity of New South WalesSydney 2052 Australiawww.unswpress.com.au

© Peter R Jensen 2000First published 2000

This book is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing forthe purpose of private study, research, criticism orreview, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no partmay be reproduced by any process without written per-mission. Inquiries should be addressed to the publisher.

National Library of AustraliaCataloguing-in-Publication entry:

Jensen, Peter R.From the wireless to the web: the evolution oftelecommunications 1901-2001

BibliographyIncludes index.ISBN 0 86840 458 6.

1. World Wide Web (Information retrieval system)— History. 2. Telecommunication — History —20th century. 3. Computers — History. I. Title.

025.04

Text design Dana LuncimarkPrinter BPA, Melbourne

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54 FROM THE WIRELESS TO THE WEB

SPARK TRANSMISSION METHODS

Spark gap as used byCaptain Henry Jackson in

1896 (FAR)

A plain spark gap as usedin the Marconi marinewireless system up to

about 1910 (PRJ)

The development of radio communication using electric sparks as a means ofgenerating a radio frequency signal is likely to appear a quaint if not obscuretopic for the modern reader. However, as an element in the early history of theworld communication system, its part is quite fundamental and, in a techno-logical sense, intriguing. The burst of radio frequency energy that accompa-nies the discharge of high-potential electric energy across a gap must, at firstsight, seem to be a rather unlikely basis for a system of signalling. However, itwas this principle that allowed the first generation of radio communicators tooperate and it is only the perspective of more than 100 years of radio devel-opment that makes the spark seem so peculiar as a source of radio energy.

The initiation of the radio age can be seen as springing from the work ofthe renowned experimenter Michael Faraday and later from the mind of a Scot,James Clerk Maxwell. In the middle of Queen Victoria's reign, Maxwell set outa theory of the propagation of electrical energy based on an analogy with thedynamics of fluid systems and vortices.

In the latter part of the Victorian era, while scientists were starting toaccept that it might be possible for electrical energy to be able to move awayfrom a source of electrical or magnetic disturbance, this theory was greetedwith much scepticism. In 1886, Heinrich Hertz carried out the experimentationthat not only demonstrated the existence of radio frequency propagation butalso established its character. In a series of elegant and repeatable experi-ments, he showed that electromagnetic energy was identical to light energyand, perhaps equally important, travelled at the same speed, 300 000 000metres per second approximately.

The basis of Hertz's experimental work was the use of a spark generatedby an induction coil, at that time known as a Ruhmkorff coil. This work wasdeveloped by a number of experimenters including Oliver Lodge, AleksandrPopov and Ferdinand Braun but it was the energy of a young Italian,Guglielmo Marconi, who translated the scientific experiments into a practicalsystem of 'wireless' communication. All these experimenters used sparks togenerate the radio frequency waves.

From 1895, the date of Marconi's earliest experiments, the spark transmit-ter was improved progressively until by 1918 it was an extremely sophisticatedsystem that had reached the limit of its technical capability and was at thatstage able to send a signal around the full circumference of the globe.

For the contemporary reader, it must immediately appear a conundrumthat something as intrinsically random and impure (in a frequency sense) as aspark discharge could gradually be modified by any sort of technologicalmeans so as to be able to be used for signalling. Despite this, by 1918Marconi, the principal user and promoter of spark-based signalling, wasclaiming that his system was able to produce radio frequency waves withequivalent characteristics to those produced by Alexanderson alternators orvalves which had become available in recent years.

THE. RA. pp f_REQ_UENC_YIR_FI_SPA. RK, A...ND QUENCH_ ING..From the perspective of today and the sophistication to which radio commu-nication has grown in over 100 years, the puzzle for a modern communicator

is howwas harneit work at

In thestrike a spthe induc-ondary cirvided a Siwas activEon and ofsort, whicages in u:duced miwas extrei

The denergy ilkenergy ccthis can bby the incappreciatcarried orin those pquestion

If oneimportantacoustic iation of ft

BATTERI

•

to

The first

leans ofobscureof the

techno-:compa-t, at firstwever, it:ators too devel-mergy.work of

if a Scot,I set outwith the

rting to,ve awaygreetedentationItion butexperi-

t energy000 000

,nerated/ark wasleksandr

Italian,practicalparks to

:ransmit-isticateds at thate.iundrumnse) as aioloaicalby 1918ing, wasves withiators or

NGcommu-iunicator

SPARK TRANSMISSION METHODS 55

is how this incoherent (in a frequency sense) discharge of electrical energy

was harnessed to the production of radio frequency signals. Indeed, how did

it work at all?In the first instance, to generate the high-voltage energy required to

strike a spark, a very simple device was used — a sort of primitive transformer,

the induction coil. This consisted of a low-voltage primary circuit and a sec-

ondary circuit consisting of an enormous number of turns of wire which pro-

vided a series of very high voltage pulses when the primary circuit

was activated with 'chopped' direct current, that is, rapidly switched

on and off. Apart from the difficulties of constructing a device of this

sort, which would not short over internally because of the high volt-

ages in use, the transient nature of the pulses of high voltage pro-

duced meant that creating sustained energy in an antenna circuit

was extremely difficult.The diagrams (below right) showing spark and continuous wave

energy illustrate the problem. The top diagram is the envelope of RF

energy consisting of a sine wave oscillating at 1.8 megahertz, and

this can be contrasted with the bursts or pulses of energy produced

by the induction coil at roughly 60 hertz or 60 pulses per second. When one

appreciates that in the very early days the 60-cycle pulsating noise was

carried on the shoulders of the RF energy contained

in those pulses of relatively short duration, again the

question is: How did it work at all?

If one looks at the form of the pulse, where all the

important RF energy was generated to carry the

acoustic intelligence across free space, an appreci-

ation of the problem of spark transmission is possible.

ELEVATED WIRE A11lt111111

!ruction COIL (RLIMMKORFF)

BATTERY

411111M.

LL

0SPARK GAP

0

MORSE KEY 0

MAKE/BREAK

EARTH 7,17

The first transmitter of Marconi in 1895 (PRJ)

Replica of a Ruhmkorff coil

(induction coil) (PRJ)

COTITITIUOUS WAVE RADIO FREQUETICY ETIERGY

SPARK GETIERATED RADIO REQUETICY ErintQy

KAM SPARK ITITERTIAL CIRCUIT ATITETITIA CIRCUIT

QUETICHED SPARK ITITERTIAL CIRCUIT Arrruinti CIRCUIT

ROTARY SPARK ITITERTIAL CIRCUIT ArtrEnnA CIRCUIT

Diagrammatic representation of energy from plain

spark, quenched spark and timed rotary spark

transmitters (PRJ)


(What is created in that instant of a spark discl7rge is a pulse of raw and large-ly untuned RF energy. If this is coupled to a sant ci containing induc-tance and capacitance, it will ring or resonate at the natural frequency of the

circuit established by the components. By inductive couplingit is then possible to transfer some of the energy into a sec-ondary circuit containing the antenna. The net result is a rel-atively inefficient but workable system for generating REenergy.

Over the first 15 years of development of the spark trans-mission technology, the reason for the inefficiency of the sys-tem came to be understood. During the striking of the spark,a virtual short circuit is created across the spark gap. Thismakes it possible for energy which has been transferred tothe secondary circuit to leak back into the primary circuit andbe dissipated there. The net result is a series of wave trains inboth primary and secondary circuits which fall away in magni-tude quite rapidly or, in the jargon of the time, had a steeplyfalling log decrement'.

In about 1902, the German scientist Max Wien discovereda partial solution to this problem in the 'quenched spark'. Inthis system, the burst of RF energy in the primary circuit isshut off by various technical means after only one or twoswings of the RF signal. During this period, a substantial com-ponent of the RF energy can then be transferred to the sec-ondary circuit including the antenna. Once the short circuit inthe spark gap is removed, the energy in the secondary circuitcontinues to resonate without being able to leak away into

An emergency transmitterusing a quenched-spark

device (PRJ)

A quenched-spark unit(PRJ)

the primary circuit.Again the diagrams demonstrate this process. In particu-

lar, it can be seen that the quenched spark produces a waveenvelope in the antenna or secondary circuit which fadesaway far more slowly than is the case for the plain spark gap.

Indeed, as the frequency of operation of transmitters became progressivelylower and lower during the first 25 years of radio, the interval between thestriking of the spark and the RF signal became relatively much closer as well.Ultimately, it became possible to make the wave trains of RF energy generat-ed by the spark join up into frequency-coherent packages. This then allowedthe RF energy in the secondary circuit to be tuned up almost as in a conven-tional modern continuous wave (CW) transmitter.

The 'quenched spark' device proved to be so robust and simple that itwas used until well after the Second World War as a backup system foremergency communication. It appears that in some Australian coastalvessels the 'quenched spark' continued to be used as a primary means ofcommunication during that period. Despite the extent to which this formof spark generation was used, it is unfortunately true of the 'quenchedspark' that it was a potent source of interference to other operators.Because of its very nature — a sharp and transient burst of RF energy —it caused considerable problems with land-based stations including theearly broadcast listeners and became very unpopular for that reason. Inaddition, it was well known to create sympathetic resonance in otherantenna systems in the locality — they would resonate at their own natu-ral frequency due to the introduction of this 'hand clap' of RF noise in thevicinity.

THE ROT

While in &the spark vmore predtackled thrrealised th,between toped by M

By abcin the earlof one sorinductionspun synclsomethincRF signalulation prcabout 120ously quit,interferenrcould maland under

It wasof spark pasynchronquency ofto be ext.!Within athe audiohertz by a

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THE LAI

By comp,the land

t on the wr used dire! stored inj. was achie7- .,available

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ldlarge-induc-

cy of thecouplingto a sec-t is a rel-ating RF

3rk trans-f the sys-le spark,jap. ThisFerred torcuit andtrains inn magni-a steeply

;covered;park'. Incircuit isa or twotial corn-the sec-circuit in!ry circuitway into

particu-s a wave:h fades)ark gap.iressivelyveen ther as well.generat-allowedconven-

e that itstem forcoastal

neans ofthis formuenchedDerato rsnergy —ding theason. Inin otherwn natu-se in the


THE ROTARY SPARK

While in Germany and elsewhere the refinements associated with quenching

the spark were being worked out so as to harness the spark and turn it into a

more predictable and tunable source of RF energy, the Marconi Company

tackled the problem in a somewhat different fashion. Fairly early on it was

realised that there were considerable advantages in breaking the energy path

between the sperk\faces at high speed. This appreciation was soon devel-

oped by Marc' n into a rotating spark-gap system known as the 'rotary spark'.

By about 1910„both in land stations and at sea, the plain spark gap used

in the early d ad been almost entirely replaced by rotating spark systems

of one sort and another. At sea, the alternators which had superseded the

induction coil system were fitted with an extension plate and studs which

spun synchronously with the alternator between spark poles. This produced

something of an improvement in the quality of the

RF signal but, inevitably, the audio frequency mod-

ulation produced by the studs was relatively low. At

about 120 hertz or pulses per second, this was obvi-

ously quite close to the natural frequency level of

interference from thunderstorms and the like. This

could make the signal extremely difficult to hear

and understand under poor operating conditions.It was then realised that increasing the number

of spark poles, which, incidentally, made the signal

asynchronous, would result in an increase in the fre-

quency of the acoustic modulation. This was found

to be extremely beneficial for receiving purposes.

Within a relatively short period, the frequency of

the audio modulation was increased to about 800

hertz by adding spark poles to the rotating plate.

At sea this became more or less the standard

Marconi system as installed from around about 1911

on. Such a system as this was installed on the Titanic, and is known to have

been generally reliable. It was able to provide a working range of approxi-

mately 650-800 kilometres (400-500 miles) in daylight hours and significantly

more than that at night time. In the period between about 1911 and 1918,

ships crossing the Atlantic from east to west and west to east were able to

keep in contact with one side or the other almost continuously, either by

direct contact or by relaying via other vessels.

57

THE LAND STATIONS

By cOmparison with the marine alternating-current systems of rotary spark,

the land stations developed firstly in Cornwall at Poldhu and later at Clifden

on the west coast of Ireland and later again at Caernarvon in north Wales

used direct current at about 15 000 volts. The electrical energy was generally

stored in enormous batteries of primary cells or, in the case of Caernarvon,

was achieved by direct conversion from the alternating current mains supply

available from the National Grid.At Poldhu and later at Clifden, the spark took the form more of an arc

produced by direct current between the spark poles. However, for cooling

purposes, the path of the discharge was between the surfaces of rotating

steel plates. A large steel plate mounted on the shaft of a motor was spun

at relatively high speed between the faces of two smaller round steel plates

An Australian ship's radioroom of about 1922 show-ing the quenched-sparkdevice on the right and anAWA valved receiver onthe left (AWA)


turning at a significantly slower rate. What this first system of rotary sparkor arc discharge produced was something much closer to a continuouswave RF signal than was the case with later systems of rotary spark trans-mission. However, because of the characteristics of the discharge path, theRF sine wave, the wavelength of which was determined by the inductanceand capacitance in the primary circuit, had mixed with it an enormous num-ber of RF components. This made the signal difficult to tune and, becauseof the absence of pulsating acoustic information as available in, say, aninduction coil, the signal proved to be extremely difficult to hear, particu-larly in the presence of static. The solution developed for this problem wasno doubt borrowed from the rapidly developing technology of marinerotary spark transmission. Studs were added to the rotating plate and themore or less continuous wave energy became interrupted spark/arc onceagain with a pulse repetition rate of about 800 hertz.

The advantage of having audio modulation of around 800 or 900 hertzimposed on the spark-generated signal had significant operator advantages.Despite the poor frequency purity of the signal, which inevitably led to diffi-culties in tuning and in much of the RF energy being wasted in merely heat-ing up the primary circuit and the antenna elements, audibility of the signalwas good and a workable system was achieved.

ULTIMATE SPARKOver the first 20 years of spark development, for various reasons, not least ofwhich was the general success that was achieved, there was an inexorable

move to longer wavelengths and lower frequen-cies. By about 1914, the frequency of transmissionacross the Atlantic was down to about 25 kilo-hertz, or just above the range of hearing. This hadsome important implications in terms of the abili-ty to create a coherent series of wave trains in thespark primary circuit. When the repetition rate ofthe spark discharges was increased to about 800hertz and the radio frequency of operation was at,say, 15 000 or 20 000 hertz, it was just possible tomake the bursts of RF energy overlap or join up.When coupled to the secondary circuit, it was ulti-mately possible to produce more or less continu-ous RF waves in an antenna system. As seen on amodern oscilloscope, the wave form would becontinuous but pulsating at a rate of 800 hertz.

During the development period of 1895 to1920, there is no doubt that there was an extraor-dinary expansion of the scientific basis of radioand the technology of radio communication in anincredibly short space of time. By the same token,in the early days, it is quite clear that the electricaltechnicians and scientists were guided at timesmore by experimental results than by good solid

by 'cut and try' methods in many instances, the apparatuswas made to work effectively. By 1920, only major changes of technologycould displace the spark transmission system and one of the new develop-ments was 'waiting in the wings' — it was, of course, the thermionic valve.

By about 1916, during the dark period of the First World War, the Marconi

The rotary plates in a'timed spark' unit as used

at Caernarvon, Wales(MAR)

theory. However,

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Company had developed a remarkably sophisticated system of RF-energy

generation by spark. Though the details of this system are somewhat cloud-

ed by the mists of time and the inherent security associated with those war

years, it is possible to obtain some idea of what was developed. This last and

greatest expression of the art of spark radio occurred at Caernarvon and was

known as the 'timed spark' system.

59

A PRIMARY ROTATIN NATEB SECOrIDARY ROTATIM PLATE

IfINKTAT10ECNACIT410EInSULATED STR1D

111SULA1ED M5EmAri MOTORH151.1 YOLTACi DC SOURCE

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The The 'timed spark' system was developed in two stages, the first being

described in considerable detail by Professor Fleming in 1916. The second

more sophisticated stage is still the subject of a degree of speculation.

Grasping the potential advantages of producing an overlap of the RF sig-

nals developed in the individual pulses of spark-generated energy, the first

'timed rotary spark' system used a number of plates with rotating poles set

in staggered array. The plates were mounted on a common shaft from the

motor used to rotate them, but were electrically insulated from each other.

As the plates spun at high speed, the discharges at each of the poles of the

four plates occurred sequentially and added together in the primary circuit.

When inductively coupled to the antenna secondary circuit, a pulsating but

continuous wave was produced with all the advantages of tunability and

audibility at the receiving end.

However, this first 'timed spark' system proved to have problems. In par-

ticular, the spark gap dimension was critical and the striking of the spark was

very sensitive to atmospheric pressure differentials coupled with humidity

variations. The net result was that the task of getting the spark pulses to join

up to create a coherent continuous wave was subject to natural variables

which were very hard to control. For this reason, a second-stage 'timed spark'

system was developed and this was so successful that it was possible to send

a signal halfway round the world. In 1918, a signal was sent from Caernarvon

to Sydney, Australia.

Diagram of the first rotaryspark machine as installedat Clifden in Irelandin 1907 (PRJ)


TRAMMITTER MODULE A AnTEnnA \V TRAMMITTER MODULE B

MAIrlDRIYE MOTOR

ROTARY SPARK DISK(main DISCHARGE)

ROTAMG DISKLMAll DISCHAR(E)

5 KY 300 KW DC GEDERATOR

MORSE KEY

ROTATIDG DISK(MAID DISCHARG()

or:

0 HIGH VOLTAGETRADSFORMEIL

TunimCAPACITArICES

10IIIIER SPARK

ROTATIT1G WHEELTiminl SPARK

—11110— —4110-

3 PHASE 300 KW AC MAIDSMOTOR

=

PRIMARY Tutiin COILS

=

TIMER DISKS DRIVEMOTOR

The ultimate timed rotaryspark machine as installedat Caernarvon, Wales, in

1918 (PRJ)

In order to understand this last system of rotary spark, it is necessary toappreciate that the distance that a spark will jump is related most particular-ly to the characteristics of the path between the poles and the voltageimposed across the gap. At a high gas pressure, the voltage required tostrike a spark is less than at low pressure but, more importantly, if the paththrough air is filled with ions then the spark will strike at a voltage far belowthe normal value for an air gap.

It app(was basedwork anda simple pthese wenwhere thethe sparken by thestuds. Thi!mechanistto createthis path\t,but woulcseries a crepetitiorbut low p

By usspark to itition rat,achievincwave tratlsistent fawere ablE

THE VA

It is sorrimprovinWorld Wspark, th,war in 1Cit possiblong-wa\

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cessary toarticular-e voltagequired tothe pathfar below

SPARK TRANSMISSION METHODS 61

It appears that what Marconi developed in the last 'timed spark' system

was based on the use of dual rotors. The main rotary gap, which did all the

work and produced the high power required — 300 kilowatts — consisted of

a simple plate rotating at high speed between rotating spark poles. However,

these were set away from the rotating plate, which had no studs, to a distance

where the operating voltage would not initiate a spark or arc. What initiated

the spark was a second set of poles set close to the main spark poles and driv-

en by the spark discharge produced by another rotating plate with multiple

studs. This separate plate was, in effect, a timing wheel, rather like the timing

mechanism in a conventional ignition system in a motor car. What it did was

to create an ionised path close to the main spark discharge path. As soon as

this pathway was established with a cloud of ions, the main spark would strike

but would extinguish as soon as the ionisation was removed. The result was a

series a of pulses at the main spark discharge faces, controlled in terms of

repetition rate by spark discharges generated separately at very high voltage

but low power by the rotating timing plate.

By using a very high voltage at low power and an initiation or ignition

spark to ionise the air, the problems of natural conditions affecting the repe-

tition rate of the high-power spark were overcome. More importantly, by

achieving a very stable and accurate rate of repetition of the spark pulses, the

wave trains of RF energy could be made to join together in a completely con-

sistent fashion and the sought-for pulsating continuous waves at the antenna

were able to be produced on a reliable basis.

THE VALVE

It is somewhat ironic that, while this great burst of ingenuity, directed at

improving the characteristics of the spark, was occurring during the First

World War, it was this same conflict that generated the successor to the timed

spark, the valve (also known as the tube). Within only 4 years of the end of the

war in 1918, the valve had been developed to a stage of reliability that made

it possible to completely replace spark and electromechanical systems in the

long-wave trans-oceanic stations such as Caernarvon.

At last the roar of the rotary spark was silent and the new age of 'quiet'

RF-energy generation had arrived. Radio men from that earlier time

described the rotary spark sound as 'awesome' — it is perhaps regrettable

that, with the lack of awe associated with modern radio, some of the romance

of radio communication has also vanished.


Schematic diagram of thefirst coherer receiver of

Marconi, 1895 (PR.!)ELEVATED WIRE AHTEMA

METAL fILINS

RI CHOKE BATTERY

TAPPER

COMER

et--fictctr RI CHOKE

EARTH _27f/M

BATTERY 2

SE1151TIVE RELAY PAPER TAPE PRIHTER(HORMALLY OP(fl)

Replica of theMarconi transmitter

firstand

receiver of 1896 (PRJ)

To the present generation of electrical experimenters andcommunicators, it may be hard to imagine a time before theuse of solid-state devices, but for the best part of 60 yearsthe vacuum in a bottle — the thermionic valve or tube —provided the basis of telegraphic and telephonic communi-cation both by radio and through wires.

It may therefore be a surprise to learn that, in thatremote time at the beginning of the radio era and beforethe invention of the valve, there was another significant peri-od when radio waves were detected by a variety of, to mod-ern eyes, quite peculiar devices. Of these, the coherer,magnetic detector and crystal detector are perhaps themost important, although a surprisingly large array of differ-ent methods was assembled following the experiments ofHeinrich Hertz in 1886 and before the exclusive use of thevalve for detection commenced in about 1916.

THE COHE!3ER

In his vital experiments of 1886, Hertz made use of simple loops of wire withspark gaps to detect the radio frequency (RF) energy from his induction coiltransmitter. A minute spark gap in the ring, which was adjustable with ascrew-threaded contact and viewed with a magnifying lens, allowed him tosee the tiny spark when resonance was achieved. This evidently was not avery easy or attractive device to use for experimental purposes, let alone forsignalling, and other experimenters looked for better means to detect theRF energy.

In Egraph Iinventegra nulEWhen rtery, u rexhibitance rEhigh-vcwith grthe reEohms E

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Altides ()-and opthis wa-contairmechaand co

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THE I\

The RFthe musignalcoherewhat a.not hasymbostate d

PE PRIITER

ters and!fore the60 yearstube —)mmuni-

in thatLl beforeant peri-to mod-coherer,laps theof differ--nents of3e of the

wire withction coille with a

him tovas not aalone forietect the

RECEPTION BEFORE THE VALVE

In even earlier times and as a means of protecting tele-graph lines from lightning strikes, the scientist SA Varley hadinvented a device that was based on a peculiar property ofgranular conducting material in the presence of RF energy.When placed between the poles of a circuit including a bat-tery, under normal circumstances granular metallic filingsexhibit a very high resistance which appears to a low-imped-ance relay much like an open circuit switch. However, if ahigh-voltage pulse is created in the vicinity of the filings,with great suddenness they will stick together or cohere andthe resistance through them drops to a very low value ofohms so as to appear almost a short circuit.

This effect was investigated in the late 1880s by a num-

ber of experimenters, such as the French scientist Professor Branly, the Britishscientist Oliver Lodge and the Russian scientist Aleksandr Popov. From thiswork came a primitive RF-activated switch which was known as a 'coherer',the name given to it by Oliver Lodge.

Although a pulse of RF energy would turn this switch on, once the part-icles of metal had 'cohered', the switch was locked on. The way to unlock it

and open the circuit was to physically 'de-cohere' the metallic particles and

this was done by lightly tapping the glass tube in which the particles were

contained. Soon this was done by the trembler of a bell

mechanism activated by the relay in circuit with the battery

and coherer — an early form of 'feedback' control.The action of the early receiver was therefore to turn on

a relay in the presence of a radio signal which in turn acti-

vated a bell mechanism which immediately turned the

coherer switch off again. A burst of RF energy, whether short

or long, would create a series of very short pulses as the

coherer was switched on and off by the relay and bell mech-

anism in the circuit. These short pulses would join together

to synthesise the longer burst of RF energy as audible noise

in headphones or as a continuous streak on a papertape

morse code recorder as used in terrestrial telegraphy.

However, this arrangement was intrinsically limited in terms

of the speed at which morse code could be received. It was

rarely possible to exceed about ten words a minute using a

coherer and, even compared with terrestrial telegraphy of

1895, this was very slow.The coherer was an incredibly crude and insensitive device by modern

standards and one has to wonder how such a system worked at all. For the

first 10 years of radio, the coherer was the basis of most commercial systems

until displaced by other more sensitive devices after about 1905.

THE MAGNETIC DETECTOR

The RF switch provided by the coherer proved quite incapable of detecting

the minute energy of the signal sent from Poldhu in 1901 and, in fact, the

signal was received on a primitive 'solid-state' device, the Italian naval

coherer. This used a globule of mercury and a plug of iron as the poles of

what at that time was called a self-restoring coherer. In other words, one did

not have to tap it to make it detect after the receipt of each telegraphic

symbol. It is now known that this detector was actually operating as a solid-

state diode.

95

A collection of coherersas used by Oliver Lodgein 1894 (PRJ)

The coherer receiver asmade by Captain HenryJackson in 1896 (PRJ)


Replica of the magneticdetector designed byMarconi in 1902 (PRJ)

It is clear that Marconi came back from Newfoundland dissatisfied withthe ordinary metal-filings coherer that he had also used and immediately setto work to find something a lot more sensitive and robust. Basing his exper-

iments on the work of the scientist Ernest Rutherford inthe field of moving magnetic fields, Marconi produced adevice that he called the magnetic detector. To radiooperators over the next 15 years, it was to be knownmore familiarly as the 'maggie'.

The magnetic detector looked rather like an old fash-ioned reel-to-reel tape recorder, a device that would alsoappear quite unfamiliar to many people brought up onthe technology of digital CDs. A continuous wire ropetravels around two reels passing through a double coil offine wire and the poles of two horseshoe-shaped mag-nets. The reels are driven by a handwound clockworkmechanism and if the operator forgets to wind up thedevice it stops detecting.

One coil goes to a set of earphones and the otherconnects the antenna system to earth. When an RF signalpasses through one coil of wire, a separate burst ofenergy at audio frequency is induced in the coil attachedto the headphones and the signal becomes audible.

Interestingly, despite modern investigations of themechanism of this device, the exact physical processremains the basis of argument among experts. In thisregard, a number of useful discussions are referred to inthe list of references. Of these, the most recent by O'Dellis probably the most useful, although it appears that hisexplanation is not accepted by everyone.

Although the magnetic detector worked best withthe signal produced by the discharge of a spark, it wasnot entirely insensitive to other forms of RF energy whichwere more like the continuous wave energy that is nowused for radio transmission. For this reason its use per-sisted until spark was finally abandoned in the periodaround 1920 and full continuous wave transmitters usingvalves became the norm. In passing, it was the primarymethod of reception on the Titanic although, by 1912,there was available a receiver that used a Fleming diode

valve. It appears that even at this stage the imaggie' remained the preferreddevice for normal operations.

70 STRAI1D5 Of no. 40 SW 4 50f1&Oft MI 511151/ UK (MUD

Tt1151011 ADIU5TII1G SCREW

MOIIITE PULLEYS

QOCKWORKSTART/STOP

BED PIECE WIMUIG HAIDLIAITEET111A ' TEL TEL EARTh

AnTEIVA (ARIAL)

TO EaPHOTIS

Schematic diagram of themagnetic detector of 1902

(PRJ)

CRYSTAL DETECTORSIn many respects the solid-state detectors that appeared after 1905 representthe most interesting of the pre-valve detecting devices. Although largelyreplaced by valves after about 1924, the crystal detector was to have a longand meritorious life, not only as the detector in much commercial radio teleg-raphy but also in the first generation of radio receivers as used after about1920. From then until 1940, the crystal detector was generally set to one sideas an unused relic of a former age.

With the development of radar, it was found that the solid-state diodeswere extremely suitable for detecting the very high frequency energy reflectedfrom distant aircraft and other targets. Many thousands of solid-state diodes

were mmenterFor thisphones

ThecarboruDu nwo(tal detethis rea:includinled to Iwould cthe so-crystal c

Apairon py(molybcwith a cand kncbeing qbecauscthe sem

Top row

Replica c

A multip

A cat's w

Bottom r

A cat's w

A coherEexperim(

A SiemeiSouth Af

ied withately sets exper-rford induced aTo radio.a known

Did fash-)uld also-it up on'ire ropele coil of

mag-ockworki up the

,e othersignal

burst ofattached

s of theprocess

;. In thisred to in)y O'Dell; that his

)est with-k, it wasgy which3t is nowuse per-a periodars usingprimaryby 1912,ig diode- referred

epresenth largely/e a longiio teleg-:er aboutone side

e diodesreflectedre diodes

RECEPTION BEFORE THE VALVE 97

were made for this purpose and a great many were used by young experi-menters after the Second World War for crystal sets to receive radio programs.For this experimenter, 'Dick Barton, Special Agent' via a radar diode and head-

phones was the gateway to a lifetime of communications activity.The first successful crystal detector was based on a synthetic material,

carborundum, and was discovered by the American experimenter General

Dunwoody. Although stable and reasonably sensitive, the carborundum crys-

tal detector required a battery to set the operating point of the device. For

this reason, although it was used in a number of commercial radio systems,

including those of Marconi and Telefunken, other methods were pursued and

led to the realisation that a large number of naturally occurring minerals

would operate to detect RF energy. Of these, undoubtedly the best known is

the so-called cat's whisker which used a coiled silver wire in contact with a

crystal of galena or silver lead sulphide.Apart from the galena crystal, other combinations included the use of

iron pyrites (iron sulphide), bornite (copper iron sulphide), molybdenite

(molybdenum sulphide) and silicon. In addition, a dual crystal arrangement

with a crystal of zincite (zinc oxide) in contact with a crystal of chalcopyrite

and known as the perikon detector was very stable and easy to use as well as

being quite sensitive. Stability was an attractive feature of this combination

because, in other point-contact detectors, the slightest 'nudge' would lose

the sensitive spot on the crystal and reception would cease.

Top row (left to right):

Replica of the multiple tuner designed by CS Franklin in 1904 (PRJ)

A multiple tuner manufactured by AWA in Australia (PRJ)

A cat's whisker detector unit from the 1920s (PRJ)

Bottom row (left to right):

A cat's whisker crystal set replica (PRJ)

A coherer receiver made by the Marconi Company for use in the trans-Tasman Sea

experiments in Australia in 1905 (PRJ)

A Siemens coherer receiver, captured from the Boers in 1901 by British forces in

South Africa (PRJ)

omething'd still onot his lasthich mul-t of spark)ecause ofnergy wasort burstsresonancelg akin toquency of

) produce:0 be veryrated in ait 12 kilo-is was thein Wales,) create itss the firstiber 1918

RADIO DINOSAURS 103

THE ALTERNATOR TRANSMITTER

As discussed earlier, one of the experts who saw that the way ahead laywith other methods of RF energy production was a Canadian, ProfessorReginald Fessenden. As early as 1899, he had stated with great clarity thatthe ultimate method of generating RF energy would involve waves ofcontinuous alternating current. This perception built on the foundationestablished by Sir Oliver Lodge who had very early realised the import-ance of tuning and resonance in the context of radio frequency energy.

While the Marconi Company clung tenaciously to spark technolo-gy, Fessenden sought for ways to produce continuous wave energy andfinally concluded that the best method would involve the developmentof a radio frequency alternator. During 1905, Fessendon approachedGeneral Electric with a proposal to have an experimental alternatortransmitter developed. This work was put into the hands of a youngSwedish engineer, Ernst Alexanderson, and towards the latter part of1906 he had successfully created such a machine. With a power ofabout half a kilowatt at a frequency of up to 75 kilohertz, it generallyfitted Fessendon's requirements.

Despite its low power output, this first alternator transmitter provedto be a potent device compared with the rotary spark transmitter thatFessenden had been working with until then. When in was installed inthe US naval radio station at Brant Rock, Massachusetts, experimentswere conducted using continuous wave radio frequency energy andcommunications with a station in Scotland at Machrihanish took place.Earlier in 1906, Fessenden had established two-way communicationswith this same station using a synchronous rotary spark transmitter sothat a direct comparison with the alternator could be made.

Later, a carbon microphone was inserted into the antenna leadof the alternator transmitter and, with it, the transmission of soundas amplitude-modulated radio frequency energy was possible. On24 December 1906, this arrangement was the basis of what appears tohave been the first radio sound broadcast. Material that was transmit-ted during this remarkable event included a selection of various musicalpieces and a talk by Fessenden himself.

Much to the surprise of a large number of radio operators who hadnever heard anything on the ether before but morse code, the signalreached up and down the Atlantic coast and was heard as far away asthe West Indies.

The reason it was possible for these operators to receive the ampli-tude-modulated signal was that, by 1906, the advantages of crystals asRF detectors had become known. Many were incorporated intoreceivers at radio stations with capabilities that few appreciated. Apartfrom demodulating the rough energy of a spark station, a galena or car-borundum detector was also capable of converting the modulated REsignal to audio that could then be heard in the headphones.

With this dramatic event, it was quite clear that Fessenden had cre-ated a source of pure sine wave RF energy and radio communicationswould never be the same again. More than that, the observations ofLodge made in 1894 were now confirmed.

104

Diagram showing themain elements of the

Alexanderson alternator(PRJ)

FROM THE WIRELESS TO THE WEB

Following the Brant Rock demonstration, development of the alter-nator continued at General Electric under the supervision ofAlexanderson. By 1918, this high-frequency alternator, which is nowcoupled indissolubly with the name Alexanderson, was progressivelydeveloped into a machine with an input power of 400 kilowatts andan operating frequency at around 16 kilohertz. A number of thesemachines were ultimately sold with perhaps the most appropriate salebeing to Sweden, the homeland of its developer. As finally installed atGrimeton, its Swedish home, there were two machines in use with oneon 'standby'. These machines were able to create a power level in theantenna system of around 200 kilowatts at a frequency of 17.2 kilo-hertz.

Via e-mail in February 1996, it was possible to obtain the followingtechnical specifications of the Grimeton alternator from BengtWillander, SM7BKH, of Swedish Telecom:

• Station call sign• Power input• Power output• Rotor diameter• Number of teeth• Rotation speed• Frequency of CW• Antenna system (TX), 6 towers• Antenna system (RX), 'Beverage'• Operation commenced

976 TaTtl

ROTOR

THE ALTERrlATOR ROTOR unrr

STATOR CLEPACITSAit00111)

TM ROTOR

ALTERHATOR AM MOTOR SET

SAQ400 kilowatts200 kilowatts1600 millimetres9762115 rpm17.2 kilohertz127 metres (416 feet) high12 kilometres (8 miles) long1925

THE VOICE OF GR1METON

In September 1995, the British Institution ofElectrical Engineers held a centenary conference inLondon to mark the first wireless transmission ofMarconi in Bologna in 1895. The conference covereda substantial array of topics relating to the history ofradio.

During the course of the proceedings, it wasannounced that there would be a segment involving apresentation of slides about an alternator transmitterat Grimeton. This segment turned out to be a videofilm made in 1985 and was a good deal livelier than aslide show could have hoped to have been. Towardsthe end of the presentation, it was announced thatshortly the delegates would be able to hear the voiceof Grimeton. By courtesy of a BBC monitoring,station in the United Kingdom, a message in impec-cable morse code was soon heard in the auditorium,extending greetings to the participants in the con-ference from the oldest and only remainingAlexanderson alternator transmitter in the world.

To hear such a beautiful continuous wave signal

transmitthat stagand vakGrimetc

Themiles) nOn theGrime:toclose bybase. Ti-:the hug(

Theit is huggiven ti:shouldsupervismirrorec

motor apumps a

As mof prodtdevice ii

generati,mains sialternatc17.2 kil(kilowatnpower a


STRANDS IN THE WORLD WIDE WEB

1822 Babbage's paper on the difference engine no. 1 published1844 Morse telegraphic link between Washington and Baltimore in the United States established

1851 international adoption of the continental code based on the morse code1865 James Clerk Maxwell demonstrates the theoretical existence of electromagnetic waves

1866 The Great Eastern lays the first trans-Atlantic cable between Valentia in Ireland and Heart'sContent in Newfoundland

1871 Death of Babbage1872 Telegraph cable between Darwin and Adelaide in Australia established1874 Guglielmo Marconi is born in Bologna, Italy1876 The telephone is patented by Alexander Graham Bell1879 The principle of the coherer is discovered by DE Hughes1884 Paul Nipkow invents the scanning disk, the basis of early television1887 Heinrich Hertz demonstrates the existence of electromagnetic waves1888 Thomas Edison discovers the 'Edison effect' in light bulbs1890 JA Fleming investigates the 'Edison effect'

First US census using Hollerith equipment1892 Edouard Branly and Oliver Lodge independently invent the coherer1894 Marconi begins his experiments with wireless at the family villa near Bologna1896 Marconi moves to England and receives the first patent for wireless telegraphy1897 The Marconi Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company is created1898 Oliver Lodge patents the tuned circuit for radio signals

Commercial installation of wireless in ships1899 Installation of wireless in the vessels of the Royal Navy

First military use of radio in the Boer War1901 Marconi receives signal from Poldhu at St John's, Newfoundland (12 December)

Reginald Fessenden describes the detection of continuous wave signals by heterodyne mixing1902 Introduction of the magnetic detector (Marconi)1904 JA Fleming patents the diode, two-element valve (tube)

Continuous wave transmission demonstrated by Fessenden using an alternatorIntroduction of the multiple tuner (Marconi)

1905 Trans-Tasman Sea wireless demonstration, Australia, by the Marconi Company1906 Lee de Forest patents the triode, three-element tube (valve)

Fessenden's Brant Rock telephony experiments1907 Clifden (Ireland) to Glace Bay (Nova Scotia) trans-Atlantic message service commenced1909 The SS Republic sinks following collision

Cyril F Elwell introduces the arc transmitter to the United States1910 Wireless Institute of Australia formed in New South Wales, Australia

Dr Crippen apprehended on the SS MontroseC Maclurcan transmits music from his station 2CM at Sydney, Australia

1911 AA Campbell Swinton describes an all-electric television systemDouglas Mawson's expedition to the Antarctic commencesThomas J Watson joins NCRErnest Fisk arrives in Australia as resident engineer for the Marconi Company

1912 SinDeRac

1913 EdhAn

1914 Firs-1915 ThE1916 Ma1917 Zirr

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1919 RacAle

1920 RacDalRe(

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STRANDS IN THE WORLD WIDE WEB 287

1912 Sinking of the RMS Titanic

De Forest invents the audion tube amplifier

Radio station POS (later VIS) opened in Sydney, Australia

1913 Edwin H Armstrong invents the regenerative detector circuit using positive feedback

Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia) Ltd formed with Ernest Fisk as technical manager

1914 First World War starts

1915 The Gallipoli campaign

1916 Marconi commences experiments with the 'short waves'

1917 Zimmermann telegram deciphered and passed to the US government; United States enters

the war

1918 Transmission from Caernarvon received in Sydney, Australia, on the long waves

Armstrong patents the 'superhet'

End of the First World War (November)

1919 Radio Corporation of America, RCA, created

Alexanderson alternator installed at Caernarvon

1920 Radio broadcasting experiments initiated by Marconi Company employees

Dame Nellie Melba broadcasts from Chelmsford, England

Regular broadcasting from Pittsburg radio station, KDKA, commenced

1921 First direct contact from the United States to Britain by radio amateurs (Paul Godley on

210 metres)

1922 British Broadcasting Company created (12 November)

First BBC broadcast station opened, London-based 2L0

First radio telegraph on the short waves from the United Kingdom to Switzerland

1923 Vladimir Zworykin proposes and patents an all-electronic television system

Broadcast station 2SB commences service in Sydney, Australia (23 November)

First two-way contact between the United States and the United Kingdom by radio amateu

rs

1924 Direct signal to Sydney, Australia, via the short waves from Poldhu (30 May)

Broadcast station 3L0 commences service in Melbourne, Australia (13 October)

First two-way contact between the United Kingdom and Canada

IBM created in the United States

1925 Grimeton radio station commences operation

Reverend John Flynn tests the first inland radio in Outback Australia

1926 Short-wave beam radio-telephone service to Canada opened from the United

Kingdom

John Logie Baird opens experimental television service using the Nipkow disk wit

h call sign 2TV

Rugby long-wave station opened by the British Post Office operating on 16 kilo

hertz

1927 Short-wave beam service from the United Kingdom to Australia, South Africa

and India

commenced

Alfred Ewing presents paper on his 'War Work'

1928 Philo Farnsworth demonstrates an all-electronic televison system using a camer

a called the

'image dissector' and an image display based on the cathode ray tube

Rugby radio station commences operation on the short-wave band

Flight of the Southern Cross from the United States to Australia by Charles Kings

ford

Smith and Charles Ulm

The differential analyser of Vannevar Bush installed at Massachusetts Institute o

f Technology

Australian national broadcasting service commenced

1929 Creation of Cable and Wireless Ltd, from merger of Marconi Company with othe

r cable

communications companies

Introduction of pedal wireless system in the Australian outback

1


1929 BBC experimental television service commenced using the Baird system 1953 Ni

Zworykin develops the kinescope, an image display device based on the cathode ray tube Th

1930 Lilienfeld patents a form of primitive field-effect transistor 1954 Te.1931 Zworykin develops the iconoscope as an answer to the Farnsworth 'image dissector' 1955 BB1934 Baird adopts the Farnsworth 'image dissector' camera as part of the system offered to the Sh

BBC, using a scan rate of 240 lines 1956 KWatson Watt and Rowe visit the acoustic station at Hythe 01CEM Joad resolution at Oxford University — 'Under no circumstances will this house fight for BaKing and Country' 1957 Ru

1935 Patent dispute over primacy of electronic television in the United States is ruled in favour of ARFarnsworthFirst tests of radio location using short-wave reflections in the United Kingdom (the birth of Pr(British radar) 1958 Ja(Conrad Zuse sets down the concept of a binary computer, the Z1 1959 Ro

1936 Dual-system national television service commenced by BBC from Alexandra Palace with the IntBaird and EMI systems used on an alternating basis FaPaper 'On Computable Numbers' by Alan Turing FCGerman troops retake the Rhineland 1960 CC

1937 BBC adopts the EMI system of televison with a 405-line scanning system using the 'Emitron' 1961 Facamera 1962 UnDeath of Marquese Marconi TelJapan invades mainland China 1963 D I

1938 RCA produces the image iconoscope, incorporating the best elements of the 'image 1964 Gdissector' and the iconoscope (almost identical to the British 'emitron') froPaper on the use of Boolean algebra in designing counting and switching networks by ClaudeShannon CcGerman troops move into Austria and the 'Anschluss' is proclaimed 1965 Th

1939 NBC commences regular television broadcastingFarnsworth Television and Radio incorporated, broadcasting from Fort Wayne, Indiana 1966 RoSecond World War begins 1968 IntRCA loses royalty battle with Farnsworth and is forced to pay licensing fees on his patents 1969 Fir.William Shockley joins the Bell Laboratories to study solid-state phenomena Th

1940 Commercial televison broadcasting in the United States commences from WBNT 1970 Xe1941 Colour television demonstrated by NBC in the United States GI

FCC adopts the NTSC standard of 525-line, 30 frames per second, black-and-white TV col1943 The Harvard Mark 1 by IBM put into operation 1971 Te>1944 D-day landings announced, 6 June Far

The 'Colossus' begins work at Bletchley Park 1972 Fil(The 'Market Garden' operation and the Arnhem debacle, September Int,

1945 End of the Second World War colArthur C Clarke predicts the introduction of the communications satellite 1973 Ga

1947 The point-contact transistor is invented by Shockley, Brattain and Bardeen 1974 Wi1949 Farnsworth Television and Radio Company sold to International Telegraph and Telephone TC1951 RCA demonstrates a new electronic colour television system compatible with existing black- Int,

and-white television meUNIVAC passes its acceptance test

1952 GW Dummer of Royal Radar Establishment, United Kingdom, proposes a monolithic block of 1975 Thtcomponents without connecting wires Fib


1953 NTSC (based on RCA system) colour television adopted in the United States

The trans-Atlantic telephone cable TAT-1 laid by a US–UK–Canadian consortium

1954 Texas Instruments manufacture the Regency TR 1 pocket transistor radio

1955 BBC opens an FM broadcasting station at Northam in Kent

Shockley Semiconductor Corporation founded by William Shockley

1956 Black-and-white television service on 625 lines commenced in Australia; coverage of the

Olympic Games in Melbourne

: for Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley awarded the Nobel prize for creation of the transistor

1957 Russia launches Sputnik

of ARPA established in the United States and Joseph Licklider becomes first director of IPTO

Eight engineers leave Shockley Semiconductors to form Fairchild Semiconductors

of Programming language FORTRAN made available

1958 Jack Kilby invents part of the solid-state integrated circuit

1959 Robert Noyce invents the other part of the solid-state integrated circuit

he Integrated circuit announced by Texas Instruments

Fairchild files a patent for the planar process for making transistors

FORTRAN II made available

1960 COBOL programming language released

on' 1961 Fairchild Semiconductors releases the first commercial integrated circuit

1962 United States launches Telstar Mark I

Television signals sent from America to Europe via satellite

1963 D Engelbart patents the first 'mouse' as a pointing device

1964 G Moore propounds the notion that integrated circuits will double in complexity

every year

from then on which is later known as 'Moore's Law'

laude BASIC programming language developed by Professor J Kemeny and TE Kurtz a

t Dartmouth

College, United States

1965 The first INTELSAT flown from the United States

Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) market the PDP 8 minicomputer

1966 Robert Taylor initiates the ARPANET project

1968 Intel formed by Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore

6_s 1969 First four IMPs installed at universities in the United States — ARPANET initiated

The design of the first microprocessor, the 4004, created at Intel by Marcian

Hoff (Ted)

1970 Xerox opens the Palo Alto Research Centre, PARC

G Hyatt files a patent for a microprocessor he describes as involving 'single i

ntegrated circuit

computer architecture'

1971 Texas Iristrurnent produce the 'Pocketronic' electronic calculator

Fairchild produces the first central processing unit, the 4004

1972 File transfer protocol introduced (FTP)

Intel produces the 8008 microprocessor, accessing 16 kilobytes of memory and

using an 8-bit

configuration

1973 Gary KildaII writes CP/M, Control Program for Microcomputers

1974 Winterbotham reveals the 'Ultra Secret'

TCP/IP protocol established by Vinton Cerf

ack- Intel produces the 8080 microprocessor running at 2 megahertz and acce

ssing 64 kilobytes of

memory (6000 transistors)

UNIX programming language is released by Bell Labs

ick of 1975 The Altair 8800 advertised in the United States via Popular Electro

nics at US$439

Fibre-optic cable developed


1975 CP/M applied to the 8080 microprocessorBill Gates and Paul Allen found Micro-Soft (later Microsoft) and license their BASIC to MITS foruse on the Altair

1976 Steven Jobs and Stephen Wozniak found Apple Computer Company on 1 AprilCP/M patented by Digital Research and created by company founder, Gary KildaIIThe 6502 microprocessor produced by MOS Technology and designed by C Peddle

1977 The Apple I microcomputer developed and soldThe Commodore Pet 2001 produced using a 6502 chipThe Tandy TRS-80 microcomputer produced

1978 Intel produces the 8086 microprocessor running at 4.7 megahertz (29 000 transistors)1979 Visicalc introduced for use on the Apple microcomputer, designed by D Bricklin and

R FranksonMicropro releases Wordstar wordprocessing program written by S Rubenstein

1981 The IBM personal computer launched using an 8088 running at 4.7 megahertz with 64 kilo-bytes of RAMThe Osborne 01 computer introduced using a Z 80 microprocessor loaded with CP/M, BASIC,Wordstar and SuperCalc

1982 Intel produces the 80286 running at 6 megahertz (134 000 transistors and speed of 0.9 MIPS)Microsoft provide MS-DOS for the IBM PCCompaq Computer introduces the Compaq Portable PC using an 8088 running at4.77 megahertz

1983 Apple LISA with GUI (graphical user interface) introducedLotus 123 produced for MS-DOS, designed by J Sachs and M KaporOsborne Computer Corporation files for bankruptcyMicrosoft announces Windows development

1984 NFS Net establishedApple produces the Macintosh using a Motorola 68000 CPU with 32 bits and running at8 megahertz with the GUIMicrosoft releases MS DOS 3.1 for the PC2400-baud modems start to appear

1985 Windows Version 1 introduced 2 years after first announcementIntel produces the 80386DX with 275 000 transistors running at 13 megahertz

1986 Compaq produces the Deskpro 386 using the 80386 running at 16 megahertzIBM produces the PC XT using a 80286 with a capacity to address 640 kilobytes of RAM with

1986 1.2-1987 Cor

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1986 1.2-megabyte floppy drive and 20-megabyte hard drive

; for 1987 Commodore produces the AMIGA 500 using the Motorola 68000 CPU with 512 kilobytes

of

RAMIBM produces the PS/2 series including t

he Model 30 (8086 at 8 megahertz), the Model 50 and

60 (80286 at 10 megahertz) and the 80 (80386 at 20 megahertz), all using the Micro C

hannel

Architecture (MCA)

IBM introduces the Video Graphic Adapter (VGA) with 16 colours at 640 by 480 or 256 col

ours

at 320 by 200

1988 Microsoft produces DOS 4, able to address disk partitions above 32 megabytes

Ashton-Tate produce DBase 4 for MS DOS

1989 Intel produce the 80486 running at 25 megahertz and integrating the 80386 CPU wi

th the

80387 maths co-processor (1.2 million transistors running at 20 MIPS)

Intel produces the 80486 running at 33 megahertz (27 MIPS)

WordPerfect 5.1 released

1990 Microsoft produces Windows Version 3

SIC, G Hyatt awarded patent for 'single chip integrated circuit computer archi

tecture' after a

20-year wait

DS) ARPANET shut down

1991 Microsoft produces MS-DOS 5 with 0 Basic to replace GW Basic

1992 NEC produces a double-speed CD-ROM drive

Microsoft produces Windows 3.1 and sells 1 million upgrade copies in 7

weeks

Microsoft produces Windows for Workgroups 3.1 allowing network o

peration

Intel introduces the Pentium with 32-bit registers, a 64-bit data bus and able

to address

4 gigabytes of address space (3.1 million transistors running at 112

MIPS for the

66-megahertz version)

1994 Intel produces the 100-megahertz Pentium running at 166 MIPS

Mosaic Communications produces the Netscape Navigator Version 1

browser for the Internet

1995 Windows 95 introduced

The Internet becomes publicly accessible as the World Wide Web

1997 Digital portable telephones begin to make analog phones obsolete

1998 Integration of portable telephone and personal digital assistants make

mobile Internet access

possible

1999 The Iridium satellite network commences

vith 2001 Anniversary of the first trans-Atlantic radio signal

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To: Clay T. Whitehead; Susan BurgessFrom: Wendell BartnickDate: • -37-20-07—ThRe: General Order 40 realletation rationale

Question

What factors did the Federal Radio Commission consider when reallocating almost every

existing assignment when it issued General Order 40?

Short Answer

In General Order 40, the Federal Radio Commission ("FRC") changed almost

every existing assignment by adjusting their power level, location, or frequency. The

FRC attempted to balance a number of factors while creating its reallocation plan. First,

the Davis Amendment to the Radio Act of 1927, which required the Federal Radio

Commission to reallocate, required the FRC to equalize the number of assignments and

broadcast station's total power levels in each of the five zones covering the country.'

Along with the five zones, the Davis Amendment also required the FRC to consider an

area's population.2 Second, the FRC continued to follow its goal of decreasing

interference and attacked interference as a technical problem to be solved.3 Third, related

to decreasing interference, the FRC weighed the quality of the technology used by the

license holder.4 Fifth, the FRC did not want to terminate any of the existing

assignments.5 Fourth, the FRC seemed to look at a station's popularity when determining

ROBERT W. MCCHESNEY, TELECOMMUNICATIONS, MASS MEDIA, AND DEMOCRACY: THE BATTLE FORTHE CONTROL OF U.S. BROADCASTING, 1928-1935, at 21(1993); Thomas W. Hazlett, The Rationality ofU.S. Regulation of the Broadcast System, 33 J.L. & ECON. 133, 161, 168 (1990).2 1928 Fed. Radio Comm'n 2d Ann. Rep. 11, [hereinafter "1928 REPORT"], available athttp://www.fcc.gov/mb/audio/decdociannual_reports.html.3 Id. at 12-13, 17; MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 22, 25.4 1928 REPORT, supra note 2, at 11.5 1d. at 218.

its new assignment.° Sixth, the FRC did not want to disrupt the clear channels previously

assigned to the high-powered national stations.7 Finally, the FRC did not want to make

drastic changes to the assignments affecting many people, so these people could still

easily find their old station.8 Importantly, a discussion limited to General Order 40 leaves

out much of the background that explains why the FRC acted as it did and the actual

effects of General Order 40; and that background is discussed in much more detail below

in the Long Answer.

Long Answer

Prior To Radio Act of 1927

Before the Radio Act of 1927, anyone could request and receive a radio license

from the Department of Commerce ("DOC").9 The government could not deny a

citizen's right to access spectrum or give exclusive rights to a part of the spectrum to one

entity because spectrum was considered a public good.1° Without spectrum access

denials by the government, broadcasters increased their spectrum use. The increased use

led to increased interference problems. Additionally, the government could not limit the

power levels used by broadcasters. I I The limits on technology were the only limits on a

station's power level which was another key contributor to interference.12 For example,

the size of the antenna was one major determinate of power.I3 As an antenna increased in

size and other technology improved, the power levels of stations rose, causing

6 MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 24.7 1928 REPORT, supra note 2, at 17.8 1d. at 216.9 Hugh G.J. Aitken, Allocating the Spectrum: The Origins of Radio Regulation, 35 TECH. & CULTURE 686,688 (1994).10 Id.; Hazlett, supra note 1, at 133, 135 (1990).I I See Aitken, supra note 9, at 692.12 Id13 Id.

interference.14 Very wide broadcast signals were a third cause of interference because

signals spilled over onto other frequencies.15

To combat this interference, Congress passed the Radio Act of 1912 ("1912

Act"). The 1912 Act resulted in moving amateurs to a different spectrum area so that

they would not interfere with government and commercial use.16 Also, new technology

improvements, like the use of vacuum tubes, helped solve other interference problems.17

These improvements caused most people to think the minimal regulations under the 1912

Act were enough.18

But the 1920's broadcast explosion changed this view.19 The 1920s saw many

more people who wanted to broadcast to a wide range of people, not just point-to-point

communication as before.2° The DOC attempted to fix the problem by dedicating a

single frequency and then an entire frequency band to these broadcasters.21 These

frequencies were chosen away from the amateur, commercial, and government

frequencies to avoid interference, but the broadcast stations multiplied faster than the

available channels creating more interference problems as the number of stations

increased.22 In September 1921, three stations broadcasted, in December of 1922 there

were 576 broadcast stations, and in February 1927, there were 716 broadcast stations.23

The power levels of the broadcasts also increased due to technological improvements; the

14 Id15 1d.'6 1d. at 691.'71d. at 693.18 Id. at 693-4.19 Id. at 693.20 Id.21 Id. at 694-5.22 Id. at 694-5.23 MARVIN R. BENSMAN, THE BEGINNING OF BROADCAST REGULATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 154(2000); Hazlett, supra note 1, at 140.

power levels increased from a normal broadcast level of 250 watts to where many

stations broadcasted at 500-1000 watts.24 Two stations planned to broadcast at 5,000

watts and RCA stated they could broadcast at 50,000 watts.25

In the early and mid 1920s, a significant portion of the stations, around one third,

were operated by nonprofit organizations like religious groups, civic organizations, labor

unions, and colleges and universities.26 Between 1921 and 1925, colleges and

universities received 176 licenses, with 128 stations surviving until at least 1925.27 The

other nonprofit groups combined had approximately the same number of licenses.28

During this same time, even the for-profit stations weren't "professional" broadcasters;

they were newspapers, department stores, power companies, car dealerships, etc.29 These

unprofessional, for-profit stations had about half of the total licenses, and the stations

were used to improve the publicity and reputation of owners' primary businesses.30 In

1926, only 4.3% of US stations were labeled as "commercial broadcasters", but soon,

huge corporations, including RCA, GE, AT&T, and Westinghouse, dominated radio

communication, as many nonprofit broadcasters quit broadcasting due to lack of funds.31

RCA established the first network, NBC, in late 1926.32 CBS was created in 1927.33

These two networks and their affiliates quickly dominated broadcasting.34

24 Aitken, supra note 9, at 695." Id.26 MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 14-15.27 Id.28 Id29 Id. at 14-153° Id.31 Id. at 12, 15.321d. at 14.33 Id.34 Id.

During this time, the DOC seemed to be able to at least regulate the location and

frequencies where licensees broadcasted which allowed the DOC to prevent some

broadcast intcrference.35 For example, the DOC tried to keep the area near the Canadian

border free from powerful U.S. stations to avoid interference and possible diplomatic

problems.36 However, the court in U.S. v. Zenith Radio Corp.37 took away even this

limited power.38 The court case plus a subsequent attorney general's opinion on the

subject resulted in the DOC taking a nearly complete hands-off approach to spectrum

allocation, creating what some view as "chaos" where interference problems increased

with no solution in sight.39 For example, within six months, 200 new broadcasters began

operation and many did not respect the others' frequencies.°

Radio Act of 1927

To fix these interference problems, Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover

thought the only solution was strong regulation and Congress passed the Radio Act of

1927 ("1927 Act") which granted the federal government the right to deny access to the

spectrum for the first time.4I However, no one believed government ownership or

complete control of broadcasting was the answer.42 The National Association of

Broadcasters ("NAB") and the commercial broadcasters were highly involved in drafting

the 1927 Act. 43 Contrastingly, educators and other nonprofit broadcasters played almost

35 Aitken, supra note 9, at 702.36 Id. at 704.37 U.S. v. Zenith Radio Corp., 12 F.2d 614 (N.D. Ill. 1926).38 Aitken, supra note 9, at 702.39 BENSMAN, supra note 23, at 154; Aitken, supra note 9, at 706.40 MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 14.41 BENSMAN, supra note 23, at 183; Aitken, supra note 9, at 689.42 MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 14.43 Id. at 17.

no role, though they did support the 1927 Act to fix the abundant interference problems.44

Virtually everyone saw the 1927 Act as an emergency solution to the recent interference

problems.45

The 1927 Act created the Federal Radio Commission ("FRC"), giving it the

ability to assign frequency rights based on what the FRC thought would further "the

public interest, convenience, or necessity," a highly general guideline.46 Early versions

of the 1927 Act attempted to favor nonprofit broadcasters, but specific language was

rejected because legislators felt that mandate was implicit in the term "public interest,

convenience, or necessity.5,47 The FRC quickly identified a number of problems they

would act to fix: 1) stations frequency jumped, 2) no separation between channels

existed, 3) U.S. signals invaded Canada, 4) many new stations continually entered an

already crowded situation, and 5) incumbent stations continued to increase their power

output.48 The FRC also identified two ways it could serve the public interest: 1)

distribute stations evenly along the dial, and 2) license only stations that demonstrated a

capacity to serve the public.49 With these problems and goals in mind, the FRC, in the

end, reassigned nearly every station.'°

The FRC held a number of hearings on how best to regulate broadcasting to

prevent the interference problems.51 The FRC got most of their suggestions from

44 Id.45 Id.46 Radio Act of 1927 § 9; MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 18; Hazlett, supra note 1, at 136.47 MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 33.48 1927 Fed. Radio Cortun'n Ann. Rep. 10-11, [hereinafter "1927 REPORT"], available athttp://www.fcc.gov/fcc-bin/assemble?docno=270701.49 1d. at 11.5° Id. at 9.1 MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 19.

commercial broadcasters, radio manufacturers, and other commercial enterprises.52 The

broadly held sentiment in these hearings was that the success of broadcasting meant

removing small and unimportant stations.53 When assigning spectrum, the FRC chose to

employ a market success standard of public interest.54 The market success standard

favored applicants with better technical equipment, adequate financial resources, skilled

personnel, and the ability to provide continuous service; in essence, the advantages that

commercial broadcasters had over nonprofit broadcasters.55 One scholar feels the process

was highly political where the FRC grandfathered rights for major broadcasters, and

eliminated many of the smaller stations and all new entry into the broadcast market.56

Another scholar said, "[t]tle beneficiaries of the ad hoc allocation process were the largest

stations, generally affiliated with the networks, while the smaller and nonprofit

broadcasters continued to struggle to survive."57

The FRC implemented the initial government-determined allocation by

terminating all licenses on June 1, 1927.58 On that date, the new allocations went into

effect where the FRC granted temporary sixty-day licenses starting on June 15, 1927.59

During the sixty days, stations could request a hearing to complain about their assignment

and they had to show how their requested assignments were in the public interest.60

52 1d. at 19.53 MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 19.54 Hazlett, supra note 1, at 157.55 Id. at 157-58.56 Id. at 154, 168.57 MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 20.58 1927 REPORT, supra note 40, at 15.59 Id.6° Id.

Between July 1, 1927 and March 18, 1928, the FRC held 51 hearings from broadcasters

who wanted better assignments.61

According to the FRC, this allocation test proved to do well in the large cities, but

poorly in rural areas.62 The rural area listeners reported much more heterodyne

interference on their stations.63 Heterodyne interference occurs when two stations

operate on the same frequency and one is running a little off frequency, causing the

broadcast of an audible tone on those stations.64 The FRC responded by reallocating

assignments a number of times and only granted 60-day licenses to give the FRC the

continued flexibility to do adjust the assignments.65 The FRC reallocated assignments in

Zone 5 in November 1927 and again in March 1928 due to interference problems.66 The

FRC reallocated in other zones in December 1927.67

One scholar noted the FRC's solution accomplished the following:68

• Gave de facto property rights to the incumbent licensees using a "priority in use

rule",

• Did not renew 83 licensees in July 1927,

• Reduced power and time assignments to nonprofit organizations, and

• Awarded enhanced power assignments (up to 50k watts) to some large

broadcasters, generally network affiliated

While the FRC seemed pleased with its success, not everyone shared its view.

First, some members of Congress charged the FRC with discriminating against the

61 1928 REPORT, supra note 2, at 9.621d. at 8.63 Id.64 ICNLS English Service, http://www.knls.org/English/trascripts/dxdet102.htm#Heterodyne.65 1928 REPORT, supra note 2, at 8.66 Id. at 9-10.671d. at 8.68 Hazlett, supra note 1, at 167-68.

southern states when it assigned stations.69 As a result, the FRC tried to give more

assignments to southern stations (32 new stations were added) and 47 northern stations

voluntarily gave up their licenses between March 1927 and June 1928.7°

Second, the number of nonprofit broadcasters was decreasing rapidly. In 1924,

151 stations were licensed to colleges and universities, and in September 1928 there were

only around seventy.71 Rather than help nonprofits, when possible the FRC attempted to

create clear channels for high-powered stations broadcasting nationwide.72 Of the first

twenty-five channels set aside for clear channels, twenty-three were given to NBC

affiliates.73 Congress had mixed feelings on these FRC actions as some felt the public

interest was served best by the content diversity of the network affiliates, while others

were unsatisfied with the sharp decline in the role of nonprofit broadcasting.74 Those

unhappy with the increasing dominance of the networks called for legislation to require

the FRC to break-up the network dominance, reduce the maximum power allowances so

less capitalized stations could compete, and to turn over more of the prime clear channels

to nonprofit broadcasters.75 Much of this effort failed, but Congress did succeed in

passing the Davis Amendment. 76

Davis Amendment in 1928 — General Order 40

Congress enacted the Davis Amendment in March 1928.77 The Davis

Amendment ordered the FRC to allocate an "equitable" number of broadcast licenses to

69 1928 REPORT, supra note 2, at 10.70 Id. at 11.71 Hazlett, supra note 1, at 164-65.72 MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 20-21." Id." Id.75 1d. at 21.76 Id.77 Id.

each of the nation's five zones on the claim that the South and West was being cheated

out of its fair share of radio stations.78 This new requirement implicitly attacked the

network domination which was highly concentrated on the eastern seaboard.79 The FRC

changed its sole focus from achieving better radio reception and working to achieve "fair,

efficient, and equitable radio service" required in the 1927 Act to achieving an equal

allocation of licenses based on geographic location (the 5 zones) and population.8°

Congress directed that the FRC could accomplish this task by: 1) granting or refusing

license applications or renewals, 2) changing periods of operation time, and 3) increasing

or decreasing station power.81

The FRC acknowledged that Congress did not define the meaning of public

interest, convenience, or necessity in the Act of 1927 or the Davis Amendment.82 So the

FRC interpreted it to mean that the FRC should strive 'to bring about the best possible

broadcasting reception with the best technical equipment."83 First, the FRC held a

number of hearings which included mostly engineers, and allowed them to present plans

to the FRC for implementing the Davis Amendment.84 These engineers were mostly

employed by the goverment, radio manufacturers, or commercial broadcasters, which

coincided with the FRC's "harmonious and extensive relationship" with NBC, CBS, and

the NAB.85 Their primary recommendation was to create a large number of high-

powered clear channels "upon which only one station operates" nationally and also to

create a number of regional channels that several broadcasters could use

78 MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 21; Hazlett, supra note 1, at 161, 168.79 MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 21.80 1928 REPORT, supra note 2, at 11.81 Id.82 MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 25.83 1928 REPORT, supra note 2, at 11.84 Id. at 12-13; MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 22.85 MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 22-23.

simultaneously.86 As a corollary, the engineers suggested that if the FRC could not

reduce the number of small broadcasters to create the clear channels, those broadcasters

should be forced to share the same channels.87 This coincided with networks' and large

commercials broadcasters' priorities, since they could best take advantage of this

reallocation.88 The FRC also asked major radio editors which stations were the most

popular in their communities.89 Contrastingly, the FRC had little contact with nonprofit

broadcasters, public interest groups with an interest in broadcast policy, or even members

of Congress.9°

The FRC decided to discontinue licensing portable broadcasting stations and

terminated the licenses of the 13 existing portable broadcast stations since they created

many interference problems.9I Then the FRC identified 164 stations which were doubtful

to retain their license without a showing of how their continued operation would serve the

public interest, convenience, or necessity.92 In late August 1928, only 81 of those

stations remained unscathed, as 62 of the station licenses were terminated, mostly in the

Midwest, and 12 were reduced in power.93

Finally, the reallocation plan based on the mandate of the Davis Amendment

occurred with the issuance of General Order 40 on August, 30, 1928.94 One key

conclusion the FRC made was to not abolish any of the existing stations beyond what had

86 Id. at 22, 24.87 1d. at 24.88 Id.89 Id." Id. at 23.91 1 92 8 REPORT, supra note 2, at 14.921d93 Id. at 16. Nine more were also affected in other ways. Id.94 Id. at 17. General Order 40 is located in the 1928 Report's Appendix A.

already been terminated.95 The important component of the implementation plan instead

was to create limits on national, regional, and local channels in each of the 5 regions of

the country.96 Each zone would have a maximum of 8 national clear channels, 7 regional

channels (between 500 and 1000 watts), and 30 local channels (50-100 watts).97 Beyond

these, 6 channels were set aside for stations greater than 100 watts for use in all zones and

5 channels for stations less than 1000 watts for use in all zones, and 4 channels were set

aside for use by stations with greater than 5000 watts for use in two or more zones.98 The

FRC felt this created excellent radio reception on 80% of the channels.99 The

reallocation altered 94% of the broadcasters' prior frequency assi gnments.1°° The

unaffected 6% were network affiliates already situated on existing clear channels.101

The new assignments from this reallocation were announced on September 10,

1928, to go into effect on November 11, 1928 and regulated frequency, power, and hours

of operation.102 There were some revisions to the plan during October, but everything

went into effect in November as planned.103 The statement by the commission pursuant

to General Order 40 stated that the commission believed the plan provided an improved

standard of radio reception generally, and also distributed the broadcast channels, powers,

and periods of time on the air equally among the five zones.104 A chief engineer looked

at the allocation and found that: 1) allocation of frequencies and of stations assignments

to the individual states were closely proportional to population, 2) aggregate power levels

95 1d. at 218.961d at 17.97 Id.98 Id.99 Id.1°° MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 25.1°1 1928 REPORT, supra note 2, at 17.102 Id. at 18.'°3 1d.'°4 Id. at 214.

were nearly equal among the five zones, and 3) the assignments were only approximately

equalized since the zone with the most had 155 assignments and the zone with the least

had 106 assignments.1° In addition, the choice of new frequencies was largely

influenced by the previous frequencies.1°6 For example, the high-powered stations were

placed at certain frequencies because listeners were accustomed to hearing regional-

service stations at those frequencies.107

Post General Order 40

Pursuant to General Order 40, the FRC assigned licenses for three month periods,

giving the FRC the ability to adjust the assignments.1°8 Any broadcaster could challenge

the assignment during the 3 months and the FRC would allocate the majority of the hours

to stations it deemed most worthy.1°9 Most of the challengers were commercial

broadcasters who challenged nonprofit broadcasters for their air-time.110 The commercial

broadcasters usually won these challenges because the FRC favored general public

service broadcasters rather than the nonprofit stations it described as "propaganda

stations."1 This resulted in the hours going to commercial stations, often affiliated with

one of the two networks.112

Most nonprofit broadcasters found themselves in a vicious cycle where the FRC

lowered their hours and power by assigning them to well-capitalized commercial

broadcasters, which made it that much more difficult for the nonprofit broadcasters to get

'°5 1d. at 217-18.'°6 1d. at 216.1°7 Id.108 See MCCHESNEY, supra note 1, at 25.'°91d."° Id. at 26.111 Id. at 28."2 Id.

the money necessary to be successful. 113 Without money, the nonprofit broadcasters

could not expand or spend the money to defend against the commercial broadcasters

challenges to their air-time every three months. 114 This was the scenario for most of the

educational and nonprofit stations that went off the air in the late 1920's and early 1930s.

115

While the FRC didn't explicitly terminate the nonprofit assignments, the net

effect of their actions resulted in a significant decline in the number of nonprofit

stations.116 In the year following the implementation of General Order 40, one hundred

fewer stations were on the air.117 Educational stations declined from ninety-five in 1927

to less than half that in 1930.118 The overall number of nonprofit broadcasters declined

from 200 in 1927 to 65 in 1934 and nearly all had low power.119 By 1934, nonprofit

broadcasters made up only 2% of US broadcast time.12°

Unsurprisingly, after the General Order 40 reallocation and ensuing challenges,

the nationwide networks took off. NBC and CBS combined to have forty-four stations in

1927 (6.4%).121 Within 4 years, they combined for 30% of the stations.122 All but three

of the forty clear channels were soon owned or affiliated with the two networks and

approximately one half of the remaining 70% of the stations were low-power independent

broadcasters operating with limited hours and shared frequencies.' 23 Within 2 years of

"31d. at 25, 31."41d.115 1d."61d. at 30-31.117/d. at 26."81d. at 30."91d. at 30-31.'20 1d. at 31.121 Id. at 29.'22 1d.123 Id.

the General Order 40 implementation, the average independent station had a power of

566 watts, while NBC's stations averaged over 10k watts.124

I 24 Id.

Powel Crosley, Jr.: How his Blind Ambition Promoted Competition in the Wake ofRCA's Radio Monopoly

By Jackie Neff

Despite failing out of engineering school, Powel Crosley, Jr. went on to become

one of the most successful "engineers" in the broadcasting business.' Undeterred by his

educational failure, Crosley blindly followed his ambition wherever it drew him. He

spent his college summers selling securities to businessmen and developed marketing

skills.2 Confident in his salesmanship, Crosley charmed investors into backing several

failed automobile sales ventures.3 Lucky for Crosley, the wireless industry surfaced and

radio began to blossom presenting endless opportunities for a driven young entrepreneur

like Crosley.4

In 1921, Crosley's son, Powel Crosley III, told him about this great wireless set

that he had seen at a friend's house, and Crosley took his son to purchase a similar model

at a department store.5 The store clerk informed him that the least expensive model was

$130, 1/3 the price of a Model Tat the time!6 Crosley was puzzled by the staggering

price and refused to believe that radio production could possibly be so expensive.7

Instead of a radio, Crosley purchased a pamphlet entitled "The A.B.C. of Radio."8 He

I Rusty McClure et al., Crosley: Two Brothers and a Business Empire that Transformed the Nation 50

(2006). 2 Id. at 53.3 Id. at 52-56, 75-80.

4 1d. at 63.5 1d. at 121.6 1d. at 124.7 Id8 1d. at 125.

416-

successfully built a functioning radio with materials costing less than $35.9 Crosley saw

a business opportunity and quickly sought willing investors.10 Thereafter, Crosley made

some modifications to suggested radio parts, lowering the manufacturing cost.H Before

attempting to manufacture his own radios for distribution, Crosley gauged interest in his

products by selling the less expensive, more promising parts to existing manufacturers

such as Grebe.12 Of particular interest were his porcelain socket set, cheaper than the

alternative molded composite and yet more durable, and his improved dialing knob.I3

It is unclear whether Crosley ignored the potential legal consequences of his

decision or whether he was ignorant of them. However, the high price of radios at the

time was a reflection of RCA's monopoly of the industry arising out of its exclusive

patent rights on necessary parts.14 In 1919, the U.S. government strongly feared a British

monopoly of the airwaves.I5 To secure American participation in, and eventual

domination of, the radio industry, the government accepted General Electric's proposal to

allow the three controlling companies to consolidate and purchase the foreign threat.16 As

such, the companies were consolidated to form RCA.17 The behemoth held all valid

radio patents in the U.S., including the exclusive rights to manufacture vacuum tubes and

filaments.' 8

9 Id.; Crosley Radio: A Brief History, available athttp://www.maisonconnoisseur.comicrosley_radio_history.html10 Supra, note 1 at 127.Id. at 125.

'21d.'3 1d.14 1d.15 Robert Sears McMahon, Federal Regulation of the Radio and Television Broadcasting Industry in the

United States, 192 7-1959 15 (1979).16 1d.17 1d.

18 Leonard S. Reich, Research, Patents and the Struggle to Control Radio: A Study of Big Business and theUses of Industrial Research, 51 Bus. Hist. Rev. 208, 215-16 (Summer, 1977).

Whether he was unaware or turned a blind eye, the possibility of a patent

infringement suit did not deter Crosley. After accumulating enough capital to set his

vision in motion, Crosley recruited two young engineers from the nearby Cincinnati

University to bring his ideas to life.19 The result was the historic "Harko" crystal radio

set which went on the market in 1921 for seven dollars per set (minus accessory

equipment).2°

Crosley's decision was not unwise. He became known as the "Henry Ford" of

radio because he delivered radios to the masses at an affordable price.21 Crosley's secret

was his swiftness. RCA was a corporate giant, three distinct companies attempting to

mesh talent, ideas, material and personne1.22 Essentially, RCA was an umbrella

organization formed as an outlet for the individual companies' sales.23 The companies

agreed to a common licensing pact, each allowing the others rights to any individual

radio patents.24 However, each separate company was responsible for its own

production.25 The separation of sales and production was disastrous creating substantial

lag time between each step of the manufacturing process from design to final sale.26 The

corporate giant reacted far too slowly to the market and to patent infringement.27 By the

time RCA was prepared to tackle a patent infringement suit, Crosley was still a new

competitor and not the only manufacturer infringing on RCA's patents.28 Therefore,

19 Supra, note 1 at 127.20 Id.

21 Crosley Radio: A Brief History, available athttp://www.maisonconnoisseur.com/crosley_radio_history.html.22 Supra, note 18 at 217.23 Supra, note 15 at 25.24 Id. at 25-26.25 Id.26 Id. at 26.27I

28 Id; Supra, note 1 at 125.

Crosley escaped RCA's ire in its 1923 suit, and RCA targeted the more established Grebe

Radio Corporation.29

However, by that time, Crosley had sold thousands of radios and had finally

achieved the success he had been searching for. By 1922, he had become the world's

largest radio seller.3° He also made an imprint in history that survived even his

grandchildren's time.

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29 Id. The adversary in this 1923 case received community support which ultimately culminated in acounter-suit by the FTC against RCA for monopolization of the radio industry. Therefore, even if Crosleyhad suffered the unlucky fate of legal prosecution, the business would likely have survived.30Crosley Radio History, available at http://www.crosley.com/history.html.

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A universal speaking service: the role of WestinghouseElectric and Manufacturing Company in the development ofNational Network Broadcasting, 1922-1926.

by Crawford, Amy GrabanJournal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media • Sept, 2007 •

Radio transmission evolved into something new on November 2, 1920. On Election Day a recently established radio station in EastPittsburgh, KDKA, reported the election results to a public that was becoming increasingly interested in radio. How to define "the firstbroadcast station" is still debated, but on that day Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, the company that owned KDKA,transmitted a general purpose program designed to reach a mass, general-interest audience of casual listeners.

As the decade progressed, corporate powers in radio manufacturing battled for prominence as the industry headed in a potentiallylucrative new direction. The patent pool that had been in effect during the war was lifted, leaving corporations vying to become thebellwether of the industry. The battle for leadership and dominance in the largely experimental and unregulated world of radiobroadcasting led to legal arbitration, corporate negotiations, personal animosities and, eventually, cooperation and cross-licensing(Bilby, 1986; HiImes, 1997; Spalding, 1964; Sterling & Kittross, 1978). In his biography of David Sarnoff, Kenneth Bilby writes, "Theyears between 1922 and 1926 were the most crucial in the development of American broadcasting. The service matrix that exists today,for television as well as radio, was configured then" (Bilby, 1986, pp. 68). As the dominant broadcasting and communicationscompanies of the day struggled to establish a regular, national broadcast presence, Bilby notes that "in security-sealed corporate boardrooms and Manhattan legal offices, and at secret arbitration hearings, the penumbral drama unfolded" (Bilby, 1986, pp. 68).

The story of how Radio Corporation of America, General Electric, and Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company workedtogether, if occasionally at cross-purposes, to build the structure of national network broadcasting has been told, but not from eachcompany's perspective. The personal and business correspondence of Westinghouse Vice President and broadcast pioneer HarryPhillips Davis illustrates how Westinghouse planned to enhance and, later, preserve their leadership position as the industry evolved. Ifthe drama unfolded behind closed doors, then these documents provide a window into the negotiation from Davis's and Westinghouse'sperspective.

H. P. Davis's Broadcast Proposals

Broadcast history texts tell the familiar tale of how Frank Conrad, an engineer at Westinghouse, set up an experimental radio station atthe Westinghouse factory in East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. At Westinghouse, Conrad had been in charge of the governmental wirelessexperiments during World War I. After the end of wireless restrictions imposed during the war, Conrad began airing programs of music,lectures, and sports scores that were picked up by wireless enthusiasts with receiving sets. As the broadcasts grew in popularity, a localdepartment store, the Joseph Horne Company, ran an advertisement promoting Conrad's station and the store's radio department. Theadvertisement read that "Mr. Conrad will send out phonograph records this evening for amateurs with radio receivers" ("FirstRadiophone Station," 1922, p. 7; "Great Men of Radio," 1922, p.6; "Story Told of Birth of Broadcast," 1922, p. 7).

Conrad's supervisor, H. P. Davis, an engineer and vice president at Westinghouse, saw the advertisement and inferred that if thebroadcasts found an audience with little promotion, an organized, high-quality program designed to reach a wide, mass audience couldbe very effective (Barnouw, 1966; S. J. Douglas, 1987; Head, 1956; Sterling & Kitross, 1978). Davis later recalled thinking that if therewas entertainment on the air, people would demand "ears," or Westinghouse could establish a wide market for radio receiver sets.("Great Men of Radio," 1922). Davis sent for Conrad and informed him that Westinghouse was shutting down Conrad's experimental-station. A two-part installment in The Chicago Evening Standard on June 17, 1922, describes Davis's recollection of the conversation.

Frank, my idea is that you stop sending from your station and we

will start a regular service from our experimental station here at

East Pittsburgh. We can arrange for a suitable wave length, and I

believe if we do this it will be the beginning of radio

broadcasting public service which seems to me to have wonderful

possibilities. ("Story Told of Birth of Broadcast," 1922, p. 7).

Whether Davis did foresee the full impact of radio as an industry and public service on that day in 1920 cannot be said for certain. As an

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advocate for a permanent radio station with a daily program schedule, Davis did articulate in internal correspondence his view that radio

should not be limited as a point-to-point medium. Rather, Davis envisioned radio as a mass medium designed for the information,

entertainment, and public service of the masses (Davis, 1928; "First Radiophone Station," 1922; "Story Told of Birth of Broadcast,"

1922).

Harry Phillips Davis was born July 31, 1868, in Somersworth, New Hampshire. Davis studied electrical and mechanical engineering and

joined Westinghouse's engineering department in 1891. A biographical essay in The Story of Electricity quotes Davis on his interest,

beginning in the late 1880s, with "the various applications of electricity then being undertaken" (Martin & Coles, 1922, p. 1). Davis's work

early in his career focused on the electrification of mass transportation systems, a field in which Davis holds more than 100 patents.

Davis then turned his attention to radio, an endeavor that would make him one of the most influential Americans of the

In the 1920s H. P. Davis was celebrated in the popular press as "the Father of Radio Broadcasting" ("Father of Radio Broadcasting,"

1922; Foster, 1923; "Great Men of Radio," 1922; Krumm, 1922; Maclaurin, 1949/1971; Martin & Coles, 1922; The National Broadcasting

Company, 1931 ; "Radio's Version," 1970; "Story Told of Birth of Broadcast," 1922). In a press release issued by the National

Broadcasting Company announcing Davis's death, radio pioneer and inventor Ernst Alexanderson of General Electric addressed

Davis's influence.

The growth of the technical arts follows lines that can be foreseen

to some extent. Science shadows invention. But how will these

inventions be adapted to human society and how will they change it.

It takes a leader who is more than a scientist or an inventor to

blaze those trails. It is in that broader sense that we have come

to know H. P. Davis and when we call him the "Father of American

Broadcasting" it is the greatest tribute we can give. (The National

/(' Broadcasting Company, 1931, p, 1)

In 1922, Davis wrote about the new promise of the broadcasting public service company. The radio, he wrote, offers great promise.

Davis was among the first to foresee radio's practical possibilities. It was Davis's view that radio offers entertainment through its

programming, but it is also a serious service for the good of the public. Davis likened the role of the radio to that of the newspaper but

noted one difference. "The newspaper has been developed to a wonderful state of perfection and wields a tremendous influence in our

lives today--yet that influence is more or less local." Radio had the potential to unite a nation (1922, January, p. 3).

Davis noted that when KDKA went on the air, the public response was dramatic and immediate. After 9 months of continuous operation,

KDKA relayed its signal to stations WJZ in Newark, and WBZ in Springfield, Massachusetts, with a fourth station, KYW, in the works in

Chicago. Still there was public demand for wider reach and more programming. Davis asked,

And where will it end? What are the limitations? Who dares to

predict? Scientists and inventors are working on relays that will

permit one station to pass its message on to another and we may

easily expect to hear from an outlying farm in Maine some great

artist singing into a radiophone many thousand miles away.... It is

not a question of possibility--it is rather a question of "how

soon." (1922, January, p. 5)

Davis also saw problems in the fast growth of early radio. The number of broadcasters on the air grew dramatically, numbering almost

600 stations in 1922 on only two wavelengths. There were no proposed plans to deal with this congestion and no clear call for action to

restrict start-ups. Those who were established in the industry, like Westinghouse, looked at this chaos and feared that interference from

newcomers would threaten their established stations. One idea being examined by Davis and others was a way of creating an efficient

distribution system. This would be a way to reap the benefits of economies-of-scale and produce high quality programming. It would be

a way to receive programming, perhaps live, from across the nation or globe. Davis called this a "universal speaking service" (Davis,

1922, April, p. 1). Others were developing this same concept and calling it chajn_ broadcasting or network broadcasting (Barnouw, 1966;

G. H. Douglas, 20027g-ell inb—&—RTIIT-O§.§71S-T8). _

Westinghouse's Early Proposals for Networks

By 1925, the considerable interference brought about by the quick boon of the radio industry was becoming a critical issue for

established broadcasters and receiver manufacturers, such as Westinghouse. The radio conferences initiated by the Department of

Commerce through the early 1920s did little to solve the problem and established broadcasters were becoming anxious that their radio

audiences would be discouraged by the noise on the radio band (G. H. Douglas, 2002). Broadcasters began looking for ways to rein in

the competition. One method, especially for established stations and organizations, was to work together.

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One way in which to do this was to create a chain of stations which could be usecl to distribute programming. A web of networkedentities was a familiar concept in the telephonic communication sectorOn 1923,/the American Telephone and Telegraph Company usedits existing long-distance lines to begin distributing programming to stations, an arrangement, they argued, to which they held theexclusive rights (G. H. Douglas, 2002; Sterling & Kittross, 1978). AT&T was not alone in its development of the network concept.Westinghouse experimented with relaying programs by other stations or putting "remote" programs on the air shortly after theestablishment of KDKA in 1920 (G. H. Douglas, 2002).

Westinghouse also started to see how the presence of programming across wider geographic markets could lead to increased receiversales. In a letter dated July 8, 1925, Frank E. Mulley, an editor at a farm journal, The National Stockman and Farmer, examined thecorrelation between desirable programming for a key audience and the adoption of radio sets. His letter documented what he saw asthe influence that programming, in this case the farm report The Stockman on KDKA, had on encouraging farmers to purchasereceivers. As evidence, Mulley pointed to the correlation that counties with the highest subscription rates to The National Stockman andFarmer newspaper also had the most radio sets.

There are more sets on farms in the western third of Pennsylvania

where The Stockman dominates, than in the eastern two-thirds of the

state. This in spite of the fact that there are 50,000 more farmers

in the eastern two-thirds of the state. (Mulley, 1925, p. 2)

This correlation, while not scientific, did anecdotally suggest a mutually beneficial alliance which could be formed between newspapersand radio stations. One such venture was debated at Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company in 1925. The proposed chainwould be a coalition of Midwestern Newspapers and Westinghouse, to be called the Mid-Continent Chain. Such a chain would placeWestinghouse and affiliated newspapers in direct competition with AT&T (Conrad & Horn, n.d.).

From July through November 1925 Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company considered the costs and benefits of being apart of a chain of broadcasting stations. As Davis looked for a way to promote radio receiver sales and to efficiently provideprogramming for an audience wary of interference, he looked at the organization of a press association or wire service. Such a groupallows each individual paper to maintain its ownership and local identity, while providing content from one centralized source. Heproposed that radio stations could work under the same organizational structure (Davis, 1925; Rosen, 1980).

Davis viewed the structure of the developing AT&T national chain as wasteful. Davis stated in a 1925 proposal that "a large majority ofthe receiving sets in use today can pick up at will a half dozen or more of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company's chain butthey can listen to only one at a time" (Davis, 1925, p. 1). He added that if the AT&T stations broadcast at different times, this duplicationwould be reduced. The Mid-Continent Radio Chain would cull programming from its affiliate members and then share this programmingamong members through the week.

The Mid-Continent Radio Chain would consist of six powerful, well-established stations in the Midwest, each affiliated with a newspaper.These included WMAQ (Chicago Daily News), WWJ (Detroit News), WBAP (Fort Worth Star-Telegram), WDAF (Kansas City Star),WHAS (Louisville Courier-Journal), and KSD (St. Louis Post-Dispatch). Davis estimated that each station had a 500-mile radius. Withthis calculation the network would have reached 85% of the nation, and 42% of the nation's population (Davis, 1925).

Davis, working with J. C. McQuiston, Westinghouse's manager in the Publicity Department, was considering a number of possible waysto interconnect these stations. The first possibility was to emulate AT&T by employing a wire relay. Another option was to substituteshort wave wireless transmission for the traditional wired approach. A final option was to create a wire/wireless hybrid model (Davis,1925, July 8). As a plan for the network developed, executives and engineers at Westinghouse opted for a wireless short waveapproach.

Westinghouse perceived several advantages in an alliance with newspapers. The first was that the newspapers were familiar withworking with advertisers. The newspapers also brought to the table with them their government connections and contacts. Additionally,McQuiston noted, the press could be a beneficial ally in promoting the name of Westinghouse and the network itself.

In Davis's and McQuiston's assessment the newspaper/station owners were optimistic about the potential to work together and workwith Westinghouse, yet both sides indicated they had reservations about the arrangement. McQuiston feared the newspapermen wereoveremphasizing advertising returns over content. McQuiston stated that he would reposition Westinghouse's proposal to emphasizehow a network could "build up a high standard of excellence of broadcasting" (1925, p. 1). He questioned whether the newspaperowners would have the same commercial outlook if it were the radio broadcasters suggesting a "disregard for a high standard ofeditorial?" (p. 1). The representatives of the newspaper also balked at the idea of forming a new company. Davis saw this as animportant part of the deal. His argument was that by committing to be part of a distinct corporation there would be a greater chance toachieve uniformity and market the group to national advertisers (McQuiston, 1925).

It was Davis's estimation that stations could receive a variety of original programming to air every night of the week and for producing asingle evening's worth of programming in exchange. This promise of quality content was seen by executives at Westinghouse to be agood value in a competitive radio market where many stations were competing for the same audience and were also vying for the sameartists, and, of course, the same advertisers. The Mid-Continent Radio Chain would represent a relationship among three parties; thenewspapers whose stations were affiliates, Westinghouse who would serve as the central organizing network, and advertisers who>fc., would sponsor programming (McQuiston, 1925).

Another stumbling block for this potential chain was a lack of agreement on the best way to transmit signals from the hub station to theaffiliates. Westinghouse had been actively involved in short wave system experimentation and had been using short waves to transmit

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KDKA around the globe. The tests sending out programming to affiliates via short wave were less than promising. Althought experimental broadcasts from KDKA using the short wave system reached distant locales, they did not_do-so-with.psedictable reliability.

Short wave radio as a form of distribution, at this time, would remain a highly questionable concept (Barnouw, 1966).

Another potential problem Westinghouse could foresee was that of a fee structure for the affiliates. McQuiston found that the stationsspent about $50,000 a year on operating expenses. If the plan for the chain were to succeed broadcasters could offset or reduce their

annual outlay. The network, in addition to facilitating the placement of advertising and the procurement of programming, would chargethe affiliates fixed fees from gross revenue. These costs would include a 15% agency commission and charge to recoup the cost of

producing programming and the cost of operating the network short wave system. This charge was projected to be approximately 35%

of gross revenue (Davis, 1925). During the late summer of 1925 both sides were left to mull these considerations while Westinghouse

worked on a definite proposition. However, another discussion was beginning to draw Westinghouse's attention from the Mid-Continent

Radio Chain. This was the possibility of a national network being discussed among members of the Radio Group--Westinghouse

yx Electric and Manufacturing Company, General Electric, and Radio Corporation of America. The possibility of creating a large-scale

-network of wire-linked stations was finally something that seemed feasible. Talks with the newspaper stations never did resume, and

Westinghouse pursued a different route to chain broadcasting.

Westinghouse and the Organization of the National Broadcasting Company

While negotiations were underway for the Mid-Continent Radio Chain, negotiations were also taking place among members of the

Radio Group. In 1925 the Radio Group continued their conflict with AT&T regarding each organization's rights and role in the

broadcasting industry. AT&T and the Radio Corporation of America were in arbitration based on a previous cross-licensing agreement.

As early as 1922, David Sarnoff, then a vice-president at RCA, prophesied a change to the model of broadcasting. In a letter to General

Electric president E. M. Rice, Sarnoff outlined the problems faced by the radio industry. The novelty of the medium was wearing off and

the airwaves were becoming chaotic as new stations took to the air. The public would increasingly grow to expect high-quality content,

Sarnoff argued. The cost-effective way to present this programming to the nation was through a linked chain of stations. The job of

putting together such a network called for broadcasting specialists who understood the audience's taste and had a plan for how to

satisfy it (Bilby, 1986; Sarnoff, 1925; Spalding, 1964). To Sarnoff, the Radio Group was the logical choice for the job.

The inception of the National Broadcasting Company has been reviewed by broadcast historians. In particular, RCA, which controlled

50% of the corporation, and their role in the development of the National Broadcasting Company has been well documented (Archer,

1971; Barnouw, 1966; Bilby, 1986; G. H. Douglas, 2002; S. J. Douglas, 1987; Head, 1956; HiImes, 1997; Maclaurin, 1971; Rosen,

1980). A less familiar examination of the network's history involves Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company and their

motivations for joining the association, and their reaction to the end result of the negotiations.

On June 27, 1925, H. P. Davis distributed a memorandum on the proposed organization of a broadcasting company articulating one

view of this proposed network. In his opening paragraph, Davis articulates the group's objectives.

The purpose of this Company will be to form a group of the best

established and suitably located stations throughout the United

States and Canada, for the purpose of organizing and improving

general broadcasting conditions; to improve quality and to maintain

it on the highest possible plane; to obtain the best in the way of

programs; and to make available all national events and important

performances of high class and acceptable character; and to make

available the best talent obtainable, both musical and dramatic,

occurring or appearing in the principal centers of this country.

It is the purpose also, while improving quality and programs, to

reduce the operating expense to all members of the Company.

It is proposed to develop this organization into a national, and

possibly an international, advertising medium which will be

extended as much as possible with the hope of making the entire

project self-supporting. (p. 1)

The proposition further organizes the technical structure of the network. One station in the group would serve as a primary station. From

this station, programming would be distributed to affiliate stations via long distance wire connections. The affiliate station would retain its

identity, ownership, and call letters. The member station would produce and air local programming as appropriate. The affiliate would

pay a fee to the network, which would be used for the general direction of the organization, the procurement of programming, and

advertising for the network. The network would be in charge of planning the direction the network was to take and evaluating its

performance. The network would also conduct suitable research activities to develop the network and stations at the technical level.

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Members would receive dividend from profits, as these were to accrue (Davis, 1925, June).

On July 3, 1925, the board of the Radio Corporation of America passed a resolution inviting General Electric and WestinghouseCompanies into their network negotiations. A few weeks later, on July 9, 1925, Davis sent a letter to E. M. Herr, the President ofWestinghouse, expressing his impatience with the pace of the network negotiations. The bitter arbitration between AT&T and the RadioGroup was continuing although the referee of the process, Roland Boyden, had issued an informal resolution that the Radio Group hadthe right to establish and maintain transmitting stations and to derive revenue from such transmissions (Davis, 1925, July 9). Theresolution was not, however, final. Radio Group executives, particularly Owen Young, Chairman of the Board at General Electric, werewary of pushing too hard on AT&T before matters were finalized.

The relationship of the Telephone Company at the present moment, as

you can see, is a very sensitive one, and I think it important

beyond measure that all of us sit steady in the boat now for a

month or two until we see if we can not (sic) get it straightened

out. (Young, 1925, p. 1)

In July 1926, AT&T's broadcasting holdings were purchased by RCA. On September 9, the Radio Group formed a new corporation, theNational Broadcasting Company. Ownership was held by Radio Corporation of America, owning 50%; General Electric, with 30%; andWestinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company owning the remaining 20% of the new company (Sterling & Kittross, 1978). Thenetwork of the Telephone Company consisted of 18 stations which reached about 61.6% of the nation's radio receiving sets. Thesestations, based on a draft National Broadcasting Company Prospectus, were to become Network Number 1. Some adjustments weremade, filling holes in coverage in New York City and Washington, DC. A second network, called Network Number 2 in the prospectus,would consist largely of stations owned by RCA and Westinghouse.

Network Number 2 was seen as vital for a number of reasons. First, it was anticipated that Network Number 1 would face problems asthe network quickly grew in scope and size. Due to the cost of the investment in wire for this far-reaching network, it would only beprofitable if it were to remain in almost constant use. The cost of advertising would also be higher for this same reason; advertiserswould sign a 1-year contract and pay for 1 hour of programming per week at a cost of $180,000. The authors of the draft concluded thatan alternative way for prospective advertisers to enter into network broadcasting without as great a financial commitment would beadvisable. Network Number 2 would serve as an alternative for advertisers who wanted to "test the medium" or only reach aconcentrated audience in the eastern part of the country. The cost to advertise on Network Number 2 would be in the range of $50,000to $75,000. The only difference for the advertiser, according to the prospectus, would be the size of the audience the advertiser wouldreach. Content would be of comparable quality (The National Broadcasting Company, 1926).

Westinghouse, KDKA, and the Blue Network.

H. P. Davis reviewed the final draft of this prospectus on September 15, 1926, and sent his reaction to J. G. Harbord, President of RCA,in a letter. Davis indicated that he was a man of two minds; in his capacity as an official in the Radio Group and as the AppointedChairman of the Board of the new National Broadcasting Company, he felt that the organization was well-conceived. However, as aVice President at Westinghouse and one of the individuals who conceived of and developed KDKA, he was concerned. This plan wouldplace KDKA in a secondary chain. Additionally another Pittsburgh station, WCAE, a former AT&T station, would be placed at a higheradvertising rate than KDKA, despite KDKA's historic dominance over WCAE in the market. Davis suggests a compromise was needed,stating that "KDKA is the most powerful broadcasting station in the world today; it is the pioneer, and probably has at least as muchreputation as any other broadcasting station, and is a very valuable asset of the Westinghouse Company" (p. 2).

An undated letter to Davis from Frank Conrad, Assistant Chief Engineer at Westinghouse and the individual who started theexperimental station that would become KDKA, expressed Conrad's dismay at this situation as well. He argued that the Radio Groupwas investing in this venture to increase revenue, yet they were placing many of their owned-and-operated stations in the lower-tiernetwork. Instead, they were investing in the old AT&T stations, which, in Conrad's opinion were "largely of an obsolete type, noteffectively manned and mostly present glaring defects in transmission characteristics" (Conrad & Horn, n.d., p. 1). Conrad also raisesquestions about the promised quality of programming and transmission for Network Number 2. If the network asks less money toadvertise on Network Number 2, which would later become known as the Blue Network, will that not equate to less revenue? Will thestations of Network Number 1, which would later become known as the Red Network, earn greater revenue? If so, will they be willing toredistribute those funds to stations in the Blue Network for the sake of quality?

The Inaugural Broadcast of the National Broadcasting Company on KDKA

From the Grand Ballroom of the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel on Monday., Novemb_g_r2_51 ..1926, the National Broadcasting Company officiallypremiered. The initial ceremonial event of the evening was a brief address by Merlin Aylesworth, President of the National BroadcastingCompany. Aylesworth addressed a crowd of nearly a thousand, consisting of politicians and business leaders. Also in the audiencewere members of National Broadcasting Company's Advisory Council, including Major General James G. Harbord, 0..221/en Youzg,General Guy E. Tripp, Elihu Root, and Julius Rosenwald. The major tenor of Aylesworth's address was that this network was created forthe use and benefit of individuals and families listening across America and that broadcasting's purpose is to serve its audience. "Thebest it can create," Aylesworth noted, "leaves no record other than on the minds and in the hearts of those who hear it. Therefore, you inthe great cities, you in the towns and villages, you on the farms, have it in your power to make the National Broadcasting Company aninstitution of service from the beginning" (The National Broadcasting Company, 1926, p. 1).

The program for the evening included a diverse mix of classical pieces, folk and dance music, and comedic routines. The audience

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listening at home also learned that not only were they receiving the performance from New York, but that those in the Grand Ballroom,were also hearing a number of live performances, which were being relayed to New York City, before being transmitted to the nation.Soprano Mary Garden of the Chicago Opera Company sang before a microphone in Chicago. Will Rogers addressed the crowd from amicrophone installed in the dressing room of the theater in which he was appearing in Independence, Kansas. The performances wererelayed via telephone cable to 25 stations and reached an estimated 12 million people as far west as Kansas City (Barnouw, 1966;Bilby, 1986).

Thousands of these listeners sent letters and telegrams to KDKA to share their reaction to the Monday evening show. On November 18,1926, a selection of these letters was collected by H. P. Davis and forwarded to Aylesworth to share with him the audience's response,but also to illustrate the reach of KDKA's powerful signal, and as such, highlight the unique vantage that Westinghouse brought to theNational Broadcasting Company. One letter, from a dentist in Portland, Oregon, congratulates KDKA on their "wonderful program" fromNew York City and adds that his reception of KDKA was "perfect" and as clear as the local broadcast stations (Dulin, 1926, p. 1). Alistener in Haina, Hawaii, wrote to express his thanks for the inaugural program from National Broadcasting Company.

Thank you very much for the fine programs. We considered the New

York City dance music a big treat even tho (sic) we had to get it

via Pittsburgh. Sunday night while the RCA chain of stations was on

I tried to get some of them but KDKA was the only one my set could

pick up. (Giddings, 1926, p. 2)

In the letter to Aylesworth, Davis noted that many letters were sent on stationery "of a better class," often from a business or doctor'soffice. From this Davis surmised that "our radio service is reaching into a better class of homes" (Davis, 1926, November 18, p. 1).Davis also intimated that letters from listeners in places like Tampa and other parts of the Southeast could suggest a solution for theirongoing negotiations with AT&T, whose lines had been slow to reach such areas. Even after the establishment of the NationalBroadcasting Company's hybrid network connection, Westinghouse is emphasizing the relative benefits of their high wattage stationand what it could add to the existing network structure. Westinghouse was once again positioning itself as a superpower that should beemployed, and empowered, as such within the network (Davis, 1926, November 23).

KDKA received listeners who commented on the new network affiliation. Some listeners from across the nation liked the programmingthe new chain of stations could offer, many of which H. P. Davis saved in his personal papers. One letter dated January 3, 1927,commends the chain for their coverage of the Stanford-Alabama game from Pasadena, which was broadcast on January 1. The writerstates that the announcer helped him to visualize the plays on the field, "in fact we found it easier to picture the contest than if we hadbeen actually seated in the bowl" (Castle, 1927, p. 1).

Other long-time listeners were not pleased with the changes they heard. A letter to KDKA from Pittsburgh decried the loss of the uniquevoice of KDKA. The writer stated that he didn't like the new chain.

There isn't a station to compare with KDKA so why spoil it by

"chaining" to a New York Station? What is the idea with all these

chain stations anyway? Let each station broadcast their own program

(sic). Is someone trying to capture the air so we all have to

listen to a certain program or not listen at all? (McEivany, 1927,

p. 1)

Tripp collected and forwarded these letters to Aylesworth along with questions about the development of the Blue Network and theplacement of KDKA. Aylesworth responded that he understood the concerns of Tripp and Westinghouse Electric and ManufacturingCompany, but begged patience. Aylesworth said he planned to make the WJZ programs so good that Westinghouse would be reluctant

to even want to change to the Red Network. In any case, Aylesworth noted, if a major station in the Blue Network, like KDKA or WJZ,

were to leave the Blue Network would be badly wounded in both public opinion and advertising, and consequently revenue (Aylesworth,

1926, November 24).

Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company did agree to remain on the Blue Network. The advertising rates and audience

levels for the Blue Network never did match those of the Red Network. An aftermath of later FCC chain broadcasting rules would break

NBC into two separate entities--the still powerful and popular Red Network and the less important affiliates on the Blue Network. In 1943

NBC divested itself of the Blue Network, In 1945 the Blue Network became the American Broadcasting Company (Sterling & Kittross,

1978)

Conclusion

Primary sources from the archive of H. P. Davis's personal and professional papers provide perspective on the chaotic state of radio in

the 1920s. The industry was facing an unprecedented growth in revenue, audience, and demand for programming. The industry alsowas inventing the idea of mass communication of a message from a single point of origination to a mass audience. At first this audiencewas regional. As the power of stations grew and as new technologies, such as short wave, were introduced the regional audiencebecame national and international. As these technologies became more readily available to entrepreneurs who wanted to enter the

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broadcasting field, the radio manufacturers, Radio Corporation of America, General Electric, and Westinghouse, who held the bulk ofthe financial resources, found themselves also facing interference and chaos.

The radio marketplace in the 1920s was uncharted territory for those in the radio industry. Radio manufacturers were always aware ofthe growing frustration of a listening public who found little program variety and increasing interference on the airwaves. In an attempt tomake the creation of programming and the operation of multiple radio stations more efficient as well as more profitable, they structureda system matrix of program distribution. This matrix became the radio network, and the National Broadcasting Company became anenduring part of broadcasting. The archival papers of H. P. Davis illustrate the concerns of Westinghouse as radio's pioneersaddressed the challenges of the decade. The papers and documents also show how, despite the changes of 80 years, the core conceptof the network is a foundation of broadcasting.

References

Aylesworth, M. (1926, November 24). Correspondence from Merlin Aylesworth to G. E. Tripp (Box 1, File 8). University of Pittsburgh,Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Archer, G. L. (1971). History of radio to 1926. In History of broadcasting, radio to television. New York: Arno Press. (Original workpublished 1938)

Barnouw, E. (1966). A tower in Babel: A history of broadcasting in the United States (Vol. 1). New York: Oxford University Press.

Bilby, K. (1986). The general: David Sarnoff and the rise of the communications industry. New York: Harper and Row Publishers.

Castle, 0. C. (1927, January 3). Correspondence to KDKA (Box 1, File 9). University of Pittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papers ofHarry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Conrad, F., & Horn, C. W. (n.d). Undated correspondence from Frank Conrad and C. W. Horn to Harry Phillips Davis (Box 1, File 6).University of Pittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Davis, H. P. (1922, January 10). Radio broadcasting. The Yale Weekly (Box 1, File 6). University of Pittsburgh, Archive Service Center,Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Davis, H. P. (1922, April 4). The permanency of broadcasting: How a scientific novelty developed in eighteen months to a necessaryand popular service--present limitations and the line of future extension [draft]. Wireless Age (Box 1, File 1). University of Pittsburgh,Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Davis, H. P. (1925). A proposed plan for the organization of the Mid-Continent Radio Chain (Box 1, File 12). University of Pittsburgh,Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Davis, H. P. (1925, June 27). Memorandum of the proposed organization of a broadcasting company (Box 1, File 12). University ofPittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Davis, H. P. (1925, July 8). Correspondence from Harry Phillips Davis to J. C. McQuiston (Box 1, File 6). University of Pittsburgh,Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Davis, H. P. (1925, July 9). Broadcasting for pay [memo from Harry Phillips Davis to E. M. Herr] (Box 1, File 6). University of Pittsburgh,Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Davis, H. P. (1926, September 15). Correspondence from Harry Phillips Davis to General J. G. Harbord (Box 1, File 8). University ofPittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Davis, H. P. (1926, November 18). Correspondence from Harry Phillips Davis to Merlin Hall Aylesworth (Box 1, File 8). University ofPittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Davis, H. P. (1926, November 23). Correspondence from Harry Phillips Davis to Merlin Hall Aylesworth (Box 1, File 8). University ofPittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Davis, H. P. (1928, April 30). The story of radio broadcasting (Box 2, File 15). University of Pittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papersof Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Douglas, G. H. (2002). The early days of radio broadcasting. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company.

Douglas, S. J. (1987). Inventing American broadcasting 1899-1922. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Dulin, D. G. (1926, November 16). Correspondence to KDKA (Box 1, File 8). University of Pittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papers ofHarry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

The father of radio broadcasting tells of problems. (1922, December 17). Unidentified newspaper clipping. The Pittsburgh Post (Box 1,File 6). University of Pittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

First radiophone station. (1922, June 25). Unidentified newspaper clipping. The Cleveland Plain Dealer (Box 3, File 36). University ofPittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Foster, 0. D. (1923, June 9). Westinghouse wizard, father of radio broadcasting. Forbes, 29, 262-263.

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Giddings, L. (1926, November 17). Correspondence to KDKA (Box 1, File 8). University of Pittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papers ofHarry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Great men of radio: Part IX, Harry P. Davis. (1922, June 17). Unidentified newspaper clipping. Evening Mail Radio Review (Box 3, File36). University of Pittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Head, S. W. (1956). Broadcasting in America: A survey of television and radio (1st ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

HiImes, M. (1997). Radio voices: American broadcasting, 1922-1952. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Krumm, L. R. (1922, May 29). The development of radiophone broadcasting, Portland Express and Advertising (Box 3, File 36).University of Pittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Maclaurin, W. R. (1971). Invention and innovation in the radio industry. In History of broadcasting, radio to television. New York: ArnoPress. (Original work published 1949)

Martin, T. C., & Coles, S. L. (1922). Biography of H. P. Davis [draft]. The story of electricity, 1920-1922 (Box 1, File 1). University ofPittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

McElvany, M. E. (1927, January 10). Correspondence to KDKA (Box 1, File 8). University of Pittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papersof Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

McQuiston, J. C. (1925, July 7). Correspondence from J. C. McQuiston to H. P. Davis (Box 1, File 6). University of Pittsburgh, ArchiveService Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Mulley, F. E. (1925, July 8). Correspondence from F. E. Mulley to J. C. McQuiston (Box 1, File 6). University of Pittsburgh, ArchiveService Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

The National Broadcasting Company (1926, September 15). Draft prospectus of the National Broadcasting Company to be presentedbefore the Board of Trustees of Radio_Corporation of America (Box 1, File 8). University of Pittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papersof Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

The National Broadcasting Company (1931, September 10). Funeral services held for Henry P. Davis, chairman of the board ofdirectors at National Broadcasting Company [press release) (Box 1, File 2). University of Pittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papers ofHarry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Radio's version of "who's on first?": Many claims have been made, but radio's paternity is still a question. (1970, November 2).Broadcasting, 79, 86-87.

Rosen, P. T. (1980). The modern stentors: Radio broadcasters and the federal government, 1920-1934. Westport, CT: Greenwoodress.

Sarnoff, D. (1925, August 12). Plan for the support of National Broadcasting through formation of the Public Broadcasting Company(Box 1, File 6). University of Pittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Spalding, J. W. (1964). 1928: Radio becomes a mass advertising medium. Broadcasting, 8(3), 31-44.

Sterling, C. H., & Kittross, J. M. (1978). Stay tuned: A concise history of American broadcasting. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth PublishingCompany.

Story told of birth of broadcast (1922, June 17), Unidentified newspaper clipping. The Chicago Evening American (Box 3, File 36).University of Pittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Young, 0. D. (1925, October 16). Correspondence from Owen D. Young to General Guy E. Tripp (Box 1, File 6). University ofPittsburgh, Archive Service Center, Papers of Harry Phillips Davis, 1915-1931. AIS 64:21, Pittsburgh, PA.

Amy Graban Crawford (Ph.D., Florida State University) is an Assistant Professor of Telecommunication Studies at Youngstown StateUniversity. Her research interests include broadcast and network history.

COPYRIGHT 2007 Broadcast Education Association Reproduced with permission of the copyright holder. Further reproduction ordistribution is prohibited without permission.

Copyright 2007, Gale Group. All rights reserved. Gale Group is a Thomson Corporation Company.

NOTE: All illustrations and photos have been removed from this article.

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NBC: A Finding Aid to the NationalBroadcasting Company History Files atthe Library of Congress, Motion Picture,

Broadcasting and Recorded SoundDivision

Index to the collection completed by Seth Morris, SamBrylawski, Jan McKee, Bryan Cornell, and Gene DeAnna,

1995.Finding aid expanded by Gail Sonnemannwith the assistance of Kathleen B. Miller.

/1 1 , ,...

Motion Picture, Broadcasting and Recorded SoundDivision

Library of Congress

Washington, D.C.

1999

Finding aid encoded by Gail Sonnemann, 1999.Finding aid URL: littp://hdl.loc.vv/loc.mbrsrs/eadmbrst-s.rs0000(11

Collection SummaryTitle: The National Broadcasting Company History Files.

Dates: 1922-1986Cali No.: NBC history files, Folders 1-1966

Creator: National Broadcasting Company

Extent: 1966 folders of manuscript and published papers

Language: Collection material in English

Repository: Motion Picture, Broadcasting and Recorded Sound Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

Abstract: The National Broadcasting Company History files document the activities of the first national broadcasting network

in the United States. The collection includes memoranda, correspondence, speeches, reports, policy statements, and pamphlets

covering the creation of the network, its growth in the field of radio, and its subsequent expansion into television broadcasting.

Search Terms:

NamesDunham, Corydon B., 1927-

Frank, RuevenGoodman, Julian, 1922-

Kaltenborn, FL v. — (Hans), 1878-1965

Lohr, Lenox R.Sarnoff, David, 1891-1971

Scott, Walter D.

Tinker, GrantSilverman, Fred, 1945-

Tartikoff, Brandon

Toscanini, Arturo, 1867-1957

Trammell, Niles

Weaver, Sylvester L., Jr., 1908-

Winchell, Walter, 1897-1972

National Broadcasting Company, inc.

RCA Corporation

NBC Symphony Orchestra

WEAF (Radio station : New York, N.Y.)

WJZ (Radio station : New York, N.Y.)

National Broadcasting Company Radio Collection (Library of Congress)

SubjectsRadio broadcasting — United States — History

Radio broadcasting — United States — Archival resources

Radio broadcasting — United States — Employees

Radio advertising — United States — History

Television broadcasting — United States — History

Television broadcasting — United States — Archival resources

Administrative Information

Provenance

The National Broadcasting Company donated the NBC History Files to the Library of Congress in 1992.

The National Broadcasting Company History Files. 2

Access

The NBC History Files are housed within the Recorded Sound Section of the Motion Picture, Broadcasting and RecordedSound Division of the Library of Congress. For further information and for access to the collection, contact the ReferenceDesk in the Recorded Sound Reference Center at (202) 707-7833.

Copyright Status

The National Broadcasting Company retains the rights governing subsequent use of materials in the collection. For permissionto quote or republish materials from the collection contact the National Broadcasting Company.

NBC ChronologyDate Event1921 Westinghouse owned and operated WJZ radio in Newark from 1921 - 1923.

1922 WEAF radio, owned and operated by AT&T, was founded in New York.

1923 RCA, a subsidiary of Westinghouse, operated WJZ radio from 1923-46 in New York.

1926 RCA announced the formation of the National Broadcasting Company on September 13, 1926 uponthe RCA purchase of WEAF radio from AT&T.

November 1, 1926 NBC established with both a Blue and a Red network.

1926 NBC began radio broadcasting on November15, 1926.

1926 NBC formed the Red and Blue radio networks, with WEAF as the flagship station of the Red networkand WJZ as the flagship station of the Blue.

1928 The first permanent coast-to-coast network in the United States was established by NBC on December23, 1928.

1928 NBC received its first television station construction permit.

1936 - 1939 NBC investigated the possibility of separating Red and Blue Networks (See NBC folder numbers301-304)

1939 NBC televised the opening ceremonies of the New York World's Fair.

May 2 1941 Chain Broadcasting Report stated "no license shall be issued to a standard broadcast [AM] stationaffiliated with a network organization which maintains more than one network." (Quoted inSterling and Kitross, Stay Tuned, p.191.)

October 30, 1941 Both NBC and CBS filed suit against the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for itsnew regulations.

January 1942 The U.S. Justice Department filed an antitrust suit against NBC and CBS (Sterling and Kitross, StayTuned, p. 236)

January 9, 1942 RCA president David Sarnoff announced that the Blue Network had been separated from the RedNetwork and subsequently was wholly owned by RCA.


Programs: Subject Lists, Schedules, Samples, 1931-1972

Container Contents

FOLDER 1243

FOLDER 1244

FOLDER 1245

FOLDER 1246

Printed items: April 8, 1954, 6-page program of the 30th anniversary reunion of the membersof the NBC Symphony Orchestra. 1950 RCA 23-page booklet, On Tour with Toscaniniand RCA Victor.

Arturo Toscanini Programs and Repertoire.

1937- 1961.

72 items.

Onionskin and mimeographed press release, letters, reports, and articles on Arturo Toscanini.Highlights: February 8, 1937, copy of a letter from Toscanini to David Samoff stating his desire

for a commitment to quality from NBC for NBC symphony. Twenty three reports from1937 to 1954, "Listing of Programs and Repertoire" of the NBC concert orchestra. Materialsrelating to Toscanini's funeral and memorial services.

Printed items: Black and white photograph of members of the NBC opera company. JanuaryFebruary, 1957 excerpts from NBC Chimes. Two black and white photographs of Toscaniniwith his symphony. 1953 39-page concert program, Missa Solenmis. Undated seating chartof Carnegie Hall. Article from December 1954 High Fidelity Magazine "Toscanini onRecords, part 1: 1920 1948. Article from March 1957 High Fidelity Magazine "Ninety yearsof Arturo Toscanini" by Vincent Sheean.

Toscanini Tour (1950).

1950.

27 items.

Mimeographed press releases and the schedule for Toscanini's 1950 tour.

Printed items: Large, undated mock up of a Daily Star special supplement honoring Toscanini.

Spring, 1950 press book, Arturo Toscanini and the NBC Symphony Orchestra First

Transcontinental Tour, contains photographs, press releases, and biographies. (2 copies) .

Speeches, 1923-1990

63 folders.

Texts of speeches delivered by NBC Presidents and other officials, and related press releases.

Speeches are organized by the last name of the speaker.

Speeches: A & B.

1927- 1984.

21 items.Speeches by David C. Adams, Dr. James Rowland Angell, Frank A. Arnold, Harry Bannister,

Edward P. Bertero, Hugh M. Beville, Jr., Thornton F. Bradshaw, and David Brinkley.

Printed items: November 18, 1954, pamphlet of a Hugh M. Beville, Jr. speech on television

ratings. April, 1956 technical manual on color video effects by Edward P. Bertero. March

18, 1959, pamphlet of a Hugh M. Beville, Jr. speech on cost and sales trends in network

television. October 18, 1957, booklet of a Hugh M. Beville, Jr. speech on the methodology

of television ratings. December 8, 1948, booklet of a Hugh M. Beville, Jr. speech on

television advertising.

Speeches: C & D.

1923- 1978.

34 items.

Press releases and speeches by Lester M. Crystal, Thomas E. Coffin, Joe Culligan, Mathew J.

Culligan, Reid R. Davis, Charles R. Denny, Don Durgin, and John J. Carty. July 2-3, 1968

memoranda on television violence.Printed items: May 13, 1969, pamphlet of a Don Durgin speech on television program

development. October 23, 1956, pamphlet of a Mathew J. Culligan speech on network radio

advertising. December 15, 1965, pamphlet of a Thomas E. Coffin speech on the impact of

color television on audiences. October 17, 1972, Don Durgin speech on the Fairness

Doctrine. September 23, 1952, booklet of a Charles R. Denny speech on television's

responsibility and opportunity for serving the public.


Pamphlets

Container Conteilts

FOLDER P337

FOLDER P338

FOLDER P339

FOLDER P340

FOLDER P341

FOLDER P342

FOLDER P343

FOLDER P344

FOLDER P345

FOLDER P346

FOLDER P347

FOLDER P348

RCA Laboratories: a New Center for Radio Research-Address by David Sarnoff and Otto S.Schairer.

1941.

23-page booklet.Radio Pioneers 1945.

1945.64 pages.Program commemorating the Radio Pioneers Dinner.

The Story of the First Trans-Atlantic Short Wave Message.Radio Club of America Inc.,October, 1950.78-page booklet.

Revolt Against Radio,

Fortune Magazine,March, 1945.9-page excerpt.

Davis, H.P. The History of Broadcasting in the United States.April 21, 1928.

23 pages.

Address by a Westinghouse vice-president at Harvard University.Gaudet, Hazel & Cuthbert Daniel. Radio Listener Panels.

Federal Radio Education Committee,1941

47-page booklet.Beville, H., Jr. The ABCD's of Radio Audiences.

Cooperative Analysis of Broadcasting, Inc.,Undated.12-page booklet.

St. John, Robert. Facts and Faces.1946.63-page booklet.Contains exceptional personality sketches by the WEAF reporter.

Around the World with Kaltenborn.1947.I5-page pamphlet.Excerpts from Kaltenborn's September, 1947 broadcasts.

Return to Manilla.

February 4, 1945.

Broadcast excerpt by Royal Arch Gunnison of Mutual covering the liberation of Manilla.In Honor of a Man and an Ideal.CBS,1942.

35-page booklet.Contains speeches by Archibald MacLeish, William S. Paley, and Edward R. Murrow from a

dinner honoring Murrow.Woolf, Larry. The Quiz Writer's Manual.

1953.154-page booklet.


Get a Youngster on the AirDuring Kids Day 2008

2008 will bring two opportunities to introduce a kid to themagic of Amateur Radio: January 6 and June 21.

On January 6, 2008, kidseverywhere can use the magicof radio to make new friendsover the air. After over 10years of activity, the Kids Dayevents, created by the Boring

Amateur Radio Club, havegained in popularity year afteryear. Nearly 500 kids werereported to have shouted theirfavorite color into a micro-phone during 2007's running

of Kids Day!After the successes of the

2007 events once again this year we suggest the use of the samefrequencies used by the scouts during Jamboree on the Air (JOTA)

— they're shown in the sidebar. With propagation conditions thataccompany the bottom of the sunspot cycle, we need to spread outto find bands where everyone can participate.

Also carried over from the June 2007 announcement are someideas from Ward Silver, NOAX(with a few new ones included),to help you make this eventeven more enjoyable.

For the parent ham or host:

• Use a CW reader programsuch as CWGet (www.dxsoft.com/micwget.htm)

• Have the kids make and

exchange their own QSL

cards

• Make a special logbook for

each kid

Dave Patton, Ni NNManager, Membership and Volunteer Programs Department

[email protected]

DAVID HODGE, N6AN

• Be sure to request the partici-pation certificate from BARC

• Amateur Radio is all aboutgeography; have a map ofNorth America available andpoint-out locations (or have

the kids find them using an

atlas) of the kids on the other

sides of the QS0

• If this isn't the first Kids

Day for your kids, pull up

the old logs and see if pre-

vious friendships are renewed

Ten-year-old AlanHodge, son of DavidHodge, N6AN, sittingat the main operatingposition at W6UE,the Caltech ARC inPasadena, California,and no doubt gettinghooked on the magicof radio. The Hodgesused special eventcall sign W6CIT duringKids Day 2007.

during the 2008 events.

For the radio club host:• Have an open house at theclub station• Promote Kids Day in yournewsletter• Give out your own certifi-cates and blank logbooks• Sponsor a pizza party afterthe event• Make custom stickers aboutham radio or QS0s/QSLsfor the kids to apply to theirscrapbooks commemorating

each event in which they participate.For the kids:• Mike fright? Make up cue cards and point to each thing to say

• Bored? Share the station with a friend, operate in short stretches

• "What's That Do?" Construct a "pretend radio" with knobs and

switches

Ki DeZ iUcsSunday, January 6, 2008

Purpose: Kids Day is intended to encourage young people(licensed or not) to enjoy Amateur Radio. It can give youngpeople on-the-air experience so they might develop an inter-est in pursuing a license in the future. It is intended to givehams a chance to share their station with children.Date: Sunday, January 6, 2008.Time: 1800-2400 UTC. No limit on operating time.Suggested exchange: Name, age, location and favorite color.You are encouraged to work the same station again if anoperator has changed. Call CO KIDS DAY.

Suggested frequencies: 3.740 & 3.940 MHz, 7.270 MHz,14.290 MHz, 18.140 MHz, 21.360 MHz, 24.960 MHz,28.390 MHz and 2 meter repeater frequencies (with permis-sion from your area repeater sponsor). Observe third partytraffic restrictions when making DX contacts.

Awards: All participants are eligible to receive a colorful cer-tificate (it becomes the child's personalized sales brochureon ham radio). Please visit www.arrl.org/FandES/ead/kids-day-survey.html to complete a short survey and postyour comments. You will then have access to download thecertificate page. You can also send a 9x12 self-addressed,stamped envelope to the Boring Amateur Radio Club,PO Box 1357, Boring, OR 97009.

• Break the ice by arranginga schedule with another localfamily.

• The Kids Day operatingevents are the first Sunday inJanuary and the third Saturdayin June — January 6 and June21 this coming year. Makethat personal connection thatmay result in a new ham radiolicensee. You just might findyourself re-infected with thatenthusiasm you once hadwith ham radio. Don't forgetto further the fun and invitethe kids to Field Day the nextweekend!

Find out more about KidsDay by visiting www.arrl.org/FandES/ead/kd-rules.html.Also, check out the certificateon the Web at www.arrl.org/FandES/ead/kids-day-survey.html. Send pictures of the kidsoperating your station so wecan share them with others —

[email protected]. 195T--1

115-T-, December 2007 39

GB3SSS Marconi's TransatlanticLeap Revisited _)Did he do what he saidhe did in 1901?A group attempts toreach a conclusion.

Steve Nichols, GOKYA

Asfar as the history books and thegeneral public are concerned,Marconi is the father of radio.But Marconi's main claim to

fame all rests on a simple premise — didhe actually receive signals from Poldhu,Cornwall, UK at Signal Hill, Newfoundlandon December 12, 1901?

Unfortunately, some say the evidenceis stacked against him and people haveargued about the success or otherwise of hisachievement for years.

In 2001, Dr John S. (Jack) Belrose,VE2CV, of the federal CommunicationsResearch Centre in Ottawa and a respectedauthority on radio, is reported to have saidthat: "As far as I am concerned Marconi heardabsolutely nothing. He deceived himself andthe world into thinking he heard something."

That is why the Poldhu Amateur RadioClub at the Marconi Centre in Cornwall andthe Marconi Radio Club of Newfoundlandwanted to set the record straight.

In late 2006 a group of radio amateursfrom both sides of the Atlantic decided to re-enact the legendary transmission. The ideacame from Bart Lee, KV6LEE, an associ-ate member of Poldhu ARC, who realizedthat the solar conditions in the winter of2006/2007 would be similar to when Marconireceived the signals in Newfoundland — sun-spot minimum in midwinter with its attendantlow ionospheric D layer absorption and mini-mum absorption frequency.

As Bart said: "I determined, in 1998 or so,that the sunspot number in December 1901was exactly zero, a remarkable coincidenceif nothing else."The D-layer daylight absorption was

then much less than nowadays because theamount of atmospheric nitric oxide wasless, too. Carl Luetzelschwab, K9LA, firstpointed out to me the role of nitric oxide in

40 December 2007 1154._

Club Chairman Dave Wall, 2EOGSD (left), and Club Secretary KeithMatthew, GOWYS, at the base of the GB3SSS antenna at GB2GM atThe Marconi Centre, Poldhu, Cornwall, UK.

the D-layer. What this could mean in 1901is that a whole lot more of Marconi's 15 kWhit the F-layer to come down in St John'sthan would happen today. How much moreis hard to say. So 1901 perhaps got a bonusin dBm relative to today."

From the start of November, the PoldhuAmateur Radio Club, based at Marconi'soriginal transmitter site on the Lizard pen-insula, Cornwall, used a 160 meter beacon— GB3SSS — to make regular one-minutetransmissions on 1960 kHz while radio ama-teurs in Canada and the USA tried to copyand analyze the transmissions.

But why all the fuss? Why should therehave been any doubt in the first place?

Keith Matthew, GOWYS, Poldhu ARC'sclub secretary explained:

No one really knows for sure whatfrequency Marconi's transmissionswere on. Marconi himself was evasiveconcerning the actual frequency. But ina lecture in 1903 Ambrose Fleming saidthat the wavelength was 1000 feet ormore — 810-870 kHz is generally thequoted frequency.

But in 1908, Marconi said in a lecture

to the Royal Institution that the wave-length was 1,200 feet, and in a recordedlecture in the early 1930s he changedhis story to approximately 1,800 meters(166 kHz). At the same lecture he quotedthe transmitter power as being 15 kW.

Whatever the frequency was, thetests took place at the worst time of day.

Marconi said he received the signals at12:30 PM, 1:10 PM and 2:20 PM local timeusing a 500 foot long antenna suspendedby a kite. At the time this corresponded to1600Z, 1640Z and 1750Z.

Map these times using a modern programlike Geoclock and you see that the completepath was in daylight at 4 PM and only the UKend of the path was in darkness at 5:50 PM.

Even though we know there were nomagnetic storms at the time, or for 10 daysbefore, the daytime skywave would havebeen heavily attenuated.

In Marconi's favor, it was midwinter withlow sun elevation angles, but a 3500 km pathin daylight on 880 kHz? Surely not.

Factor in that the receiving equipmentconsisted of a long-wire antenna and anuntuned receiver and the odds get worse. As

•

Marconi used a spark transmitter he wouldhave heard faint clicks, not the audio tone ofa CW signal that we know and love today.

But as Marconi said later: "At 12:30 PM,while I was listening on the telephone receiverthere came to my ear, very weakly, but withsuch clarity that there could be no possibledoubt, a rhythmic succession of the three dotscorresponding to the letter S of the Morsecode..." Some signals were also received onDecember 13 during the brief time that a kitecould be kept flying and there was a possibil-ity that they were also heard on the 11 th."Davey" Davey-Thomas, G3AGA, of

Poldhu ARC is looking at the possibilitythat Marconi actually heard the signals onthree-times the quoted frequency at around2.5 MHz. The Poldhu spark transmitter emit-ted a wide range of frequencies and it wasonly the characteristic length of the trans-mitting and receiving antennas that favoredone frequency over another. This is not to beconfused with true "harmonics" of the funda-mental. In truth, there was no fundamental.

If the Poldhu antenna was resonant at860 kHz it would also have exhibited a lowimpedance at three times this — 2.5 MHz.

Perhaps the secret lies in the story thatMarconi was allegedly using an untunedreceiver. One theory is that the spectrum ofthe Poldhu transmitter contained significantpower in the higher HF (short wave) bands— 14 MHz would be no problem for mak-ing the contact as Poldhu ARC shows everyyear on the anniversary of Marconi's claimswhen it contacts Newfoundland in a sym-bolic exchange of greetings.

But as Bart Lee pointed out: "Underthese low sunspot conditions, the maximumusable frequency is at its lowest as well. Idoubt that a harmonic or spurious signal got

across in 1901. I also doubt that Marconiwas listening for signals on anything other

than his primary frequency where his trans-mitter's power was concentrated."

I visited Poldhu on the 105th anniversaryof Marconi's achievement on December 12,1901 to research this story. At 1600Z his-tory was remade when GB2GM made CWcontact with VO1MRC in Newfoundland on20 meters as the club does every year. WithRon, GOMRH, on the key and a shack full ofPoldhu ARC members it was a fitting tributeto Marconi's work.

But GB3SSS hoped to show once andfor all that it could have been possible forMarconi to hear the signal transmitted onor around 880 kHz, slap bang in the middleof what is now the Medium Wave broadcastband. The closest frequency, with similarcharacteristics, available to radio amateurswas Top Band (160 meters); hence the selec-tion of 1960 kHz.

Keith added: "The beacon, built by AndyTalbot, G4JNT, used a sequence of transmis-sions similar to that of the UK 5 MHz bea-cons. It used a one-minute transmission onthe hour and at each subsequent 15 minutesconsisting of the call sign in CW followedby a series of bursts of carrier each decreas-ing by 6 dB — from 100 W to 25 W, 6 W,1.5 W, 0.4 W, and 0.1 W. There was thena burst of PSK31 at 100 W with the mes-sage: GB3SSS 1070IA POLDHU, CORNWALLGB3SSS 1070IA POLDHU, CORNWALL [email protected].

Davey, G3AGA said: "The antenna usedwas a Marconi 'T' at 50 feet with eight65-foot radials, which the National Trust

would not allow us to bury. The originalwas a flimsy affair, but was later replacedby 16 SWG hard-drawn copper. The match-ing unit was a simple LC circuit feeding the200 foot length of coax, and giving an SWRof 1:1.3, which varied between 1:1.1 to 1:1.4depending on how much rain there was."

Thanks to John Gould, G3WKL's help,the beacon idea was steered through theRSGB beacon committee, was licensedby Ofcom and transmissions commenced.The results beat all expectations. By mid-December reception reports had beenreceived from across the UK, Italy, Belgium,Germany, Sweden and New Zealand. Therewas even one possibly dubious report fromBeijing, China. The transmissions continueduntil the end of January 2007.

But it was the transatlantic receptionreports that Poldhu were interested in and itdidn't take long for them to flow in.

Many US and Canadian stations heardthe beacon, but mostly during the hours ofdarkness.

Jeff Briggs, KlZM, author of DXing onthe Edge — the Thrill of 160 Meters, hasa holiday home on Prince Edward Island,Canada. Working as VY2ZM and using a2x2 vertical element Top Band array withabout 8 dBd of gain toward 550, he reportedhearing the beacon at 1031, 1615, 1659 and1745Z on November 3. It was the same storythe next day. Signal levels varied from ESPlevels to 599+.

The Atlantic had been bridged on TopBand during daylight hours. Jeff said:

I went back to VY2ZM from 22/11/06through to 04/12/06 and did some actual

Ron, GOMRH (rear) and Keith Matthew,GOWYS, make the anniversary contactwith VO1MRC on December 12, 2006 atGB2GM. Part of the impressive display of wireless history at The Marconi Centre.

S-T— December 2007 41

measuring of the GB3SSS signal at1750Z using an HP signal generator (ver-ified against an HP spectrum analyzer).On several days, I listened and measuredthe GB3SSS signal at 1750Z repeatedlyat about -91 dBm strength. By way ofinformation, I recall the signal at 0330Zwas about -60 to -63 dBm in strength.

It was suggested to me by K1ZZof the ARRL that I try to copy the EUbroadcast stations at 9 kHz spacing andnote how early and at what signal levelsI could hear them.

I did this and copied signals fromNorway, Sweden, UK, Spain, CanaryIslands and Switzerland — with theircarriers heard as early as 1630Z andcopiable audio from programming con-tent as low as 855 kHz (Radio Nacionalde Espana) by 1750Z.

Joe Craig, VO1NA, of the MarconiRadio Club of Newfoundland also receivedthe signal in daylight. He said the MRCNreceiving station comprised a one-waveBeverage aerial feeding a stable DDS (directdigital synthesized) receiver with the auto-matic gain control disabled and whose lineoutput was connected to the sound card of acomputer running the GB3RAL software.

Joe said: "We mitigated noise by select-ing a quiet location for the aerial, decouplingboth ends of the line to the Beverage andrunning the computer and radio from a linearpower supply. The system operated from thestart of the experiment with only four days ofdowntime."

Joe also reenacted history by receivingthe beacon at 2130Z and 2330Z on a shortactive antenna from the top of Signal Hillin Newfoundland. "I think this was the firsttime that MF signals have been received fromPoldhu at this point since 1901:' he said.

But the tests have now thrown up a newdilemma. If the signals could have beenpropagated across the Atlantic at the timeand frequency logged by Marconi, was hisreceiving equipment sensitive enough tohave heard them?

Marconi was using a Bose/Solari MercuryDetector (coherer) — sometimes called anItalian Navy coherer.

Coherers use a direct current (dc) volt-age across them to work, the so-called biasvoltage. Radio frequency (RF) energy fromthe antenna changes the dc resistance of thecoherer from high to low. Once "triggered"the dc current causes a click to be heard inthe headphones.

The coherer is believed to have used acarbon and iron electrode with mercury inbetween, but as Keith Matthew points outthere was mention in Marconi's notes aboutthe use of "dirty mercury.""Could this have given a layer of mercury

oxide in the coherer?" said Keith. "Did thevoltage 'punch through' the mercury oxidewhich would then reseal? If it did then a lot

42 December 2007 45-T-=-

The GB3SSS Top Band beacon at theMarconi Centre.

Ron, GOMRH, makes the anniversarycontact with VO1MRC on December 12,2006.

more research needs to be done:' said Keith.Bart Lee added:

The Solari/Bose detector has beenshown, recently by Lane Upton, IEEE,to be about as sensitive as a germaniumdiode in rectifying mode. My sug-gestion is that it, like a Branly filingscoherer, acts as a pulse amplifier whenshocked with RF energy — a very smallamount of RF energy and power trig-gers a much larger amount of power as adc pulse of the bias voltage and current.

The filings coherer was regarded atthe time as very insensitive compared tothe mercury oxide detector, which is whyMarconi used the mercury oxide variant.

It is hard for us to imagine how quietthe ether was in those days. No QRM,only atmospheric QRN (then far awayin the southern hemisphere), very fewelectrical devices to make noise (espe-cially in Newfoundland!) and for thistest, QSB if any was irrelevant.

All Marconi and Kemp had to hearwas some timed clicks, and they heardabout 38 triple-clicks over two days.Fleming designed the transmitter asdouble-spark to send only sharp pulses,and Marconi designed his receiver tohear only clicks, taking advantage ofthe sensitivity (and filtering ability) ofthe human ear.

Jeff Briggs added:My own conclusions suggest that

Marconi may well have heard what hesaid he did — if his receiver was about25 dBm more sensitive than most modern

experts think it was, say about -25 dBm.The eastern coast of VO1 is radically

closer to the west coast of G than I amhere on Prince Edward Island — so Iwould have to assume that with similarRx capabilities, GB3SSS would be evenmore reliably received there.

If it were actually able to detect a-50 dBm signal — and if we fac-tor in the additional daylight pathlosses to VY2ZM versus Signal Hill,Newfoundland — it begins to enterthe realm of true feasibility, especiallywhen we note I could copy reliably EUBC carriers as early as 1630Z.

Marconi was able to copy Poldhu on272 kHz at night about several monthslater in 1902 as he entered NorthSydney, Nova Scotia, on a ship. If hisreceiver was good enough to do that(and this is without question) — thenhow was it incapable of hearing a signalon or about 850 kHz (or higher) duringthe day on Signal Hill?

So is this the end of the story?! doubt it.We will never really know whether Marconiheard the signals that day in 1901, althoughthe evidence supporting the claim is begin-ning to mount up. In any event, we cannotchange history or destroy Marconi's memoryand legacy. In our heart of hearts do wereally want to?

ReferencesB. Lee, KV6LEE, "A Meditation on Marconi's

Mercury Detector and his TransatlanticTriumph of 1901: Nothing Ventured, NothingGained,"www.californiahistoricalradio.com/photos63.html.

B. Lee, KV6LEE, "Reflections: Marconi andIonospheric Propagation, and a Plea forTimely Experiments," www.californiahistori-calradio.com/photos53.html.

B. Lee, KV6LEE, "Marconi's TransatlanticTriumph — a Skip into History," 13 AntiqueWireless Association REVIEW 81 (2000).

Belrose, J. Fessenden and Marconi: TheirDiffering Technologies and TransatlanticExperiments During the First Decade of thisCentury.

Bradford, H. J . Did Marconi Receive TransatlanticRadio Signals in 1901?

Bussey, G., Marconi's Atlantic Leap.Links from Joe Craig VO1NA: www.ewh.ieee.

org/reg/7/history/marconi/; www.ucs.mun.ca-/jcraig/marconi.html.

Photos by the author

Steve Nichols, GOKYA, has been a licensedham since 1982. He is a member of the RadioSociety of Great Britain's (RSGB) PropagationStudies Committee, where he is interested inHF propagation, particularly gray line. Heis also a member of CDXC, GQRP andQRPARCI. His daily work is as a business jour-nalist and photographer specializing in technol-ogy and avionics. He can be reached at [email protected]

Did you enjoy this article?Cast your vote at:

www.arrl.org/members-only/qstvote.htmlVOT

To: Dr. Whitehead, Susan BurgessFrom: Ben HaskinsRe: Radio Music Box Memo

I. Question Presented

David Samoff wrote a memo on the "radio music box," in which he proposes the creation of thisthing where Marconi would transmit music by radio and sell receivers to the public. Samoffclaims that he wrote this memo in 1916, and that it marks the creation of radio. Later historianscast doubt on the authenticity of the memo's date — they think it was written after 1920 — andthere's some evidence it was written after H.P. Davis created KDKA and, thus, that Samoff wasjust grandstanding. Were there any memos responding to Samofis 1916 memo? Summarizethe evidence for and against the memo's alleged 1916 creation date.

II. Short Answer

First, a 1916 David Samoff memo exists, but it is unlikely to be what has become known

as the Radio Music Box Memo (-RMBM") because it is very short and undetailed. Rather, the

"real" RMBM memo was likely written in 1920.

The only evidence supporting the belief that Sarnoff wrote a very detailed RMBM in

1915 are Sarnoff s own self-serving assertions, including a memo he wrote to an RCA researcher

and a Saturday Evening Post article he authored. Most evidence weighs against the existence of

such a memo.

First, Samoff seems to have had a penchant for exaggeration. Second, research reveals

no pre-1920 references to a detailed 1915 RMBM. Third, and most significantly, no research has

unearthed a version of the RMBM that is dated 1915 or even before1920. Finally, evidence

indicates that the oft-cited Sarnoff historian that claims to have relied on a pre-1920 RMBM for

his work was likely working from a 1920 memo, as discussed below.

1

III. Discussion

A. Introduction

The Radio Music Box Memo has contributed much to Sarnoff s persona. For years,

historians assumed that Sarnoff wrote a 1915 RMBM explaining a detailed game plan for

household radio based solely on Samoffs own assertions, not on any documentation. No such

detailed memo dated 1915 currently exists. The quandary this provides is that there is no way to

say for sure whether the memo ever truly existed, in detailed form, in 1915. Recent research

points to a reasonable conclusion that Sarnoff had some idea about household radio around

1915/16, but did not articulate it fully until 1920. As you will see, this contradicts statements

made by Sarnoff himself, but given his penchant for exaggeration, this is hardly a surprise.

B. Sarnoff's Saturday Evening Post article is unreliable evidence of a 1915memo.

The primary source for the belief that Sarnoff wrote a 1915 RMBM are Sarnoff s own

statements. In 1926, Sarnoff wrote two articles in the SEP, entitled "Radio," in which he shared

much of his experience in the radio business.1 In the first article he stated:

So impressed was I with the work of the amateurs and the interest it was arousing

everywhere that in 1915, as assistant traffic manager of the Marconi Company, I

submitted a report urging the company to confine itself no longer to the ocean.

Waxing prophetic, I visioned a radio music box arranged for several different

wave lengths which should be changeable with the throwing of a single switch or

the pressing of a single button.2

1 Samoff, David. "Radio." Saturday Evening Post August 7, 14, 1926.

2 Sarnoff, August 7, at 142,145.

He stated that he had a copy of the 1915 memo in front of him (he was dictating the article) and

went on to give the details for which his 1915 RMBM became known, including its household

utility and the possibilities of broadcasting lectures and baseball games.3

Sarnoff s self-serving statements in this article are unreliable, however, because there is

no evidence Sarnoff had any such 1915 memo in front of him when he wrote the 1926 article. A

1925 letter from an RCA researcher indicates that, as of 1925, he could not locate a copy of his

alleged 1915 RMBM and no evidence suggests that Sarnoff ever did locate the memo he sought.

Additionally, Sarnoff had a proven tendency to manipulate or exaggerate reality to

improve his self-image. For instance, soon after the Titanic disaster, he made false claims about

his role in relaying messages about the sinking ship. Despite evidence to the contrary, Sarnoff

claimed to have remained on duty at the Wanamaker department store as a telegraph operator for

72 hours while all other area stations shut down, causing news sources to rely on him for

information. His role, however, was much less heroic. Sarnoff could not have been on duty

when the first messages from the Titanic disaster arrived because the store was closed on Sunday

night when they came in. Further, Samoff s equipment could only have received the strongest

ship signals, making it unlikely that he was in much direct contact with the rescue ships. And

when Marconi closed all but four stations due to the radio traffic, Sarnoff s was one of those

closed. While Sarnoff was one source of information about the disaster, his role was not as

dramatic as he claimed.4

3 Id. at 145.

4 Lewis, Thomas, Empire of the Air: The Men Who Made Radio, HarperCollins P.: NY, 1991. p.107.

3

C. Gleason Archer's reliance on an alleged 1915 RMBM is doubtful.

One other oft-cited source for the existence of a RMBM dated before 1920 is Gleason

Archer's 1938 book History of Radio to 1926. Therein, Archer reprints what he claims to be a

1916 memo from Sarnoff to Edward Nally, which begins with "I have in mind a plan of

development which would make radio a 'household utility' in the same sense as the piano or

phonograph. The idea is to bring music into the house by wireless."5 It then goes on to discuss

the possible design of the "Radio Music Box" and its possible range, and the possibility of using,

radio to broadcast lectures and baseball games into homes, just as was mentioned in Sarnoff s

SEP article.6 The memo Archer reprinted is similar to the one Sarnoff quoted from in SEP.

Several pieces of evidence, however, indicate that Archer probably did not rely on a 1916

RMBM for his writing. Louise Benjamin, who has done much research on the RMBM, believes

that the likely source for the memo reprinted in Archer is not a 1915/16 memo, but a 1920 memo

Sarnoff wrote to Owen Young on January 31, 1920, shortly after the creation of RCA.7

Sarnofrs 1920 28-page report to Young contains two pages that are almost identical to the

RMBM found in Archer. Two versions of the 1920 memo exist, the original and a copy found in

Owen Young's papers. The later one matches Archer's reprint exactly.

Sarnoff begins the 1920 memo by stating that he presented the idea for a Radio Music

Box to Nally in 1915. Archer probably saw a copy of this 1920 memo and, because Sarnoff

referred back to 1915 in the memo's introduction, assumed that the 1920 memo was the same

5 Gleason, Archer L., History of Radio to 1926, The New York Historical Society, 1938. p. 112.

6 1c1. at 112-113.

7 Louise Benjamin. In Search of the Sarnoff "Radio Music Box" Memo. 37 J. Broadcasting &

Electronic Media 325, 327 (1993).

4

and just assumed that he was reviewing a copy of the alleged 1915 memo. There are two reasons

for this to be likely.

First, as Benjamin explores in her paper, the differences between the memo Archer

reprints in his book as the alleged 1915 memo and the original version of the 1920 memo are

mostly minor details like grammatical changes and word choice edits. Benjamin postulates that

it is unlikely that Sarnoff would have drafted near identical versions of the same memo five years

apart. Rather, she theorizes, these edits are consistent with the idea that someone at RCA

changed the memo some time between 1920 to 1938, the date Archer's book was published, to

make it conform with company style, something that most likely happened when the memo was

copied. For example, certain punctuation used by Samoff to provide emphasis on one sentence

was changed to ordinary type. Also, the word "propaganda" was removed from Archer's version

as if it had been conscientiously edited out to avoid the negative connotation that word had

derived between 1920 and 1938. The striking similarities between the 1920 memo and Archer's

reprint suggest that the 1920 memo, with modifications, was Archer's source, and not a detailed

1915 RMBM.8

The second reason to suspect that Archer did not have an actual 1915 RMBM for his

source is that, in 1925, 13 years before Archer's book was published, an RCA researcher could

not Find such a memo. In her second article on the topic, Benjamin cites a letter written by an

RCA researcher retained by Samoff to locate a copy of the original Music Box memo in

preparation for his Saturday Evening Post articles. The letter, dated in May 1925, is from a

researcher identified only as "T.N.B." says:

8 Id. at 332.

5

Some time ago you asked me about some early correspondence inconnection with your "music box" scheme.

I have not, to date, been able to locate anything earlier that 1916, and

enclose herewith the original of your memorandum of November 8 of that year to

Mr. Nally and the carbon of Mr. Nally's reply of the 9th. Note that yourmemorandum carries file reference number "A-22." This may give you a clue to

the correspondence.In your letter of August 2, 1922, to Dr. Goldsmith on the subject of

"Individual Radio (Radiolette)" of which you sent a carbon to Mr. Nally with the

penned notation "Another brainstorm" you quote from a letter of 1915 to Mr.

Nally [exact date not given] —"I have in mind a plan of development which would make radio a

household utility in the same sense as the piano or phonograph *********** [sic]

The idea is to bring music into the house by wireless."

I have not, so far, been able to locate this letter of 1915 but shall continue

my search.Sincerely, [Initialed] T.N.B.9

The letter suggests that no detailed 1915 RMBM existed in the RCA archives in 1925.

First, the researcher couldn't locate any such memo. Second, the sentence "I have in

mind a plan..." is identical to the phrasing in Sarnoff's 1920 memo to Owen. Third, this

1925 letter sheds doubt on Samoffes claim in his 1926 SEP article that he was quoting

from a 1915 memo. T.N.B. indicates that Sarnoff didn't have a copy of the alleged 1915

memo by May 1925, and no evidence suggests that he obtained one between then and

little over a year later outside of his own self-serving statements.

D. Edward Nally's correspondence suggests that Sarnoff had not yet

fully developed his Radio Music Box idea by 1916.

In Benjamin's second article on the subject, she discusses the finding of two memos, one

sent from Sarnoff to Edward Nally on November 8, 1916, and one from Nally to Sarnoff on the

next day (which are also mentioned in the RCA researcher's letter above). As Benjamin notes,

these memos conform with Archer's description of events:

9 Louise Benjamin. In Search of the Sarnoff "Radio Music Box" Memo: Nally's Reply. 9 Journal

of Radio Studies 97, 101 (2002).

6

In 1916 Mr. Samoff embodied in a written recommendation to Edward J. Nally,the General Manager of the Marconi Company, the details of his proposed "RadioMusic Box" scheme. Mr. Nally's reply, dated November 9, 1916, is in existenceand has been examined by the author.10

In the preceding excerpt, Archer is clearly thinking that Samoff's "written recommendation to

Edward J. Nally" was the detailed version of the RMBM, of which only the 1920's version

exists. The memo that Benjamin uncovered from 1916, however, was not the detailed one

described by Archer, but the following:

Mr. Nally,This is a matter which I have given much thought during your absence. It

involves my "music box scheme" about which I spoke to you sometime ago. Istill believe in it and my faith is even stronger. It is one of the things I am savingup to talk over with you when your time will permit.

The note is initialed ̀ D.S.'

Nally's reply, which is mentioned in Archer, was titled "Re: MUSIC BOX SCHEME"11

and stated:

With reference to the attached, I think we should at once take steps to protect ourinterests. I have some views along these lines and shall be glad to discuss themwith you in connection with the Gramaphone [sic] Company's agreement, which Iand sending you separately.12

While Sarnoff's memo to Nally shows that he had in mind a scheme for household

broadcast radio — a "music box scheme" — it isn't the detailed RMBM found in Archer (and

many later books on Samoff).

In fact, the discussion in Nally and Samoff's 1916 memos suggests that a more detailed

1915 RMBM probably did not exist. The dialogue within these memos would likely have been

10 Archer at 112.11 Id.

121d. at 100-01.

7

different had Sarnoff already proposed to Nally his detailed plan for the implementation of

wireless entertainment radio before these 1916 memos. Why would he feel the need to discuss it

again, or to re-present his ideas? Instead, these memos show that in 1916, a few men at

American Marconi brainstormed about a revolutionary idea that had not taken full shape.

Some histories that accept the existence of Samoff's 1915 RMBM claim it was poorly

received or outright ignored by Sarnoff's superiors. Nally's 1916 memo as General Manager of

the Marconi Company, however, shows that interest was kindling. The idea was not entirely

ignored, but was not yet strong enough to force a shift in company strategy either. The fact that

the idea garnered little attention supports the idea that no detailed 1915 RMBM existed.

IV. Conclusion

In light of the above, it seems two possible conclusions could be drawn. The first,

and more plausible, is that Sarnoff had an idea of household radio in 1915/16, and, after

fully articulating the details in the 1920 memo to Young, later claimed that the 1920

memo was essentially the same as a memo he wrote in 1915. Sarnoff did not have a copy

of a detailed 1915 memo in 1925, and no evidence indicates that he had one in 1926.

This would be consistent with the idea that he was "grandstanding." This conclusion is

also supported by the fact that an oft-cited historian who claims he saw a detailed 1915

memo probably did not. This would explain much of the post 1938 assumption that

Sarnoff wrote the RMBM in 1915. The non-existence of any 1915, detailed RMBM

obviously supports this conclusion as well.

The second possibility, opposite from the one above, is that the 1920 version of

the memo actually had a 1915 brother that did not survive. This possibility is not likely,

however, since the only support for this are Samoff's self-serving statements, which are

8

especially doubtful in light of his tendency to exaggerate, and the absence of any

unbiased pre-1920 references to a detailed RMBM.13

13 Alexander B. Magoun, "Pushing Technology: David Samoff and Wireless Communications,

1911-1921" Presented at IEEE 2001 Conference on the History of Telecommunications, St.

John's, Newfoundland, July 26, 2001.

http ://www.ieee.org/portal/cms_docs_iportals/iportals/about us/hi story_center/magoun.pdf

9

0 (c5v,.\„'.

L

118 OWEN D. YOUNG

quarters of a million horse power in units of twenty_five hundred horse power each.There was the Navy's call for a sulimarine detector

—a depot for this work was established at Nahant theday after we entered the war and within ten weeksthey had a detector that gave results. Within fivemonths it was declared practicable, and in December1917 three General Electric engineers and severalAmerican naval men set out for England; went outon a British trawler, located a German submarine be-neath the surface and destroyed it. Twenty-five hun-dred vessels were equipped with these detectors beforethe war ended.The variety of demands bewilders the layman. J.

W. Hammond in his unpublished history of the activi-

ties of the General Electric, from whose manuscript

I am taking the figures used here, numerates articles

for which the government called upon the GeneralElectric:

submarine motors, a special type produced amid greatsecrecy; compasses for aeroplanes, shipped from Lynn at

a rate of five hundred a week, a thousand delivered even

before the contract was signed; radio tubes at the rate of

twenty thousand a week until a total of a quarter millionwas attained; winch-drives for captive balloons; bomb-releasing mechanisms for land and sea; and switchboards

in such quantity that if placed end to end they would havemade a sidewalk a hundred miles long—all this array of

war-time material and war-time equipment was in processof swift, skilled and accurate production until everyGeneral Electric plant in the land was a humming beehiveevery hour of the twenty-four.

I ckp, N.N/.

r

WHAT THE WAR BROUGHT 119

The General Electric's contribution to the war des-

ined to have the most far-reaching after effects—theontribution which later was to introduce Owen

oung to the public as a negotiator unusually daring,

S well as unusually persuasive and conciliatory—was

n the radio field.The possibility of the radio as a medium for not

only national but international communication had

been proved before the war—thirteen years before, in1901, the ocean had been spanned. Marine radio was

in daily use between the sea and shore, and already

had been the instrument of a large saving of life andproperty.The greatest commercial development of the radio

at the time the war came had been made by the BritishMarconi Company which was already planning a world-wide English control—a wireless system parallel to itscontrol of the international cable system. In this coun-try where much experimenting was going on the mostimportant concern was an offshoot of this British com-pany, the American Marconi, controlled abroad buthaving many American stockholders.Although messages had been sent across the ocean

no inventor had been able as yet to perfect a trans-mitter which could be depended upon. The messagescame by fits and starts, mutilated, unreliable. Whatwas needed, said those who knew the science, wassomething which would give a high frequency currentcapable of steady reporting.In 1915 Dr. Ernst Alexanderson of the General

Electric laboratory sought from the American Marconi

120 OWEN D. YOUNG

Company at its New Brunswick, New Jersey, station apractical trial of a high frequency alternator which hehad developed. The alternator was installed and sosatisfactory was its work that Marconi himself cameover that year to negotiate for its control.

Owen Young will tell you whimsically that his firstwireless message came by mail and was signed "Mar-coni." This message received in 1915 asked him to dropinto the old Holland House on his way up town.Mr. Young has declared that up to the moment of

this summons there probably was not a man in theGeneral Electric who knew less than he of the dis-coveries and developments in radio going on in theresearch laboratory, and that when he made his callon Marconi and was told by him that the BritishMarconi Company of England wanted to buy theexclusive rights to an invention which Mr. Marconispoke of as the Alexanderson alternator, he had toconfess, at least to himself, that he had never heardof the Alexanderson alternator.

If he did not know he was not long in finding out,

particularly when it turned out that if the British

Marconi Company could make the arrangement it

wished it meant millions of dollars of trade for the

General Electric. The contracts for this trade would

probably have been signed if the war had not laid its

imperious hand on one after another of those inter-

ested: on Marconi who was suddenly called to the

Italian service; on the British company, preventing

further immediate development; and a little later on

the Alexanderson alternator itself—the Navy of the


nited States commandeering it as it did the devices

rid inventions of all the American laboratories inter-

ted in radio development.

- But Dr. Alexanderson was not satisfied with theperformance of his first alternator. He set aboutdeveloping one much more powerful, indeed devel-

oped a complete radio transmitting system. This theGeneral Electric offered to install at New Brunswick

for the government's use. The offer was accepted—itwas used throughout the war. But at the moment allof this meant little to Owen Young.In a mass effort like this of the General Electric in

the war it is neither practical nor fair to attempt tosegregate the contribution of any one man. One man isimportant in proportion to his ability and his willing-ness to fit his contributions to those of others. In OwenYoung's case it is particularly difficult because of thenature of his service. To begin with when we wentinto the war he was little known outside of the elec-trical world, and there he was known only as a lawyerwho had had experience and success in dealing withthe legal side of public utilities. What the GeneralElectric knew and thought of Owen Young had notpassed on as yet to the outside business world—norhad it touched the public at any point.Most of the officers of the company had specific war

jobs. They were serving on national committees,boards, commissions. Mr. Coffin was occupied with theRed Cross and the Liberty Loan drives. Mr. Youngsat on no committees; yet he did touch many. He seemsto have functioned as a general liaison officer between

128 OWEN D. YOUNG

just as it was sometimes necessary for us as a corpora-tion to employ economic force, so these men of ourshad but one economic weapon—thc strike. We hadnot denied their right to strike. We had tacitly admit-ted it. What right had we to take away a right we hadgranted, because these men exercised a right we hadnot denied?'!__Here then in the winter of 1918-1919, so disturbed

for American industry, Owen Young began to ponderthe relations of men and management; to work outwith his associates a program which from that timeto this has been a living growth.

The readjustment of labor relations on a morerational and human basis was not the only perplexingproblem that the armistice put up to industrial leaders.For two years they had been operating on the govern-ment's plan, practically a five-year plan, since the endof the war was not to be prophesied and they must beready for the worst, which might be years more of thefrightful thing.Then suddenly the war ends and industry is demo-

bilized over night. It must go back to the old self-directing methods, put itself on a peace basis. It meanta grist of new problems. One of far-reaching impor-tance came to Owen Young early in 1919. It concernedthat Alexanderson alternator, which nearly four years

before Marconi had wanted to buy from the General

Electric.The Alexanderson alternator had proved all and

more than it had promised. Thanks largely to it the

ocean had been spanned by the Navy's magnificent


andling of the multitude of American inventions and

evices which poured constantly from the big and

ittle laboratories of the country. Secretary Daniels was

lot exaggerating the accomplishment when he wrote

n Our Navy at War:

If the Germans had cut every cable, and their U-boatsdid cut some of them, we would still have been able tokeep in touch with Pershing and the Army in France, withims in London, Rodman and Strauss in the North Sea,Wilson at Brest, Niblack at Gibraltar, Dunn in the Azores,with all our forces and Allies.President Wilson and Secretary Baker in Washington

were, so far as time was concerned, in closer touch withPershing and his forces than President Lincoln and Secre-tary of War Stanton were with the battle-fields a few milesaway in Virginia, during the Civil War. It was infinitelyeasier for me to send a message or hear from our vesselsthree thousand or four thousand miles distant than it wasfor Gideon Welles, when he was Secretary of the Navy,to communicate with the Federal ships at Charleston orwith Farragut at Mobile.

As we have seen, nobody realized so well as Marconi

himself the value in international air communication

of the Alexanderson alternator. He had wanted to buy

it outright before we went into the war, but negotia-

tions had been halted by the conflict. The war over,

his representatives came back with the same proposal.

It was impossible, they were told. The General

Electric would never sell control of an invention which

might be of service to its own government in timesof need. But as the war was over and its business was

1v

,

,! ;

;

130 OWEN D. YOUNG

making and selling machines to any customer whocould pay for them it would sell them any numberof Alexanderson alternators neecled. The contractamounting to some millions of dollars was under way,when suddenly on April 5, 1919—the date in the his-tory of the radio which takes about the same place asthe Fourth of July in the history of the country—twoAmerican naval officers appeared on the scene, AdmiralBullard who had just come back from Paris to takethe direction of the communications of the Navy andCommander Hooper who all through the war hadbeen at the head of the Navy's radio division.They came, Admiral Bullard said, at the suggestion

of the President, still in Paris at the Peace Conference,to ask that no contract be made with the British Mar-coni Company. Did the officers of the General. Electricrealize that putting their great invention into thehands of a British agency meant giving to the BritishEmpire the control of the radio communications of theworld, as it already had of the cable communications,that it meant leaving the United States without controlof any international means of communication?So eloquent and so convincing were the two visitors

that the General Electric board threw up their hands."Of course," they said, "we are unwilling to do

anything that would at any time in the future em-barrass the activities of our own government. But whatcan we do? We are a manufacturing concern. The factthat we have developed in our normal research workinventions which are essential to the efficient operationof international communication through the air, does


ot change our position. We invent, make and sell

achines. What would you have us do?"

Various solutions of the problem were suggested.

Oovernment ownership of the radio was one. Secretary

aniels would naturally have liked to keep intact the

ystem as it had been developed, buying outright

atents and plants and continuing government opera-

tions, but there was not a shadow of a chance that

the government would go into the business.

If that was out of the question would the govern-

ent join a commercial company, taking over for its

purposes all patents while the concern used them for

commerce only? A contract of which Franklin Roose-

velt, then Assistant Secretary of the Navy, approved,

in the absence of Secretary Daniels in Paris, wasworked out. It provided that all patents, patent rightsand stocks should be held and used only for the benefitof Americans. But there were apparently too many

•:pitfalls and delays in attempting such a partnership.It soon became apparent that an all-American com-

pany organized and operated as a private business wast the only way to meet the insistent demand of the Navyofficials interested in preserving the system of com-munications they had set up in the war. But how coulda private company be formed which would insure thecomplete control of all American radio property andinventions present and future? Ownership of propertyand inventions was widely scattered. To be sure theNavy had gathered them into one whole to meet theneeds of war—but, the war over, sending and receivingstations and their operating crews, patents and licenses

GREAT MENOF RADIO

• IX.—HARRY P. DAVIS

The father of the present day

development of wireless, of the

concerts on regular schedules, ad-

vance programmes, the broadcast-

ing of information of a thousand

' varieties, the marshalling of world-

famed singers and artists behind'

f, ..„7 the radio transmitters of great sta-• tions, and the consequent enter-= U>1 •64

Ec —>NA,co

E'0 0.tr. 8

81/1 I

,

EEaTi.0 ug 1-2a.- =

H2 phonograph records this evening"

• b' for amateurs. Mr. Davis envi-

sioned then the fLture of radio.

Mr. *Davis pondered over thec

.2 -2 matter for several days. He saw

ei; E that the true field of wireless for

‘,0 a long time to come would not be

s;

private communication, but broad--5 0A

-g :Zr4

71=

= .0

:-c4) E.005 'TsEo

u

oU

tainment of millions of persons

throughout the nation undoubt-

edly was Harry Phillip Davis, vice-

president of the Westinghouse

company.

In September, 1920, radio was

mainly the subject of scientific re-

search and experiment. The de-

vices and instruments necessary

for transmitting and receiving

wireless messages were not bb-tainatile in the general market.

There was practically no' popular

demand for them, and they were

hard to. obtain. Prior to the war

interest in radio had been growing

slowly, but the exigencies of the

great struggle stifled it. But in

September, 1920, Mr. Davis saw in

a newspaper advertisement that

Frank Conrad "would send out

HARRY P. "DAVIS

L

cast communication, and the enter-

tainment of hundreds, indeed, mil-

lions of persons all over the coun-

try. He saw that a station sending

out entertainments, concerts, rec-

ords of current events on regular

schedules, was the key to the fu-

ture. He believed that cnce such ;

entertainment was broadcast, per-

sons would demand "ears" with

which to hear it. He sent foir•

Frank Conrad, who had been in

charge of wireless experiments for

the government in Pittsburg dur-

ing the war. He succeeded in clos-

ing the Conrad station, and in •

November, 1920, put into operation,under direction of Mr. Conrad, theKDKA station at East Pittsburg,

as a broadcaster of programmes of

popular entertainment.Mr. Davis was born at Somers-

worth, N. H. He was graudatedfrom the Worcester Polytechnic

Institute with the degree of B. S.in electrical engineering in 1890,and after a trip to Europe and afew months spent with the Thomp-son-Houston Company entered •thedetail engineering department oftheW • house Company in 1891.

1896 he was p ced in charge of

this department; in 1908 --he wasinade manager of the engineering

Ilepartment.

Pennsylvania Farmer

Philadelphia, Pa.May 20, 1922

The Literary Digest for Septembera 2, 1922

PITTS

-....a.Nw:.,N ARTICLE in the Radio Review of

A- the. New York Evening Mail credits

Mr. Harry Phillips Davis, vice-presi-

clentstiiif the Westinghouse Company, with

! being"' the father of the present-day develop-

ment of wireless, of the concerts on regular

schedules, advanee programs, the broadcast-

ing of information of a thousand varieties,

the marshallingof world-famed singers and

artists behind the:it:di° tMitters of great

stations, and thSciiiiSeciiietit.entertainment

of millions of persons throughout the nation."

Mr. Davis has been associated with the engineering depart-

ment of the Westinghouse Company since 1891, becoming

; manager of the department in 1908. Here is the account of the

way in which he became interested in the broadcasting problem;

: and of the decisive action that led to the establishment of KDKA,

at Pittsburgh, as the pioneer of present-day broadcasting stations:,

• "In September, 1920, 'radio was mainly the subject of scien-

tific research and experiment. The devices and instruments

• necessary for transmitting and receiving wireless messages were

not obtainable in the general market. There was practically no

popular demand for them, and they were hard to obtain. Prior

to the war interest in radio had been growing slowly, but the

exigencies of the great struggle stifled it. But in September,

lia2p . Mr. Davis saw in a newspaper advertisement that FrankConkt` would send out phonograph records this evening' for

arijaA'euis. Mr. Davis eirVisioned then the future-of-radio. •

"Mr. 'Davis pondered over the matteror several days. 'Hec..._saw that the true field of wireless for a

lon time to come -would

not be private communication, but broadcast—communica,tion,

, and the entertainment of hAndieds, indeed, millions of persons

all over the country. He sa*,:tliat a station sending out enter-

tainments, concerts, records of 'current events on regular sched-ules, was the key to the future. He believed that once such en-

tertainment was broadcast, persons would demand 'ears' with

- which to hear it. He sent for Frank Conrad, who had been in. . _ _ . .._ .

charge of wireless experiments for the Government in Pittsburgh

during .the war. He succeeded in closing' the Conrad station,

and in November,. 1920, put into operation, under direction of

Mr. Conrad, AZIKDKA. station at East Pittsburgh, as a broad-

caster of programs of popular entertainment." •

ERSo

ow Radio' Br. a .sting St a.• •Music, Speeehes, Crop a

4 er-Weports Cark,

att:,P4

Nota:Be Heard By At .--1,,-,:f? .-....',7-.7. H0.4started the radiote4lephonej

4.; V -N broadcasting?

.This queitioa has,',,beenirSied -and-. intwered a 'number of tiines -luring

the past year, but so far the. c9rrect., answer has never been given..r4And, for a very good reason—nobody.•;knevr it. -The Westin house.Station.KDKA, at-:.Pittsburgh, firs to..*?ad-

n; cast on 01,41.1y schedule, was 40gelyi responsibli44or the present ierferalr interest in*ittlio.• But it has been so' .far imposSikte to discover who con-7 ,ceived the.,idea of operating KDKA' .in this manner. We have succeeded1 .-,

in securing full informiation concern-.ii -trig a meeting, at which the decision:`...`to place the station in operation was

Nsh wasr........held orOdtober 1, 1920,- li historic.

- :-'; , 'Foucvr iStinsgliouse officials were

ilpreserit. They were Harry P. Davis,ir • viee -president; Frank Conrad. assist-

, ,: ,.i• ;Ant., chief engineer; M. C. RYPiliski.. '5'0-manager of radio sales department,

_PriC7A454,-"!Listen In"_

eci c,01– ci)

•.-

7577::

A BROADCASTING PIONEER,

Harry Phillips Davis, who saw in1920 that the true field of wireless"would be broadcast communica-tion and the entertainment of hun-rtrerla i nelac.r1 r• n11

1\

to

'0'\ -27

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fra.

ía

Air,Concerta

"Picked "By Radio Here

the we air •ofer a ireless tele-• Victr(ga music, gplaxed into

• D116411.-ifras ."picked up" bylisteners pn the wireless .re-.

Ce1v3ine station which was

•recently installed here for

patrons 'interested in wireless

experiments. The concert was

heard Thursday night about

1.6 o'clock, and continued 20

Minutes. Two orchestra num-

bers, a soprano solo—which.

rang particularly high and

clear t4rough.theiair—ind a

invenile "talking piece" con-

stituted file program.

The music was from a. Vic-

trola pulled up close to the

transmitter of a wireless tele-

phone in the home of Frank

. Conrad,,Pezin and Peebles

avenues: Wilkinshurg. Mr.

Conrad is a wireless enthusi-

ast anti "pi4ts on" the wireless

concer1i4eriodically for the

entertainment of the many

- -people in this diatrict who

_•As.* wirelels-se.ts.

Amateur Wirelew S e t s,

made by the maker or, the

Set which is in operation in

our Eton,. are on sale here

$10.00 up.

—West Basement.

Ls4_

t-;=

P:4

••••••

INh'g into the future of radio de=

one sees possibilities of'

UtUIC ...„, lgrea44expansion in an almost •limitlessfield. The useS' tO which radio can be put are greatlydiversified, and it is certain to create as epochal changes D.!,in our accepted everyday affairs as did the introduct.' The importanceot the telegraph and telephone, and the application4electricity to the street railway and to lighting. '

Already the commercial transmission of messagesby radio telegraphy is well-established. The speed ofthis transmission and the reliability of the radio s 'ems,as compared with wire and cable systenks, are..f *ableto the former. For long distance wo e A io sys-tems have greater capacity, can iandl o affic andthe operation is performed at lesser

Following the developments of egraphy,great advances are now being made in one de-velopment. It is not to be assumed tha diophone'

v.•will displace the present wire telephon ra er that itwill broaden the field of communication by the develop-ment of its own special advantages, which are moreor less distinct from those of the wire telephone, as.4possesses the feature of widest publicity, as cornrrei•with the secret or practically private character rwire telephone. The two together will make matapplications possible, and it has now become prietrEatieto converse on the sea, in the air or on moving .trainS,to one's own, office or home, exactly as with land tele-phonic communication.

There is no doubt that in the, ear 'future 'theradiophone will be largely employed ong distancesin sparsely settled districts where otherommunicationfacilities are not now available. When it is consideredthat wherever wire systems reach there must be polelines which are subject to damage by storms and otheragencies, it can be seen how tremendously radio over-comes conditions of cost of, ligi*O.9,n,..,rtuiaintenanceand reliability of service, ''f'birinet advan-tageously by the wire sytteto.i:-

",•tadaptability- lophone to broadcasting

reports, news, entenrniMs, concerts, lectures, etc.,creates a field pa' its own, and it is. reasonablycertain that ny changes in the•present acce thd 'Mg such functionsand entertic .Tossible that especiallyconstructed.-ii:a4tnitqng foOm will be provided forsuch purposes,:,*;,:tat..,19?.iiti.and music will be broad-casted throudi' unbounded areas and listened to by in-visible and widely-distritiliteCt. audiences of vast num-' ;MI*

The same opportunities would thus exist for the••#' Ti country dweller as for the city resident, and inmates of

hospitals and sanitariums, and sick people and invalids

.4,diversions now denied them. A..transmit,,systerri ofthis character would have the ft..nigi'ete#4,11tIvritageof doing away with the ne-Cessityin person in public halls and auditoriums,'v-••''41'.-,teacities•

of which at best are quite limited.of reac

bers of people, with pracpossibilities for advertism:. -and important facts, a

C:5 A

in the home would have opportunities for pleasures and

get emendousnum-,..,• -s:„re rt,<;offers greatribution of newsroduces a "uni-i ... -zp-',1,-•-lev,ersal speaking s9v4 nreasonable to

•,, • • iPredict that the tiozoitleo in e when al every homewill include iniAV,f--*wl-.1 ingisome sort id-speakingradio ing'isri can 0$u: I into_ opera-tion at will,;,.. ._ atm . - useholder to be in More or _. -.... . _.less consta..>•-p4 h withoktbutside world through these ** 'broadcasti d'-.- -,-50.1,, -

TheAsip1k4.• -1.4. -. Andustry presents cast

undevelop ..i--, T. 2-'5,, T.,. vox:. ;:. s'*oisibilities. Ther arej:

great possibilitii (."ods of signaling, particu-

larly in railr — for the dispatching ofi'''ins-:--,...,..w.,,,,,,,- , . .--, •• ,,' .- )apd:. for use as a .Ingans ot communication ov zreas-••..;-....- .r., :,Served b‘prpower- tr4ansmission companies. .uunn - the

. Wor.?rak . %I, was cogclu4yel demonstrated that radiois '4'4' ;,;.li' L.. ...tie ag ....,-,,-.:4_,..,-..

ecting of air planes,,,,. , . ?X..* •

•••sii'd1/4.' 'Se* 'and in dire- ' • !,:..174.: 1 J ...rill i

. • "",,, ',7,,o. A ' ,,,

tT.4.:•• ',,•:_it .. controlling .the move-•*'inent of armies on stlb .,,. '-` ,f,,,,,,j4:-...-;,7e. -

,-

To what.2extent power cair'be transmitted by radiois as yet prOglernatical, but it is possible. even- now to

. perform**portant function in a minor wa4,.scu•that.electritircan be operated at a distance, thus per-

ti.xi(*g into operation of independent.•so lit • er to direct and control various me-

":`cleVices. As time 'Progresses and knowledgein ses, this field will undoubtedly be greatly ad-vanced and developed.

The field of radio application is practically un-,limited in the important affairs of..the.world, and its de-velopment will mark one of the great steps in the pro-(Tress and evolution of mankind. H. PI

6.

P-hdA(7The Permanency of Broadcasting

IHow A Scientific Novelty Develope

d In Eighteen

Months to a Necessary and Popular Service —

Present Limitations and the Line of Future Extension

IT is always unsafe to assume the

role of a prophet, but the writer

presumed to take such a chance

more than a year ago when in a pub-

lished article he made the following

statements:"The adaptability of the radiopho

ne to

broadcasting reports, news, entertainments,

concerts, lectures, etc., creates a field par-

ticularly its own, and it is reasonably cer-

tain that the future will see many changes

in the present accepted methods of conduct-

ing such functions and entertainments. It

is quite possible that especially constructed

transmitting rooms will be provided for

such purposes, so that voices and music

will be broadcasted through unbounded

areas and listened to by invisible and widely

distributed audiences of vast numbers. The

same opportunities would thus exist for the

country dweller as for the city resident,

and inmates of hospitals and sanitariums,

and sick people and invalids in the home

would have opportunities for pleasures and

diversions now denied them'. A transmit-

ting system of this character would have

the further great advantage of doing away

with the necessity of appearing in person

in public halls and auditoriums, the capaci-

ties of whith at best are quite limited.

"The importance of reaching such tre-

mendous numbers of people, with practi-

cally no effort, offers great possibilities for

advertising and the distribution of news and

important facts, and in reality introduces a

'universal speaking service.' ILLuot....un---'

reasonable to predict that the tune will --

C-6-tne--wh-e-ri --ilmciet every hope _will,- in--elude 19.1its furnishing ioine -sort of loud-_"Sfe-aktg radio receiving instrument._ which_

s_an___be-put -into operation at will, permit-

ting the householder to be in more or less\ constant touch with the outside world\ through these broadcasting agencies.

"The field of radio application is practi-

cally unlimited in the important affairs ofthe world, and this development will mark

one of the great steps in the progress andevolution of mankind."

What is the situation today? In a

il, period of wide-spread business

de-

pression, and thus a most inauspiciousone for a new venture, radio is a topic

of as universal interest as the weather;

and the spell of radio broadcasting

especially is becoming world-wide.

It is probably a fact that no facil-

ity or service has ever received such

instant response from the public or

has grown so fast in popularity, and

at a time when the public buying pow-

er was generally believed to be nil, a

market has been developed which is

limited only by the ability of manu-

facturers to supply apparatus.

Civilization progresses in direct ratio

to the advance in communication and

transportation facilities, and the public

By H. P. Davis

H. P. Davis, Vice-President of the Westing-house Electric and Manufacturing Company

is quick to recognize and seize upon,

and make use of, any new develop-

ments in either of these services. In

a sense, radio broadcasting as a serv-

ice has opened a new field for public

communication, and what has been

more or less of a scientific novelty, or

possibly a visionary dream, has be-

come almost overnight an accom-

plished fact and a wide-spread and

necessary popular service.

It is fascinating in its mystery, and

this is undoubtedly one of the greatest

attractions in its first appeal to the

imagination. But it is destined to be

something more than a fascinating

novelty, for as the ossibilities of radio

unfold we see e ore us a won erful

and permanent public service compaifa=

ble with other modern facilities and

conveniences in its ability to make life

easier and better. Radio annihilates

distance, reducing it to nothing, since

the element of time scarcely enters into

the speed of the transmission and can

be entirely disregarded when it is pos-

sible to encircle the globe in a small

fraction of a second with a radio

wave.We all realize that the interest of

the public is fickle and that the mys-

tery of this wonderful agency will

wear off as it ceases to be a novelty,

but even admitting that, the element

of permanency is present in radio

broadcasting. This is evidenced by

the thousands of letters that have been

received from the radio audiences, of

which the following are samples:

26

-I'm an old lady, almost blind,

75 years old. My youngest grand-

son, an i8-year-old senior in high

school, installed one of your

radio sets for me last Monday,

March 20, and I have enjoyed

three fine concerts and two noon-

hour services at Trinity Church.

You are doing much good and

giving great pleasure to the many,

many 'shut-ins' like myself."

"We are located up on the lone-

some mountains of Southeastern

Kentucky. We listened in on your

program last evening, and we cer-

tainly appreciate this very excel-

lent music. We are about 200

miles from any large city, so you

will understand why this is such

a great treat to us and our min-

ers."

"We enjoyed every bit of Tues-

day nigh program, but especial-

ly the tallc, given by the 'Bird

Man.' —Wty country people

and you know we live very near

to nature, so his talk of the birds

was very interesting to us. We

are thankful to have lived to see

this possible and we are surely

indebted to you people who make

it so. Being elderly people and

during the winter's bad weather

not often able to get out, it is a

very great thing for us to be able

to enjoy such things by radio."

Half our population resides in the

country, and conditions similar to

those recited in these letters will pre-

vail. But consider also what it means

to the sick, the infirm and the aged,

even though they may be residents of

the cities.The broadcasting of church services

alone, which was initiated by KDKA,

the Westinghouse Electric and Manu-

facturing Company's broadcasting

station at East Pittsburgh, Pennsyl-

vania, would in itself be sufficient to

make radio broadcasting 'permanent

and invaluable. This service met with

instant response, for it was at once

unique and compelling it its appeal to

people of all ages, classes and denomi-

nations, and is proving to be one of

the greatest publicity and beneficent

features ever presented; it is doing

more to enlarge the church's sphere of

4

I fl

1.1[

a-

s-11-rd)le:ar.dsVeseeelytketndhers atbie

in thelar to •

pre-meansaged. t

.nts of

21-vices eIDKA,

Manu-:asting''2nnsyl-ient to-na.nent

with •,t once ;peal toenorrli

nne.ofneficentdoing

'here of '

MAY, 1 Zz r 1V1 A IN i N L Y

influence than any medium heretoforeutilized.As radio broadcasting is developed

today it has one feature not possessed

by any other service in existence, and

except for the comparatively small cost

of the initial installation, it is without

favor and without price. Everyone

can occupy a "free reserved seat" at

any and every radio broadcasting per-

formance. This is an important fact

not generally recognized, for while one

large electrical manufacturing com-

pany initiated the service and several

companies are now maintaining broad-

casting stations, the only financial

support they receive for this costly

service is the possible profit from the

sale of receiving apparatus of their

manufacture; but there are hundreds

of other manufacturers and dealers

who are manufacturing and selling re-

ceiving apparatus also, who do not

support this service in any way what-

ever and who, because of this service,

reap large benefits without exertion

or expense on their part.

It is doubtful if there is any way in

which this service can be made a di-

rect revenue producer for such com-

panies or institutions as foster it. Rec-

ognizing this fact, there must then be

developed sufficient indirect value to

those maintaining radio broadcasting

stations to make it profitable for them

to operate and develop this service.

To the uninitiated it probably seems

a simple matter to install a radio

transmitting outfit and to broadcast

music and speech and thus call the in-

stallation a broadcasting station.

ICDKA has now been in operation

When NV.radio a

J. Bryan speaks nowadays over the

quarter-million people hear the greatCommoner

U bKL1111) L;Aj.1.1.N Li 27

The specially constructed studio at KDKA station which realizes the prophecy of ayear ago that such rooms would be provided for broadcasting stations

The transmitting microphone at WJZ into

which great artists sing represents months of

laboratory research and operating. develop-ment

since the early part of November,

1920. and as the pioneer in radio

broadcasting service, has made his-

tory in the develvment of the radio

broadcasting art. It will be difficult

bit- anyone now sitting at a receiving

instrument to realize the amount of

dcvehpment \\wk and expense that

has been attached to bringing that sta-

tion to its present effectiveness. but I

am Inine :tire that if it were possible

to compare what Ivas con-idered good

1m-1:pica-ling a year and a hal f ago,

and what is being transmuted today,it ‘vould at once be evident that a won-derful improvement has been brought

about.There are still considerable limita-

tions in the ability of the available

broadcasting apparatus to transmit talkand music tones true to life, and ulti- -7mate perfection of trueness is only at- lig 5,tained when the listener receives whatis broadcasted in the natural reflec-tion and without distortion. Much.thought is being given and work done. -0 2to reach this perfection, and it is the 15writer's belief that very material steps- g gof advance in this will be forthcoming Po

shortly.

Our apparatus and means for radio a•-';broadcasting are today undeveloped, 3and if greater perfection is to be at-tamed, confusion, with resultant pub- Falic disgust, must be prevented; so pro- p,ection of some kind is due those 'who ;foster and develop this service. TR 2

Recognizing that inefficient and in-1:F.4erfering service will not be tolerated,the Government has already taken pre-liminary steps to formulate reg,u1a- 2ations with a view to materially im-proving this situation, in •the recent:

conference held in Washington under. cthe auspices of the Department ofCommerce. As the conditions of serv-ice and the requirements of the public -a Ebecome better appreciated, means willbe found to attain this end. g E

There are comparatively few avail- ;(..!,

able wave lengths in the ether, and to.

encourage this very necessary devel-

opment these ether wave bands must

be allocated and administered with

much discrimination and care. Only •

companies or institutions with compe-

tent research and operating staffs, and'

financial means to 'back them, can pos-

sibly support this service in a proper

manner and accomplish this most de-

sirable perfecting of radio broadcast-

ing. In other words. radio broadcast-

20

ing is an infant industry and it musthave protection, and if this is properlyand ..conservatively done we shall holdthe ipUblic support and shall look backin a very short time in amazement atwhat has been accomplished.

It is unfortunate, however, that thisimperfection of the sending apparatusis not as fully realized as it should. be,with the result that many new broad-casting stations are being plannedwhich must necessarily give onlymediocre results. Not only is theether going to be crowded, but crowd-ed with discordant and disagreeableperformances.I feel that this period is going to be

the test of the public's approbation.The growth of the public approval haseen too rapid to be. healthy, as it out-

strips tthe growth of the develOpmentof the art. and .while the fascination of\ fibroadcasting is the impelling forceow, the period of development of not

only the apparatus,- but of the servicetself is going to require patience andorbearance on the part of the public.

THE WIRELESS AGE

The same situation confronts thisservice as has been encountered in allother innovations or great steps ofprogress, and that is the attitude ofthose in allied established activities tolook upon the newcomer as a rivalwhich is to be regarded with suspicion-and gauged in a competitive sense.

It is easy to see from what has beensaid herein that there is little or norevenue-producing opportunity in thisservice, and that the value attached toit is almost wholly one9L4dvertiikc..,Unfirthis-is-rea.lize-d—and aripftciatedby those who must furnish the talentfor the program, however, more orless difficulty will be experienced inperfecting and broadening the pro-gram service, and the attitude now be-ing met on the part of a few lecturers,artists, theatrical and concert manag-ers who refuse their assistance forfear of adversely affecting their box-office receipts and of reducing theirearning capacity, must be converted toan appreciation of its advertisingvalue — not as a destructive, but as aconstructive agent for if advertising

MAY, 1922

in any way has been a benefit in help-ing the growth of such undertakings,the far greater advertising possibilitiesin radio broadcasting must undoubted-ly bring greater returns for theamount of energy expended than anyother agent yet available.

Undoubtedly, however, if this serv-ice is to fulfill its mission, ways willbe devised to overcome this difficulty; -for in this case as in other cases ofunusual developments, it will eventu-ally be found that, instead of being acompetitor, radio broadcasting be-comes a source of development andextension to the other arts. A servicewhich offers such possibilities must inthe future wield a tremendous influ-ence, and overcome obstacles whichnow beset its path.In broadcasting, radio has found itsgreatest usefulness and its most im-portant field of application, and it isdestined to become a basic public serv-ice. The road is a rough one, how-ever, as many of us who have beenintimately connected with its develop-ment are realizing.

Radio and the Phonograph DealerAbstracts of an Editorial From "The Talking Machine Journal,"Showing How Radio Will Help the Phonograph Business

THE big new idea in the talkingmachine field is Radio-Teleph-ony. Like all big new ideas it is

fraught with blessings or — blow-ups.When we contemplate the fact that ina time when all other businesses weremoving with extreme slowness, orwere actually at a standstill, radio-telephony sprouted up to a toweringheight in just a few months, we mustadmit that it has great force in it. Buton the other hand, has it real strengthand staying power? Granted that it:has stability and a future, what does,it mean to the talking machine dealer,'and how should he connect himselfwith it? How should he plan today?1In considering radio and its possi-

bilities, merchants should bear one thing;Steadily in mind—that they are in thephonograph business. The phono-graph business is firmly established asa part of the commercial structure ofthis country. The recent census de-partment report gives figures showing,that only the automobile business riv-als the pho.nograph business in thevolume of sales — with two and aquarter million machines made andmarketed in 1919 -,- and over two-thirds that number produced last year,admittedly an off year. Hence it be-comes a question of the old and estab-lished business 'brother holding out a

helping hand to the newly arrived childof commerce.The point of view should be thatthe dealer should interest himself inthe possibilities of radio because itcan help his phonograph business, and,viewed from the other side, becausehe is the one merchant who is todayproperly equipped in his store and hisbusiness experience to distribute thistype of goods and more particularly thetype of goods that is being rapidlydeveloped, namely the cabinet installedsets, particularly those combiningphonograph and radio equipment.At present there seems no chancefor competition between broadcastedradio music, and the fine reproduc-

tions of artists to be had on the rec-ords. A fraction of the family's "lis-tening time" may be absorbed by theradio outfit, but in general what theyhear will stimulate a desire to own asmooth and ,artistic reproduction ofthe selection that they can put on theirphonograph and hear through withoutinterruption at any time they wish.This is without prejudice to the factthat radio contributes many individualand interesting features of its own tothe home entertainment. Phonographdealers should take hold of radio bothfor its present and for its future, go-ing ahead conservatively and nin Vino*

sure that they have allied themselveswith only standard and reliable lines.Plunging in the ordering of goods isnot justified. The point is not somuch to get goods as to get the properkind. A few bad outfits will damagethe entire proposition in your neigh-borhood. Radio is here to stay, andthe dealer who 'proceeds cautiouslywith it, from the point of view of de-veloping his phonograph business, willmake more and 'better sales than theone who rushes in without properconsideration of the pitfalls as well asthe profits.

Scene: Movie house in Kokomo.Time: Nineteen twenty something.Idea: Movie houses have, installedradio. Three thousand get their mu-

sic from Chicago orchestra.We see the villain approaching thecountry lassie. Evil is written all

over his face. The girl is frightened.He grabs her. They struggle furious-ly. Just as the fight is at its height,something slips in the music synchro-nizer and there bursts inappropriatelyforth from the radio receiver:"Dapper Dan, der Pullman Porter

man,ni" 4-rn ••-•

Who Saw the RadiophoneBroadcasting Vision?

Harry Phillips Davis, Vice-President of the Westinghouse- .Electric & Manufacturing Company, Was the

First Man to Foreseerthe PopularAppeal of Radio

HIS IDEA SUGGESTED BY A NEWSPAPER AD.

"Frank I'm going to close yot*.sta-."Paradoxial as the statement may seem,this was the actual start of radio broad-casting...as we stow know it. The •con-certs del: regular schedules, advance aro-grams;'" entertainment in the air, allcame from closing "Frank's station,"and opening KDKA. the first radiophonestation in the world.For "Frank" was Frank Conrad, as-

sistant chief engineer of the Westing-house Company, and the man w.'• madethe statement was Harry Phillips Davis.vice-presidentof the WestinghouseCompany.Mr. Davis had tome into his officethat morning in Septes..ber 1920, with. an idea. The idea had come to him!;while reading the advertisements in his. evening paper. In a corner of a fullpage ad, he came across the words "Mr.. Conrad will send Out phonograph rec-ords this evening." 'This advertisement

was in the interest 'of the store's ama-teur radio department and was &plain-ing to local radio amateurs that Mr.Frank Conrad, who had operated hisstation intermittently since 'the war,would send out. by radio, phonographrekords on a certain evening. The Con-rad station was very well known toamateurs all over the country, for itwas one of the few amateurs stationslicensed to operate during the war. Thisspecial operating was in the interestsof government research work which theWestinghouse Company was doing andalso to test some apparatus.Mr. Davis could not forget his idea.He was struck with••the fact that theradiophone fundamentally did not lenditself only to private communicationbut that it had a universal field of use-fulness and that through it, one ,soulclcommunicate with hundreds, thousandsor millions; all could listen who hadthe suitable "ear," for if a certain classof people were interested . enough tolisten to music from a few records therewas a possibility of increasing thissmall audience of radio listeners to anenormous number by sending out enter-

tainments, current events, etc.. in a reg-ular and interesting manner. Why con-fine one's audience to a small portionof the country? Why not build a bigstation and let everyone, who want to,hear? Why not Make radio broadcast-ing a public service?Mr. Davis was so struck with his

idea of a public broadcasting servicethat the first thing he said to his sec-

• retary on entering his office the nextmorning was "Ask Frank to come in."• "Frank," as has been previously ex-plained. was Mr. Conrad, who, havingbecn taken so abruptly with his chief'sstatement, could only listen to whatfollowed."Frank, my idea is that you stop

sending from your station and we will, start a regular service from our ex-

perimental station here at East Pitts-burgh. We can arrange for a suitablewave length, and I believe that if wedo this it will be the beginning of a ra-dio broadcasting public service vihich.

.scents to mo to have wonderful possibili-ties."The conference with Mr. Conrad last-

d a short time and Mr. Davis calledther conferences before actual work on

the bioadeasting started. It was notuntil November II, 1920, that KDKAwas formally opened with the broad-casting of election returns.The remainder of -the history of

KDKA is now common property. Every-one. alrhost, now knows that there areover 200 broadcasting stations in theUnited States and that The radio au-dience numbers into the millions eachnight.Not everyone knows, however, that

it was a single line in a newspaperwhich suggested to the vice presidentof one of the largest electrical manu-facturing companies in the world, thebig thing of turning a scientific noveltyinto a new kind of public service by

olding a new field of communication.)k91Mr. Davis was one of the best equip-ped mea in the electriCal industry tctake'up the difficult problems of broad-casting. He has been a leader in tit(electrical industry since his college daysand has been issued nearly 100 patentscovering electrical apparatus. He is fliTengineering genius and is known, notonly as a designing engineer .of 12.iglrank, but also as a man . Whothings done. His ability to aceomplislresults has already been proved in-Ahshistory of his company's broadeaatiNachievements. His 'ability was also admirably illustrated during the war. If.was at that time in charge of produ,tion at the East Pittsburgh works amthe duty of fulfilling the governmencontracts for munitions was- his. Probably no more colossal manufacturin;task was ever given anyone. The Tiantities involved were enormous; the tinslimits short; the specifications mosrigid, new and undreamed of problemarose at every step; the government'plans changed with btiwildering frequency; material, competent help and transportation facilities became almost tsr,obtainable; and innumerable other diiticulties were encountered. Yet, in spitof everything, the work was done anit, was done properly and on time. Nca single promise made to the goverrment was broken.' This is all by way of illustrating ti-character of the man who first siathat radio broadcasting was aomethirthat held greater possibilities than jusbeing the plaything of the amateur.Mr. Davis was born at $omerswort

New Hampshire. He graduated frothe Worcester Polytechnic Institu.with the degree of B. S. in Electric.Engineering in 1890, and after a trip •stat wads smuotu Aka; 13 pun Dcloanthe Thompson- Houston Company, etered the Detail Engineering Deparrnent of the Westinghouse Company1891. ,In 1896 was placed in chargethis department; in 1908 he was ma.manager. This position he held un'1911 when he was elected vice presdent. . :i4Y!7 A

10,ft.Cl

00401/4A,-0-4,4-4--

CorAdtwe'n4:1-

MANAGMENT ENGINEERINGTHE JOURNAL OF PRODUCTION

L. P. ALFORD, Editor E. W. TREE, Associate Editor

Published By The Ronald Press Company, Nen) York

VOLU vIE AUGUST, 1922 NUMBER 2

Radiphone insrumenis621.3846

Putting Radio Instruments Into ProductionBy HARRY PHILLIPS DAVIS*

Vice-President Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Co.

T0 develop an engineering and commercial enter-prise out of the radiophone, it was necessary toattack and solve the problem of changing a scien-

tific electric novelty into an instrument of publicservice, and of making it useful and usable in a newfield of communication. Fundamentally, the radio-phone does not lend itself to private communication,but has the possibilityof universal usefulness.Through it one can com-municate at the same timewith hundreds, thousands.

'or even millions of peoplelthe only prerequisite be- 1ing that the one wholistens shall have a suit-able "ear" tuned to re-ceive whatever is sent. Thedevelopment of this -pos-sibility in the past twoyears has brought intobeing a new industry.During the war, Frank

very well known to amateur radio enthusiasts through-out the country. Mr. Conrad had been in the habit ofoperating it intermittently since the war to send outphonograph records by radio on certain evenings. Adepartment store selling amateur radio equipmentmade use of this fact by including in its advertisementin one of the Pittsburgh newspapers this sentence:

"Mr. Conrad will send outphonograph records thisevening."From this came the idea

of a public broadcastingservice whichwould makeavailable to all withinrange, music, news, infor-m a tio n, and entertain:merits.The possibilities of such

a broadcasting servicewere sensed in September,1920, arid on November 11of that year the Westing-

Conrad, assistant chief en-gineer of the West:nghouseElectric and Manufactur-ing Company, was licensedto operate one of the few

JUKE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN, FEB. MAR APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG.

FIG. I

— 1921

PUBLIC INTEREST IN RADIO AS REFLECTED THROUGHTHE AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS

amateur stations permitted during the period of hos-tilities. This station was utilized in the interest ofgovernment work which the Westinghouse Companywas doing and to test out apparatus. This station was* Mr. Davis was graduated from the Worcester Polytechnic Institutein 1890, and after a trip to Europe and a few months spent with theThompson-Houston Company, entere-1 the Detail Engineering Departmentof the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company in 1891. In1896 he was placed in charge of this department; iii 1988 he becamemanager of the Engineering Department. This position he held until1911, when he was elected Vice-President of his company.Mr. Davis is not only a designing engineer of high rank with 77patents on electrical apparatus to his credit, but he is also a man whogets things done. During the war he was in charge of production at theEast Pittsburgh works, and upon him devolved the duty of satisfying thegovernment contracts for munitions. Not a single promise made to thegovernment was broken in carrying through that colossal manufacturingtask.

house Electric and Manu-facturing Company 'sbroadcasting station inEast Pittsburgh—KDKA—was opened. Within lessthan a year three other

such stations were set up: Newark, New Jersey, inApril, 1921, WJZ ; Chicago, Illinois, in August, 1921,KYW ; and Springfield, Massachusetts, in September,1921, WBZ.

These four stations were all pioneer stations in away, for during the first year progress in developingpublic interest was slow. However, when transmissionconditions became good, in the fall and early winter of1921, public interest developed so rapidly that it prac-tically became a craze. As a result, there was a rushto establish broadcasting stations, and there are nowover .300 such stations in the United States, and the

65

61)

e-17.11- It

a 66 MANAGEMENT

radiophone audience numbers into the millions eachnight. Fig. 1 shows the increase in public interest inradio during the past year.The establishing of these stations, which broadcast

to the public, provided a definite service which couldonly be taken advantage of by the possession and use

ENGINEERING Vol. 3, No. 2

This development is unquestionably one of the high-water marks of rapidly increasing demand and produc-tion in an article for general use. It is believed thatthe money value of radio equipment already sold farexceeds the value of the automobiles produced duringthe like period of the development of that new means

of transportation.

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FIG. 2 EARLY TYPE OF RADIOPHONE SET

These exterior and interior views are of one of the first sets made by the West-inghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company.

i of radio instruments. As soon as the service becameavailable the public demanded such instruments.I

' These have been supplied through two channels, themanufacturing and marketing of carefully designed,

i constructed, and tested instruments, and the supply ofi parts from which amateurs can build their own. Itis estimated that up to the present more than 300,000instruments have been manufactured, of which theWestinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Companyhas produced a few more than one-third. It is esti-

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mammal AD 1111111iAinr. ww,Illiitti- 1,:ii le-,1--11. 1

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The problems of production may beunderstood when it is realized that up tothe time that the Westinghouse Electricand Manufacturing Company developedits first model and put it into the manu-facturing departments no instrument ofthis design had ever been produced on amanufacturing basis. Involved, there-fore, in the problem were all of the diffi-culties concerned with bringing out theinitial design of a new piece of apparatus,adapting it to its uses, acquiring knowl-edge and skill for its production, securing

the necessary manufacturing equipment, trainingworkers to new tasks which were not even known by theexecutives in charge—in short, blazing through all ofthe problems of producing something which had neverbefore been made in quantities and by manufacturingmethods. That these problems were successfully solvedis proved by the record of produdtion already cited.Other proof is found in the facts that in the EastSpringfield plant alone 100,000 square feet of floorspace are devoted to the production of radio equipment,

FIG. 3 ASSEMBLING AERIOLA JUNIOR INSTRUMENTS

There are 20 operations in this assembly and 15 separateparts. The assembling of the tube block is difficult andexacting. The girls average to produce jugraments----per day; about two weeks is required to train a girl.

mated further that fully as many instruments con-structed by amateurs are in use. This tremendous de-velopment has taken place in about 14 months. InJune, 1921, the East Springfield plant of the Westing-house Company produced 404 radiophone instruments.During the present month, August. 1922, the outputwill be upward of 25,000.

FIG. 4 WINDING COILS FOR AERIOLA JUNIOR INSTRUMENTS

In each coil there are 74 turns of wire. The girls average100 stationary coils or 400 rotary coils per day. Theaverage time required to train a girl for this work is from

a week to 10 days.

that over....9.00--persoxis are employed on this work, andthat their efforts are supplemented by an equal numberat other works of this company. Between _March 17and June 6, a new radio building was constructed atEast Springfield, 500 ft. long and 80 ft. wide, to giveincreased manufacturing space.One factor which has contributed greatly to this

• •

August, 1922 MANAGEMENT ENGINEERING 67

FIG. 5 DRILLING SUB-PANELS FORRA! TUNERS

Fifty-nine holes are drilled in each panel withan average output of 130 pieces per day.

FIG. 6 GENERAL VIEW OF THE MANUFACTURE AND ASSEMBLYOF RC, DA, AND RA SETS

Three hundred and fifty persons are employed on thiswork, producing in all of the three 420 units per day.

record is the fact that the first design of a tuner putinto production was a good one. Usually a new deviceor piece of apparatus must pass through an experi-mental stage before it functions successfully. Thiswas not true of the tuner as first made. It is beingturned out today according to the original design, theonly modifications being in details to permit of easiermanufacture. This instrument was followed by laterdesigns, theAeriola Junior with a radius of 25 miles inMay, 1921, the Aeriola Senior with a radius of 200miles in January, 1922, and the Aeriola Grand with aradius of 750 miles in January, 1922.To emphasize that the design has not changed, Fig.

2 shows one of the first tuners manufactured in EastPittsburgh in January, 1920. It will be noted that the

characteristic front of the first instrument has beenpreserved in those which have followed. This externalsimilarity holds throughout the design of the workingparts of the instruments.Turning now to actual production, it was decided to

produce these instruments at the East Springfieldplant to increase the diversity of work at that place.No one in the manufacturing organization had anyrevious- experience in making radio equipment, so the

experimental work in connection with production wasmore troublesome than that connected with the designand functioning of the instruments themselves. Inas-much as the demand was unknown at the time produc-tion commenced, for at that time the design situationwas not demonstrated, the first few instruments were

FIG. 7 TESTING-ROOM FOR RC SETS, DETECTORS, AMPLIFIERS,TUNERS, AND TRANSFORMERS

FIG. S FINAL OPERATIONS ON ASSEMBLING AERIOLAJUNIOR INSTRUMENTS

68 MANAGEMENT ENGINEEING

produced using the simplest kinds of tools, hardened

templets without bushings for drilling, and vise jaws

for milling. As it became apparent that the designs

were settled and that some quantities would be neces-

sary, these simple tools were replaced by well-designed

tools for accurate production of interchangeable parts.

Within the last few months the tool design has gone

Vol. 3, No. 2

requested by the sales department is recorded for De-

cember, 1921. This was occasioned by a limited amount

of advertising of radiophones available for Christmas

gifts. The unfortunate part of this section of the dia-

gram is that production was unable even to approxi-

mately offset the 'demand. However, production has

been, increasing steadily, the quantities for the past

PIG. 9 FINAL TEST ON AERIOLA JUNIORS

' The test is for wave length, °ciliation, and audibility.

into a third stage to adapt it to large quantity produc-

tion. Multiple jigs and milling fixtures have been

built, multiple drilling machines selected, and some

parts punched in quantity instead of being drilled.

Still other parts are being produced from molded ma-

terial instead of by machining methods. These changes,

of course, have affected the machining operations,

which, however, only involve about 20 per

cent of the labor hours in producing radio-

phone instruments. By far the greater part

of the producing time is taken up with as-

sembling and testing. As an item of interest,

95 per cent of the instruments pass final in-

spection without any correction.

A few of the manfacturing, assembling,

and testing operations are shown in the illus-

trations, Figs. 3 to 10, inclusive.

To emphasize the value of experience in

producing any fine product and to show some

of the small points which may cause trouble

but cannot be foreseen, the case of a micarta

panel is of particular interest. In laying out

these panels each one was marked at a certain

place with a lead pencil. Later six holes for

terminals were drilled in this region. For

some time trouble developed in shore circuit-

ing in these terminals and not until the pencil marks

were noticed and erased was this difficulty overcome.

Now wax pencils are used for all marking on radio

parts.Turning now to the record of output

in detail, Fig.

11 shows graphically the estimated sales requirements

beginning with February, 1921, and the corresponding

factory production. A very sharp rise in the units

28,026,0024.0022,0020,00

:4 15,0016,0014.00two

E 10,003,006,004,00

FIG. 10 SHIPPING Room /ma RADIO EQUIPMENT. AMOUNT

SHIPPED PER DAY AVERAGES 10 TONS wrrH A RECORD OF 18 TONS

few months being 13,315 instruments for April, 14,728

for May, in round numbers 19,000 for June and 21,000

for July.As previously mentioned, the production for the

cur-

rent month will be upward of. 25,000 instruments.

These records visualize the public demand for radio

apparatus which came into being only after a broad-

_ _ i----i

))I

, '-Estimated.

Units Desired q ----N,-.0,1Sales Depar,ment---..

.--.,-

I Units Produced..,by Shop

)11

-,--r..----_._---=--1—____

) Mt FECNAR. APR SAY JUMEJULY AU6. SEPT:OCT. NOV. DEC JAN: FEB.MAR.APR.

k---------:------19a1-----------)±(---------

MAY JUKE JULY A06 SEPT OCT )401i-DEC I

------ 1922 --------- ----,-1

FIG. 11 SALES R-QUIREMENTS AND FACTORY OUTPUT

APPARATUS FOR 18 MONTHS

Included are tuners, amplifiers, RC sets, Aeriola Juniors,

Aeriola Seniors, Aeriola Gram's, and Tube Transmitters.

OF RADIO •

casting service was made generally available.

6, There are no signs of diminution of demand, but on

-3 the contrary, more and more apparatus is needed to

satisfy the sales department requirements. As the eco-

nomiC uses for radiophones are enlarged we may expect

to see this industry develop into one of the great

branches of the diversified electrical business of the

country.

" Copies from an original in the Archives Service Center, University of Pittsburgh. Ihis copy is ror personal use uley 411U 'Hay net oi.

.sold, re-cepied, or publishert _ t permission. P ase note that 1114 material myam rotecteue,copyright CNA 17, U.S. Code

Should Radiophone Broa casting c Continue' By EDWARD LINWOOD. ' 4,

• -

"I

-S it your opinion that radlophoile ebtoadcasting

should be continued in its present form?"

This was the question put to H. P. Davis, vice-

president of the Westinghouse Electric and Manu-

facturing Company, and the man who was responsible

for the organizing of the first radiophone broadcasting

station in the world, that of KDKA, at East Pittsburgh.

"Instead of answering the question," replied Mr. Davis,

"I would like to ask you—

"Who wants radio broadcasting stopped?

"What causes any one to want broadcasting stopped?

"Is the present broadcasting service unsatisfactory?"

The interviewer assured Mr. Davis that there was no

real objection to the radiophone, and so far as he knew

there was no reason why it should not be continued.

This was in answer to Mr. Davis's first question in reply.

"Broadcasting," he continued, ''has become a public

necessity and is rapidly lining itself up with other utili-

ties such as the telephone, telegraph, electric light, mov-

lag pictures, etc., and just as these activities were crude

In their beginnings but later refined to present-day con-

ditions, so, in the same way, will radiophone broadcast-

ing be developed and will cover and make available to

all within hearing range all worth-while activities of

general interest to the Publie."When Mr. Davis was asked if present conditions under

which radiophone broadcasting was done, wherein a free

service was given, would be continued, he stated in reply

that a service of this character offered such benefits to

mankind in general that way would be found for its

continuance."Why," he said, "consider the effect of discontinuing

operations at our four stations! We believe that the

combined audience of our fotir broadcasting stations is

at least a million every night in the week. It may he

More. This estimate is based on the number of radio

receivers which have., been sold in the territories covered

by these stations. What would be the result if all broad-

casting stations stopped suddenly, with or without warn-

ing, entertaining and informing this vast audience? The

effect upon this radio audience would be a.belut the same

as would occur if we took away some one -or more of

the utilities already referred to, such as the electric light,

or the telephone—and we might go even further and

ejty that it might be the same as stopping the news-

papers and magazines, and the cutting off of amuse-

ments and communications. The effect probably right

ePr would not be so vital as it will be later, as the ser-

, .ce improves and grows—as it is bound to do.!''.• -‘ "What would happen if this occurred?" was asked of

Mr. Davis."You know as well as I do," he said, "that the*re

would be a public clamor that would quickly bring somesolution of a state or federal nature. I do not believehciwever, that this can happen, as there Is enough com-mercial possibility and good-will in the business to makeit worth while for those companies that can benefit fromit to continue the service."

ter-4/

"What is going to happen," Mr. Davis Aufr asked, "ifthe federal government continues its pfeSent Policyof indiscriminately licensing all applicants to betiadeast?""Now," said Mr. Davis, "you have touched _on the

real, vital point. If is my opinion that the Public is not

going to stay interested ire nor will it support, an activitywhich does not at least approximate a real and satis-factory service. When it becomes pelisible, as it is now,

-for any one with a broadcasting set--good, bad or indif-ferent—to clainr space in the ether and to force him-self upon the listening public' without furnishingquality or a programme of interest, the public is going

H. P. Davis

to become disgusted and, as a result, Interest will flag—

for under circumstances of this kind Worth-while service

cannot be given by those companies or stations which

have the ability, and facility to provide a real service,

because of this interference. This is a real danger, as

will probably be recognized this fall when receiving con-

ditions become better and hundreds of stations which

have been licensed grow more active.""Naturally, then, you must have some opinion in

regard to a way that radio broadcasting should be de-

veloped."To this, Mr. Davis replied, "I have. I have always

maintained that, like the telephone and the telegraph,

the service is inherently monopolistic in character, and

to get the best resulWthe bet IfRigrammes, the greatest

development, the activity should be confined to two or

three companies of established freperteeticrrtThliliig the

-neeestery facilities and Incentive to develbp it; that

they should ba under federal control and be allowed this

privilege as lphg as they hieve aCeptabie service."

"As you Meet to the largeinirnber fitations the

government has licensed, how many do you think suf-

ficient?"Mr. Davis answered that he believed five or six large,

powerful, well-located stations would be sufficient to

cover this continent: that these stations should have

separate NVIIVC bands, and that no other stations shouldbe licenSed that would in any way be capable of interfer-ing with the transmission from these large, powerfulstations. For local purposes th7re should be a networkof low powered local stations on non-Interfering wavebands. These stations should be capable of relaying thebig stations' services for their Immediate vicinity, andshould be able to furnish for their locality matters oflocal interest."Do you think, even with this programme, that the

few companies who would be given the broadcastingprivileges by thegovernment would guarantee perman-ency of service?""That is a hard question. to answer," Mr. Davis re-

plied, "but I think it quite probable they would. How-ever, at this period in broadcasting history it is difficultto foresee the future evolution and development. I be-lieve that if these central stations could be licensed,protected and organized, a great step forward would bemade, and that It would become a matter of such publicvalue that endowments or federal subsidies would bepossible which would assist those responsible for theservice to carry it on and to continue the developmentand research required to get the most value out of it."

Talking With 'PlanesWhile in Flight

(Continued From First Page-)

the 'plane and connected together by wires strappedalong the entering edge of the outer struts. The lead-in

wires were taken from the upper portion of the Loop

and run into the radio compartment, as indicated in Fig.1. The fore and aft coils can be wound in the fabricsupports of the fuselage and consisted of three turnson either side of same. The dimensions of each loop

were 30x4 feet.The tail coil used in connection with the development

on the twin-motored Martin 'plane is located at station

No. G, in the fuselage of the ship. (See Fig. 1.) Thisstation has dimensions 56x36 inches, 56 inches deep.

The coil is mounted so as to revolve on a shaft set in

bearings fixed to longerons. The coil itself measures 40

inches on a side, and is composed of twelve turns of

No. 22 double cotton-covered copper wire, spaced % inch

apart. The centre of the coil is located 144 inches from

the centre of the radio comp.'Iment, in which the trans-

mitting set, amplifier, and ba 9,eries are mounted.

The radio compartment menses 45x36x24 inches deep.

Attached to the shaft of the ra.r.co compass frame is a

10 inch scale, calibrated in degrees from zero to 360.

This indicator Is two inches above the turtle back and

Is readily visible from the compartment In which the

operator sits. The coil frame is revolved mechanically*

by a system of pulleys over which a Controlling wire is

run, -and anchored to both drums of the tail coil and

controlling wheel in the radio compartment.

(To Be Continued.)

reZ,

ICA1 MENIIMENT LA.- — -California is indeedbe served by such

tower generation corn-electric railway sys-

m a par with the bestd States," said H. D.,resident of the West-ctric & Manufacturingho. In company withaisn en official, are

es to Inspect the new• plant here.ire from the hazy cityh to your delightfulvliere electricity hasthe smokestack andcturing plants operat-'cad. is indeed an M-a pleasure.

ens outlook for 2523 faheight; especially- ishe Pacific Southwestbuilding program hasernutional attention.-, Angeles. Mr. Davis •

lie will hold a con- ,•K. E. VanKuran, din-(or Westinghouse.

vice president of thecharge of productionlg, stated that he was:sec] with the manu-sibillties of the Pa-Mr. Davis Is Inter-own an the "FatherIcasting," and has theplacing into operation7.ceesful broadcastingUnited Staten.

Tribtine,

Ofilatmd, Cal.

NOV. 12, 1922

INEMISEHEAD HERE TO

INSPECT SITE: Work ou New Emeryville

Plant to Begin Soon,I . Says Official

• I The Emeryville manufacturing

, site, which was purchased somemonths ago by the WestinghouseElectric and Manufacturing corn-

' patty, will soon accommodate aplant which will manufacture andassemble electrical machinery andradio apparatus.

,L• . e •2.40•1.11.11.1 ,•• VZillik.

H. P. Da,15, know n as the"lather of radiophone broadcast-ing," is here to inspect the site andto make immediate recommenda-tions for the erection of a plant,service department and assemblingn orbs. Davis is vice-President ofthe company and one of the fore-most electrical engineers in theUnited States.

According to Davis, the plantwhich the company intends to erectwilt emp:oy several thousand men.It will bo the third largest plantof this company on the Pacificcoast, the others being located atLos Angeles and Se4tt1e.Davis is. credited as being thefirst to visualize the idea of broad-casting music.al end professionalPrograms on regular schedules byradiophone. He was chief pro-motor of the first large stationof this kind. This elation Is nowknown as EDICA, a crill letterfamiliar to every radio fan in thecast.The equipment to be used in thenew building will be as up-to-dateand modern as it is possible tomake it. Electricity is to be em- -Played wherever it can be usedefficiently for the production oflight, heat, and poirwr:—The—elec-tricai equipment Is being designedspecially hi- the Westinghouse eh- 'gIneers themselves. Because ofthe peculiar advantage the en-gineers have In this case in 'tinning equipment for their ownplant, the announcement of the 'awaited with some Interest by localdetailed specitications is beingarchitects and engineers.Davin is accompanied by HenryD. Shute, also a vice-president and,ealesniatieger of the company. I •

u to Dlopata rSUnday, September 24, 1922.

aAio ja,c0Why Broadcasting Should

Be Continued by Radio phoiAN INTERVIEW WITH H. P. DAVIS, VICE PRESIDENT OF THE WEINGHOUSE EpECTRIC AND MANUFACTURING COMPANY, WHO IS TillORIGINATOR OF THE MODERN RADIOPHONE BROADCASTING

H. P. Davis, vice president of the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Compan:"You have asked me, 'why shouldradiophone broadcasting be continued?'1- cannot find any answer to that ques-tion, as it seems so perfectly obvious toone that radiophone brciadcasting hascome to stay. Instead of answering Iwould ask:

• "Who wants radio broadcastingstopped?"What canine *none to -want broad-casting stopped?"Ts the present broadcasting service un-satisfactory?"If it is unsatisfactory, this shouldnot hi a cause for discontinuing it, butrather a main for greater effort atimprovement."It WAS evident at once from his repliesthat H p Davis, vice president of theWestinghouse Electric and Manufactur-ing Company, bad been surprised thatanyone should ask such a question. Andlittle wonder, for the Man who was re-sponsible for organizing the fret radio-phone broadcasting 'Wien in the world—this poineer station being EDKAat East Pittsburg--,-and the installing ofthree other stations (EYW at Chicago,DI, WIZ at Newark, X J, and WBZ atSpringfield, Maas, has been closely idtouch with radio for the past two sadahalf years and had evidently detected nodemand from the public for cessation ofradiophone broadcaiiting activities.Mr Davis called to the interviewer'sattention the wonddrful and phenomenalspread of popular iferest in radiophonebroadcasting, and ated that he be-lieved that this inte est was not waning,but was increasing.

Public Necessityaskedswhyredispbons

•

broedeuting should, be continued," saidMr Davis. "PerhapsI can answer yourquestion beet by saying that I can tellyou many reasoner why radiophone broad-casting should not be stopped."The interviewer assured Mr Davis thatthere was no real obiection to the radio-phone, and so far as hr knew there wasno reason why it should not be con-tinued.- T.-hie-was in-answer to Mr DIM.'first question in reply."Broadcasting." he continued, ”bas be-copse a public neceseity and is rapidlylining itself up with other utilities, suchas the telephone, telegraph, electriclight, moving picture., etc, and just asthese activities were crude in their be-ginnings but later refined to present-dayconditions, so, in the tarn& way, willradiophone broadcasting be developedand will cover and maks available to allwithin hearing range, all worth-whileactivities of general interest to the pub-When Mr Davis was asked if presentconditions under which radiophonebroadcasting was done; wherein a frt.,service was given, wonld be continued,he stated in reply that a- service-of thischaracter offered auch benefita to man-kind in gengral,"that way would be foundfor its continuance:

. Audience of Million"Why," he said, "coaster the effectof discontinuing operations, at our fourstations! We believe thaNts combinedaudience of our four broadcasting sta-tions is at least a ̀million every nightin the week. This estimate is based onthe number of radio receiver, whichhave been sold in the territories coveredby these statiens, _What. -would Sr. the,,featrit If all broadcasting stations stoppedonnddenly, with ar.without warping, en-tertaining and informing this vast audi-ence? The effect no,-; this radio audi-ence would be about the same as wouldoccur if we took aveay some one or moreof the utilities already referred to, suches the electric light, or the telephone—and we might go even further and saythat it Might be the same as stopping

pattilig.oft of asonisersoleta'_and romanusi-nations. •:-Tim iffec.t probebly right nowwould .stat he so Yds.l as it will be laves:,as tile service hapzima mad grvirs—as itIs bound to do.' • •

verahl happen if this' co-* I!. was asked of Mr Davis_ •'kyonfloWai.UtIsus - do u said,there would. be a pullie Aliment.tbOk Would. imicitfi bring some sOuticenoft ,Sinbegr 1440.4 -ft"4"` 4o•nethecvbr bowecer, that tide can haai.thars is euough COnaffierCial pocaibiiiugNO4 ja} tbe business-to nuke itwettla whfig for those companieethat canbetat Irons it. 'to continue the serriol."

•Licensing - Applicants • ,•!'whit Is ring to UPffleti." Mr Daviewas isked,. the rederel..GoveknnentocudIrinesb'cLpreient policy* of indiscrim-inate], • elk app.licanta :to broad.'atilt" '' "Now," sakt Ist*atonFlied'en the real, vital ' point, /t isMy. opinion that the public Is not goingto'atey interested In, nor win it supportin •ictIvIty which dare not, at least 0,projiMate a. reel and satisfactory service,When it becianaa'possibla, as it is no*,

fc'reMO't with • iwoidoSiwiwt set; PIAbator indifferent, to claim eyeca in the

ether and to force themselves sparlistening public, without furniiquality or a .program of interestpublic le going to become disgustedas a result interest will fag—for ucircumstances of this kind wortlovservice evanot be given by thosepanics or .stations who have the aband facility to provide a real ser ,because of 'this interference. This 'real danger, as will probehly be renixed this fall when receiving coedit'become better and hundreda of statwhich have been Incensed grow more .1tive.""Naturally, then, you must have aopinion in regard to a way that rt ;broadcasting should be developed."To this; Mr Davis replied, "I havehate always maintained that, liketelephone and the telegraph, the ser,is inherently monopolistic in chant,'and to get the beat results, the beet ;grams, the greatest development, thetivity ahould be confined to two or thcompanies of established reputation,leg the necessary facilities and ineentto develop It.„- that they should be urnFederal control and be allowed thi• prilege a. long as they have acceptalservice."

• "As you, object to the large pumberstations the Government had lice.,bow many do you think sufficient?"

Goverin9 ContinentMr Davis 4.(wered that he belies.five or six large, powerful, well lorstaMtione would be sufficient to cover ticontioent; that these stations shoehave separate wave bands, and thatother station. should be licensed thwould in any way be capable of interfeint.: with the transmission from thelarge powerful stations. For local puposes there should be a network of onpowered local stations on non-interferioways hands. These stations should tcapable of relaying the big stations' serices for their immediate vicinity, enshould be able to furnish for their Incaity mattere of local interest."Do ',on think, even with this pre'gram, that the few companies who wont,be even the broadcasasigglessi

1'1'441, pesnencl of rebirweit'v . • '

Mr nine think. Qprobable they Would: Weyer, ss

. "Mat,. ja a hard .,,sx,Lperiod in: breadmortilig *story It iseult'te• formes- the futone'. evolution

lielisse,thet if dein' oentraa Stamm could _be laceowiel, protectedand orgaziksod,, arat step f.would he Rsele.and tiit:roeIdMetter of. inwh,dssi , ths±,-,011-ilwooleOle . .41:44nel ‘r,M.WO •be'blh for tug mem .14 earMit enAC4contisina the developusinis end rase

ged the Mort valua,ont cd it.fb9ot.:,41,••Viestpdbonae.Co

Ip Iseestk4 Ott, rfor the Waletinglingsa.. companyIt will not shat is woselehsle• Nevi**. Werealise thi,,gicad. yaks orrthe--erroupod willtztlhe WWe electrical hadastry

Irlg we e4latintZ frets rsdu,,breealesattsea

we bkfe w44.-Ftokes.-Eol setsinitiation se tag our abase in the Perket1and..d•VoicosInief.tkie-AnOrtentlie service. •Re you, eee.giat't,ngwoto rens= why, we 'should Opp] aleas there it a;servIceota' the puTsliele-befulElled."_eapop 30toitrilli,Cdoo Lq papasold aq Amu pipmetu sup min mou aniaid •uo!ssiuuxl Loom M isiiqnd JO •panioi-or 'mossq sou Actss pug Aluo asn pniossad JOJ l! Ada. sinu. '41,1wisilid 37, Alitiamun 'sittra3 =lams sasitimV .1-1) ul 15.!81.10 Lai woks saidoD

E 'BULLETIN: SAN FRANCISCO, MONDAY, NOVEMBER 13, 1921,

PLA\ ROO PLANT Father of Radio

FOB EMEHYVILE11

H. P. Davis. credited withfirst conceiving' large radio.broadcasting stations in theEast. a

I la rry Phillips Davis, known as 1 L-------------------1_.the "Father of Radiophone Broad- , ,„........_m.„,,,,:lr-___.

1 casting," in company V.'t th Henry 1). : ... •

I Shute, vice-president in charge of !, sales for the Westinghouse Elec.- .

1 trie nad Ma»afacturing Company,'arc in Sati Francisco to inspee:- the ;factory site in Emeryville on which:the conuiany soon will (woe:. its inew plant. They arc at the PalaceHotel.

.Davis has been credited with the:

- first conception of the Eastern sys- i- Cern or large iudiophone hcoacie,st-

ing stations, such as those at 'Pitts- .burg. Chicago. Newark and Spring-field. He also ,•isnalized the broad-easti ng of program ••ti regular Isc:hedules, and was the chief pro-moter of 1 he first la rge station op-erated under this system.The Westinghouse Company is

planning to erect. one, of the largestplants around the hay at its Em-eryville site, and will maintain alarge service department. muchlarger warehouse facilities th aa arenow in use, and manufacturing andassembling machinery which willsupply em pit mien: for severalthousand pers,,ns.Davls and Shute, because of their

respeative positions, are both par-• titularly . interested in the new

I

, eral management of their company,

iJlant. , On their i.eturn to Pittsburgi they will make a report to the gen-

. after which the work on the Fialai . will Ortnnence as soon as possible,

g-4ill11110 PIONEEROF BST INS.,•

Harry Phillips Davis, vice presi-dent of the Westinghouse Electricand IV1anufactur-in gl Company,who said to bethe f rst one tostart Iradiophonebroadeesting ona nightly sched-ule, is payingSan 'Francisco avisit. ,He is stop-ping at the Pal-ace Hotel and isaccompanied byHenry D:,Shute,vice president -incharge of thesales of the com-

1111111111111111111=11111E1=pany. 111 seDavis, known r H. P. DAVIS I

as "the father of +----%-- + II radio broadcasting" is a pioneer inI the electrical industry, having beenI engaged in it since his college days.' Davis and Shute are here for afew clays on an inspection tour Whichin: udes the factory site at Emery-ville, where their company is soonto erect a new plant.Davis' idea of radio broadcasting

Is said to have come from an adver- Major E. H. Armstrong, inventor of the rengineer, and others.

; .4A-ernm,:sraivtttvne

circuits,; e regenerativetc and super-re-! The inspection trip of KDKA was held

tisement which he .read in a Pitts- generative E. E. ;3ucher, man- yesterday afternoon. Last night the• burgh newspaper. A department a" •r of sales for the Radio Corporation men were guests of H. P. Davis atstore was advertising that it would

broadcast the music from phono-

graph records, and immediately Da•

ii

. Lo-12. -1c,

'PIONEER BROADCASTUCall and ?o.-Sari Francisco, Cal. PRAISERS WOR1

13, )922.

CONTINUED. Vice-President Davis of Westing

PROSPERITY house Co. Has Little Faith in

Commercial Future of Radio.PREDICTED,Westinghouse Officials onl,Visit Here Astonished atActivity on Coast

Arriving in Los Angeles thin,morning, Vice-President H. D.!Shute, and IT. P. Davis of the ex-ecutive staff, Westinghouse Electric]and Manufacturing Company, Pitts-burg, went immediately to the new

, Westinghouse Building for a con-! ference with K. E. VanKuran, dis-trict manager, and an inspection of

i the new headquarters of the West-1 inghouse Company for the Pacific4 Southwest. Mr. Shute expressed!astonishment of the industrial ad-vancement of the Pacific Coast."The business outlook for 1933 is

I exceptionally bright. especially isi this so for the Pacific Southwest,, where your building program has,been at such a rate as to attract ,

, internatIons.1, attention." he said. .' "Southern. California im indeedfortunate to be serve:day

ri such 00-

gressive power ge ,. com-panies

vexpanies an an eleeti, s,' way sys-10tem that is on pair 114 the best

, in the • United States, A great1. deal of credit is due-lo the ,

far-seeing officials of these. snsblic.

The radio is essentially a deviefor amusement and information (.the peot*. and of no great commercial vaAe, such as the teapsferprivate messages, est.id Davita. vice president of the WeetinghousElectric and Manufacturing Co.. anone of the pioneers in broadeastindevelopment in America. when :St. Louis Thursday With H. !Shutel another vice president ofcompany, en route to Pittsburg al :?an inspection trip to the Pack;Coast.

Davis was in charge of the 'estiktlishment and management of tliWestinghouse broadcasting statiolK D K A, in Pittsburg, the pione.Estation in introducing nightly pt.@grams. ,

Enthusiastic comment was ma.by Davis on' the Post-DispatchLion. K S D. He spoke of its pos4and clarity,' saying he oftenheard its programs on the 1,,speaker at the Pittsburg stations. Nespecially stressed the efficient sAflouncing of sta.tiofi-I-71S

Doubts Corrunerci 1 Future. §"I do not believe thire is any soli

mercial future for the radio,"'Dasaid, "except in the manufaciiire atsale eft the necessary instrument;The r,l

--

io is for-the transmission Rutilities who have anti cipsttedi the x

news. 'hit b,-You want to tell tlitmighty growI:h of the West. PI world about, and not for private a tjtkept growth its ever-increasingz7.: confidential cornmunication. ABtrans ortatton " Other difficulty to be met withmends for power, light, heat çiMr. Davis. in charge of produc.•-

tion and engineering for. the West-inghouse interests, stated that he'Was deeply impressed with themanufacturing poesibilities of thePacific Coast. Mr. Davis, who ispopularly known as "The Father ofthe Radio Broadcasting Station,"*ill speak. tonight . on the "Future

4 .of Radio" front The Times' broad-casting station.

— -0

.ado Notabies inaxe'flisp e tio rt, Tour if

estirL ouse':' Stu loSpat Concert Given

KDKA as TestFor Visitors.

ARE GUESTSOF OFFICIAL

A. Stine of the General Electpany, and Dr. A. Goldsmith, d br ofresearch for the Radio Corp on.These men were guvrag P.

Davis, vice President of the.house Electric Company, himself recog-nized as the "father of broadcasting."They came to Pittsburgh yesterday toinspect Station KDKA and left for New'York last night without tusking anycomment on the future of radio broad-casting.Other Westinghouse officials who were

Station KDKA, the pioneer broadcast- in eonference with the .:olio generalsInc station of the world. Was visited were S. M. Kintner, manaeer of theand inspected yesterday by more radio research laboratory; L. ‘s, Chubb, man-notables than ever have visited 'Pitts- ager of the radio engineering depart-hergli before. The group included: , meat: Frank Conrad, assistant chief

of America: David Sarnoff, vice weal- his home in 1917 , Wallingford street,dent and general manager of the Radio East End. A special radfo concert wasCorporation: A. Van Dyke, Radio Cor- broadcast from KDKA. in honor of thePoration: E. E. Mallory. manager of guests and partly to test the expert-

personal transnlission is the confli,of the wave legis."I realize that several .invertto6

are experimenting with instrumeligwhich whith they hope to nuike,Adio messats secret. But if .•*.itfitwere disc vered. it probably, woueit,not be lo pig before some othergenious erson found a means ̀ 1which th secret message could alnterceptl."No. I elieve the radio'', futue.

lies in th dispersing of news °the broadcasting of amusement fet,:

gions, the northwest and the :gout?

.ersets.. It shOuld be a great .meditg)of public en menjoyt. especiallypersons living in sparsely settled 1*

Advantage Not Taken by All. c"Many of them have not yet tai4

en advantage of radio. chiefly ITcause no great initiative has Leardisplayed by the dealers of instaments in those places. Any manhave .purchased poor itietrument!which have caused people to los1cctoennfe yidence in broadcasting effl

"Much is yet to be accomplishein both broadcasting and receivingI hardly would dare to prophesy tlifinal attainments which may he

'1'pected."Davis does not belieee that a

many broadcasting stations as avnow in operation will be maintainedbecause of the great cost. Howes-ellie think:, such a decreaseoffset by an increasing demand. Thcolleges and technical institutionare showing much interest iii i.adidevelopment. Davis says. and whilnone of them has established coursein radio engineering', the subject i

LO\Y)

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RADIO WOES

ENDED BY RA-,

DIO FATHER'S

BROADCAST-

ING PLAN

H. P. Davis, Vice President, Westinghouse Com-pany Suggests National Commission To ControlBroadcasting

With the idea in view of greatly expanding theusefulness of radio telephone broadcasting, H. P.Davis, Vice President of the Westinghouse Electric.and Manufacturing Company, nationally known as

the "Father of Broadcasting", has suggested a plan

for the establishment of a national broadcastingservice.Mr. Davis thinks that a regulating body should

be formed to control broadcasting. In an inter-_ .view, he raid: "On the assumption that broadcast- ,ing, if not already so, will soon develop into a stable,public utility, where the public interest would be-come paramount, it would appear to us as thoughthe regulating machinery should follow the patternthat. hag' been worked out with other utilities—namely, the establishing of a Public Service Com-mission which, in the case of radio, would be an .Interstate Radio Commission, and, therefore, a Fed-eral Commission created by Presidential appoint-ment.

H. P. DAVIS

"This Commission should be vested with fullpower and authority to make regulations.tand en-force same to the full extent of existing laws:

"All requests for licenses should come to.and be

approved by this body, and when an application for

a license is approved and the license given, it shouldtake on the nature of a franchise which should , be

enjoyed by the owner so long as he gives the ser-

vice required. This is important, because a largeinvestment is necessary and in order to encouragethe making of the instrument and protecting it

afterwards the owner so long as he follows the re -ulations of this Conunission will have assurance fa definite tenure in his ownership."

S 171.AVQ)---

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labruary 15, 1923

he Post Blazes WayIn Newspaper Radio

Service, Says DavisWestinghouse OfficialSees Great Future

For Studio.

LINKS ARTISTSTO AUDIENCES

The pioneering of The Pittsburgh Pest

In the 110 Of radio broadc.astfng

news wits' der&ibed by .one of the nein

who Made rkdics H. P. • Davila, vide

president of:S e Weltinghouse Electric

aria ManafiuS Uritua company,. speaking

over the ISfi. laktaight from the new

Pittsburgh. Oillifo of the KDSCA.

Mr. DvjL i1ss was in connection

with • the •eltharate opehing program

broadcast las ti -night from the new Post

Studio. Mr. Davis said: • 4It gives me great pleasure to great

the vast radio audience of KDKA

and speak at the opening of this

splendid new Pittsburgh Post-Went-

ingnouse studio, and again I am res

minded of tne great progress made

in radio during the past three years

since public broadcasting began.Here I On standing in a beauti-

fully farni4hed new studio, *hitchcontains esery latest appointment

that we know of to make more per-fect broadcasting. •There are heavy carpet!' On the

floor, and the walls are covered withslunk cloth to absorb vibration andprevent echoes. An expensive pianostands at iny left- In front of me isa microphone of the latest design.Which, by the way, is different fromany other, pick-tip ' or microphoneused for broadcasting.The reception room just outside

the studio its a gem, and the wallsare decorated with photographs ofwellalcnowu people, all of whom havespoken to or entertained the radioaudience from The Pittsburgh Poststud.° at ohe time or ainothen duringthe past year.This new studio has ,cost The

Pittsburgh 'Post thousands of dol-lars. The officials of The PittsburghPost have ,consulted the best talentavailable and undertaken consider-able research to determine the .oest shind of studio to install. Atter find-ing out what was needed, more diffi-culties ,were encountered—but suc-eesafttily solved—in Obtaining theneceaaary space for building such alarge studio.yes, The Pittsburgh Post has done

its hest to please. But to pleasewhom? Why, the radio listener—

commonly ; termed the invisible audI-ence—something that was unknownless than three years ago, when the

Westlaghotase sElentrie and !Manu-

facturing .Company' started KISKA.

the arst broadcasting station iu the

world to transmit radio telephone

orograms on a daily schedule.

This audience has grown and

grown from a mere handful of peo-

ple from that time to thousands of

People, scattered over a vast area.

at the present time. Every night

there are million listenaig to radio

!P1 °grains, and of this numaer a

goonly percentage are Masques not

way to radio vrograris in their im-

siediate vicinity, but alto to pro-

grams broadea.st from points hun-

dreds of nii.es away.It can easily be see', :hal an audi-

ence which can hear a concert in

Pittsburgh, New York.. Chicago or

, Cuba, just as fancy wills, in ft short

time will be satisfied to listen to

those etations only which 1it.P6ent

the hest talent available, and broad-

..,..i • heir entertainments in the

the best way, that organizations.like the Westinghouse Electric and

SaanufacturIng Company and others

are spending thousands of dollars

monthly in research, broadtast.ng

equipment, studios, and other things

Incidental to broadcasting.It is for this same reason that the

Pittsbargh Post has disca.rded its

.o:d studio and has constructed andequipped this magnificent room.When speaking of the origin, of

broadcasting, it must be remembered

that the Pittsburgh Post has beena pioneer. Its early wont did much

to enlist the public interest, and it

holds a number of records. For in-stance, the Pittsburgh Post was thefirst newspaper in the word to pr:ntdaily broadcasting •schedules. WhenKDKA was first put into operation

and an effort was made to gel news-

PaPer publicity for the broadcastingprograms:. the Pittsburgh Post wasthe first newspaper to respond and

to print this service.The Managing editor tells me that

he was only living up to his news-.

PaPer's slogan when he printed theseschedules—but whatever the reaslon,

the fact remains that it was The

Pittsburgh Post which did it first.It is estimated that now two-thirds

of the daily newspapers in the United

States are printing daily radio pro-grams, and this number—as large asit is—is still growing. Fallowing theInserting of the programs and not-.Ing the growth of broadcasting pop-ularity, the management .of ThePittsburgh Post planned and studiedways to assist in .the KDKA pro-grams.To that end, a studio. was Inetalled

on the fourth floor of its buildingIn downtown Pittsburgh, and con-nected directly by telephone linewith KDKA at East Pittsburgh—about 12 miles away. This downtownstudio was an ideal place for, thebroadcasting of prominent people inthe theatrical or social world, andgreatly enlarged the scope ofKDKA' s programs.It enables the broadcasting offi-

cials of I.ZDKA to book many artistsor speakers who otherwise wouldnot have been heard from the sta-tion because the time et their com-mand would not permit a trip toEast Pittsburgh and return beforethe evening's engagement.-The Pittsburgh Post studio proved tobe very popular and successful. Fromthis studio such well-known figures inpublic life as Governor Plnebot, SenatorGeorge Wharton Pester,. CongressmanM. Clyde Kelly, Otis Skinner, Robert.Mantel!, David Wark Griffith, Lilian'Gish and a host of 'others, were heard.The , Plttshurgh Post studio thus

served as a link between professionalartists and others promhient In publiclife and the audio audience.Now, because of changes and improve-

ments such as the march of time de-mands, the original studio was fundto be too small, and with eharacterieticenterprise the Pittsburgh Post, discardedit and has provided this wonderful newstudio and equipment.Thus the new-sttidie came to be, aud

I can assure my !ieerare tonight thatfrom it there will he aroadcast an evenlarger number of eweAts than has been.done in the pasts Radio broadcasting isa seioniss in which Only ihe swift i'ft71

survive the race. In notifies else s.iithe march of time be so ruthless •othose who cannot ktep up. lle.rdiY aday goes by but whet some eew apse-ance is perfecitd, which iminediateiyputs into the issmrtt some exatting ap-paratus.Hawaser. have, no fear seat the Pitts-

burgh Post will nrei Iho pace too !mitt.for it has shown in tne east that it

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THE PITTSBURGH SUNDAY POST, JUNE 3, 1923.

ehives Service Center,.*tersity of Pittsburgh. This copy is for personal tile only and may not beouI permission. P otiThatihi matoill May be orninctia b5, copyright (Title 1'7, US. Code.)

Ntavra-Tribune,

Pa.

CA vary- Church Tolet -Tonight, Given Byseen adio C i ngrei ationge.v eywityJ.VAN TT.N 44,

•

April 5, 1923

. RADIO WOES WOULD BE, ENDED BY PLAN OF DAVIS

1 With the idea in view of greatly ex-panding the usefulness of radio tele-phone broadcasting, H. P. Davis, vicepresident of the Westinghouse Elec-tric & Manufacturing Company, na-tionally known as the "Father. of

1: Broadcasting", has suggested a °planfor the establishment of a nationalbroadcasting service.Mr. Davis thinks that a regulating

body should be formed to controlbroadcasting. In an interview, hesaid: "On the assumption that broad-casting, if not already so, will soondevelop into a stable public utility,where the public interest would, be-come paramount, it would appear to

Father of Radio Broadcasting Sug-gests Formation of National

Commission

t:

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CALVARY PI5CQPSAL CHURCH •—

Fund Cointributed_ byWireless 'Service

Listeners-11n.Episeopal churches all over the coun-

try will make the announcement todaythat a bronze tablet. probably the mostunusual in the world, contributed byand dedicated to the unseen radio con-gregation of Calvary Church. will beunveiled during the church. services to-night.Rev. Edwin J. Van Etten. pastor.who was the first minister In the worldto have his services broadeasted:Bishop Alexander Mann of the Pitts-burgh Episcopal diocese; If. P. Davis,

"father of ,radio broadcasting," repre-senting Station KDIC& of' the Westing-house Company, which station firstbroadcast the church services, andother prominent Pittsburghers willtake part In the ceremony.More than 4.700 persons. represent-ing 40 states nt th# 'Union, five prov-inces of tanacia: Cuba and Rermudit.

London. England. even sailors fromships sailing the Atlantic ocean, con-tributed to the purchase of the tablet.The contributions came in every formof legal tender—silver dimes, stamps,nickles, pennies and checks. Therewere a surprising number of Canactiandimes. A worker in the southern cot-ton mill sent Dr. Van Etten two cot-ton socks with a nickel in each toe. Asailor front a boat on The Atlantic sentthe, minister 120 pennies he had wonPlaying penny ante.

. Response Instantaneous.•These contributions came as a result

of Rev. Van Etten's idea Visit-hie radio7 congregation, to which he had been

,re,!tching. since January 2, 1921. might

: . •

like to contribute to sonic fort of me-anorial. Accordingly, during the read-tog of 'his regular church announce-ments, Dr. Van Etten addressed, 'Al-re'qly, his unseen hearers and toldthem of a plan to have groat contribu-tions. from such of them as might liketo participate. The sum obtained fromthe contributions was to be used fora memorial dedicated to them.Responses to this idea were •almcifitinstantaneous. An hour after the In:nouncement was broadcast contrlbu.tions were received from' residents ofPittsburgh. People living in the dis-trict even walked to the minister'shome a few minutes after they hadbeard his voice by radio And left theircontributions, even as he Was preac.11-ina by radio.The first announcement was sent outinto the ether one Sundat last Pebru-ary and contributions have been corn-ing into Calvary Church ever since. Theamount obtained, all of It in small con-tributions has been enough to purehasea beautiful bronze memorial' tablet_

• —_ _Was Pioneer Sf_ _The tablet is .30x24 inches iti•-wis •it is a relief map of the territory where

Calvary Church has been heard andthis includes all of the United Statesand a considerable surrounding terri-tory in Canada, Mexico and the oceans.The map Is cries-crossed by jagged1Mes, indicative of radio waves, ema-nating from the radio station at EastPittsburgh, where the church servicesgo out into the air. On the tablet isthe following inscription which un-doubtedly will be read with great 'in-terest in the years to come: "Ja.puary2. 1921, from Calvary Church; a churchservice was broadcast by radio tele-phone by the Westinghouse Electricand Manufacturing Company. This tab-let was placed in 1923 by the' unseencongregation."

In those early days of, radio, as in-dicated by the date on the tablet, ittook a pioneer 16 every sense of theword to agree to' have IIe church serv-ices broadcast, by radio telephone. Ittook a pioneer, churhtnan ag4 apioneer station to do It.' Station KDKAwas the broadcasting pioneer. CalvaryChurch was the religious pioneer andRev. Van Etten the ministerial pioneer.All these factors in the first churchbroadcasting are now seeing the daywhen tbere are many, many churchesbroadcasting services end hundreds of t'radio telephones stations to broadcast''them. In 1921 there were perhaps fiveOr six stations and only one church. ;Rev. Van Etter:. who has preached t

nearly every Sunday to his radio con- 1gregation since his first se:mon in 1921, ;Is of the opinion that the possibilities r Ifor the clergy in doing good work areendless.

- Boon to Church."Mission churches without E

may have religious services."Etten points out. "Hospita

— been equipped. Our paris-eganiseC • vi1reles7eieveral receiving sets. The

home hears our services throtof them. Two invalids of the paenjoying the use of two otherside our own parish family gr.over the country gather around-thebrary table for a new manner of Sun-day evening worship. • Thousands andthousands of people can have churchservices now who never have'had theopportunity befort. I feel that radiois a wonderful boon to the work ofthe church. Like the men who sent thefirst cable message across the ocean weshould 'exclaim reverefitly of radio'What Bath God Wrought.'"The .entire services, including the

dedicalort address as well as the Cal-vary Church services, will be broLdcastby Station KnK.A_

H."13. Davis

us as though the regulating machineryshould follow the pattern that hasbeen worked out with other utilities—namely, the .establishing of a PublicService Commission which, in the caseof radio, would be an Interstate RadioCommission, and, therefore, a Fed-eral Commission created by Presi-dential appointment."This Commission should be vested

with full power and authority to makeregulations and enforce same to thefull extent of existing laws."All requests for -licenses should

come to and be approved by this body,and when an applicatia for a licenseis approved and the license given, itshould take on the nature of a fran-chise which should be enjoyed by theowner so long as he gives the servicerequired. This is important, becausea large investment is necessary and inorder to encourage the making of theinstrument and protecting it after-wards the owner so long as he fol-lows the regulations of this Corn-

: ',mission will have assurance of a df-mite tenure in his ownership."' -•

a

•

-r

---------------

The Broadcast Pioneers Library is pleased to an-

nounce that we have changed our name to the

Broadcast Pioneers Library of American Broadcasting.

The Library's goals remain the same: we are com-

mitted to preserving the work of past, present, and

future broadcasters, while providing valuable re-

search services for people working in the industry

today.

The Broadcast Pioneers Library of American

Broadcasting is a wide-ranging collection of

audio/video recordings, books, pamphlets, periodi-

cals, personal collections, photographs, scripts, and

vertical files devoted exclusively to the history of

broadcasting.

The mission of the Library is preservation and

access. The pace of history seems to quicken with

each passing year. Material a scant twenty years old

represents a bygone age in the rapidly changing

world of broadcast communication. New technology

and new formats replace the old, and with the

future constantly becoming the present, there seems

little time available to dwell on what is past.

Our staff makes the time. This Library strives to

serve as part of a "collective memory" for an in-

dustry whose very nature is ephemeral. Much of the

history of the broadcasting industry has been pre-

served, but much work remains to be done. The

safekeeping of the documentary evidence of the

most influential cultural force of the twentieth cen-

tury is a job worth doing, and at the Broadcast

Pioneers Library of American Broadcasting there are

trained and dedicated individuals who wish to help

in that task.

The Library's extensive book collection numbers

over 3000 volumes that include histories of the

industry and individual stations, biographies of

broadcasting no-

tables, engineering

texts, and classic

children's series like

the Radio Boys. Of

particular interest

are books published

in the 1920s and

1930s that trace the

evolution of broad-

casting from its

earliest days.

Over 260 period-

ical titles, including

many that are dif-

ficult to find, are

available at the Library. Among these are runs of

Broadcast Weekly (1930-1936), the Heinl Radio Business

Letter (1930-1950), Radio and Television News (1919-

1958), Radio Guide (1931-1943), Ross Reports/Television

Index (1949-present), Sponsor (1946-1964), and Wireless

Age (1913-1925).

The pamphlet hold-

ings are quite exten-

sive with over 3000

titles, ranging from

1920s vintage Bell

Laboratories radio

engineering bulletinsto promotional mat-

erials and internal

studies generated by

the broadcast net-

works. The Library

also has an impressive

RED CHANNELS 1 950 array of government

documents, including

the Navigation Bureau List of Radio Stations (1913-

1927), FRC/FCC decisions, and Congressional reports

and hearings.

modern 2„

IN HollywoodDoomed?

MODERN TELEVISION & RADIO, JANUARY 1949

Red &dome&T. 16,0•161

CIINENL7,09T INFLUENCE DI 10 AND =MON

COUNTERATTACKTHE NT1131.SITIM Of fACT 11 TO COMBAT COKYL.7001

33 WAN 42 Stn., New York IL, MY.

113 OM

BONANZA, NBC (1959-1971)

The Library of American Broadcasting's photo-

graph collection contains over 25,000 photos,

slides, and negatives dating from the 1920s to the

present. This component is one of the most histori-

cally significant elements of the Library, for it offers

the researcher a pictorial history of the evolution of

broadcasting in the United States. The images

illustrate a wide variety of subjects, including the

people in broadcasting; radio and television pro-

grams; the studios, facilities and community activi-

ties of local stations; and other organizations related

to broadcasting.Photographs are a particularly important tool in

the study of the history of radio broadcasting. Since

radio is a medium of sounds, not images, photo-

graphs provide a necessary visual resource. How-

ever, these images illustrate more than just the

history of broadcasting; they also document manyof the histor-ical eventsthat haveshapedtwentiethcenturyAmericanculture.

GRAHAM MCNAMEE INTERVIEWS BABE RUTH

Caudio collections

The Library's audio holdings chronicle a wide

array of broadcasting activity, including adver-

tising, programming, newsgathering, and the per-

sonal recollections of hundreds of broadcasters. Thelargest element of thiscomponent is theRadio AdvertisingBureau Collection,over 2000 discs con-taining radio commer-cials for productsrepresenting the en-tire scope of American

industry in the 1950sand 1960s. Illustratingthe work of dozens ofadvertising agencies,

the discs are sorted

into product cate-

gories ranging from Airlines to Wine. Items of

special interest include commercials written by and

featuring Stan Freberg and some Piers Beer adver-

tisements with comedians Bob and Ray.

The "Standard Program Library" Subscription

Service consists of 450 discs sent to subscribing radio

stations regularly as supplemental programming in

the 1940s and 1950s. The emphasis is on musicalselections, including performances from

Bing Crosby, Doris Day, and Tommy Dor-sey. The World BroadcastingSystem collection consistsprimarily of 225 transcribed

musical programs datingfrom the early 1930s,including a run of theRubinoff s Musical Momentsprogram featuring the

famous violinist.

Other interesting re-

corded discs include 56 World War II era V-Discs,

ten BBC glass discs featuring Glenn Miller andDinah Shore from August 1944, a complete set of

TIIR Friars Eluh

presents

Thu LUCILLE BALL and BENI Ann

many

Ari•

Testimonial Dinner

BERT AND HARRY PIEL

original pressings of early transatlantic broadcasts

from 1925 and 1926, and "NBC Stands By," a D-Day

coverage test/

preview recording

from May 1944.

The collection

includes several

examples of

syndicatedprogramming as

well, including

episodes of TheCliff /Ukulele Ike'Edwards Show,

Joseph Cotton &

Co., Columbia

Workshop, and a

special 3 disc set

of the Jack Frost Sugar program, a musical review

series from 1934.

LOWELL THOMAS

The Library maintains

the Westinghouse News

Collection (1958-1982),2300 audiotape reelsconsisting mainly of raw

feeds from its Wash-

ington bureau with

particular emphasis on

Vietnam War

coverage and

the Watergate

imbroglio. The

Library also

has nearly

1000 oral his-

tories, inter-

views, and

speeches (most

of which aretranscribed) by such notables as Norman Corwin,

Edgar Bergen, Niles Trammell, Frank E. Mullen,

Rose! H. Hyde, and Leonard H. Goldenson.

Th. Wm. Schludarbary•T. J. /Curdle Company

• • ,•“•nts

Those Rare Eukay Commercialsmoll dose

A I by;.• (1,1,:, rnaz Ltd.

1 4nSant. Dinadelo It Co..

C lands 1-4 • ono min.+,

I.41.1.1 • Mumma Carrenefteml h wet• WOWS., WOW..

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tiaks• limad, .1E4O.. DI .1

C.WWW.W OW. CWWW.W.MI/WI • COWAN. ae/ Niedm dr, ow

MP.

scripts

The Library of American Broadcasting has over

1300 scripts from various radio and television

programs, including The Stebbins Boys (1931-1932), Sky

King (1947-1950), Ford Television Theater (1948-1949),

and a complete, hand-annotated run of Your Show of

Shows(1950-1954).

The Wis-

dom col-

lection

(1952-1959)

chronicles

every as-

pect of this

NBC public

affairs pro-

gram, in-

DU/-/Y3 TAVERN, (....13.S AND NEK. ( 1'7'4 1 - 1 95 i)- - cluding

scripts, photographs, promotions, and background

research material.

j

vertical files

The Library has extensive clipping files on a vast

array of broadcasting topics, including bio-

graphical, subject, and genre files. Of particular in-

terest are materials from individual stations around

the United States. There are over one million items

in this component.

NBC RATE CARD, JULY, 1935

J

1

VOX POP COLLECTION

V-ox Pop (1932-1948) was the first "man on the

street" interview show. The program's host

was also its creator, a salesman named Parks John-

son. After a three year run on a Houston radio

VOX POPKENTUCKY CLUB

e;FE

HERE TONIGHT -0,00

•

RADIO CITY BROADCAST, OCTOBER 1, 1938

station, the program went national from New York

on NBC in July 1935.

Vox Pop hit the road in 1939, eventually broad-

casting from practically every state in the Union. In

1940, at the request of the War Department, John-

son and his crew began 230 consecutive weeks of

programs

originating

from mili-

tary instal-

lations.

From 1940

to 1946 the

show never

went on hia-

tus, travel-

ing the

country in

an effort to boost troop and home front morale.

The Vox Pop collection includes contracts, letters,

photographs, scrapbooks, artifacts, and thousands

of questions used on the show as well as trans-

cription discs of the program.

VOX POP IN SAN ANTONIO, APRIL 22, 1947

THE HELEN J. SIOUSSAT COLLECTION

Helen J. Sioussat was the director of the Talks

Department at CBS from 1937 to 1958, and

was responsible for arranging the network's public

affairs programming. In this capacity she scheduled

broadcasts by an incredible array of speakers on

topics ofcurrent inter-

est as well asformulating

policy for all

CBS publicservice pro-grams. In 1941

she created,produced, andhosted one of

HELEN SIOUSSAT WITH VICE PRESIDENT RICHARD NIXON

the first

roundtable discussion programs on television, Table

Talk with Helen Sioussat, and in 1945 led the CBS

delegation to the San Francisco Conference that her-

alded the formation of the United Nations. Ms.

Sioussat was promoted to the Executive Offices of

CBS in Washington in 1958, where she served pri-

marily as a liaison between the network, Congress,

and federal agencies until her retirement in 1962.

The Sioussat collection contains a range of ma-

terial from every aspect of her remarkable career.

Included are scripts,memoranda, nearly

150 broadcast-related books, press

releases, scrap-books, a complete

run of Talks mag-

azine, hundreds of

photographs (most

of them auto-graphed), andvolumes of corres-

pondence from a

host of renowned

individuals, par-ticularly Richard Nixon, whose letters to her datefrom 1951 to 1992.

SIOUSSAT AND HERBERT HOOVER

THE EDWARD M. KIRBY COLLECTION

Colonel Edward M. Kirby began his career as a

V-- reporter for the Baltimore Sun before moving

into public relations. He served as chief of the radio

branch of the War Department during WWII, creat-ing CommandPerformance andThe Army Hour,and was laterappointedPublic Rela-tions Directorof the USO.

RADIO EXECUTIVES IN EUROPE, 1945

EDWARD M KIRBY ANDDAVID SARNOFF

His book, StarSpangled Radio,documents hisexperiences in war-

time broadcasting.The Kirby collection

includes photographs

from the war years, scripts, correspondence, awards,

and two scrapbooks documenting The Army Hour on

NBC.

THE ALOIS HAVRILLA COLLECTION

An announcer for

Jack Benny,Fred Waring, andPaul Whiteman inaddition to dozens of

other programs, Mr.

Havrilla's material

includes photo-

graphs, scripts,correspondence,

. scrapbooks, and a270-page unpub-lished biography,"Radio's Golden Ageof Adventure,"written by his wife.

ALOIS HAVRILLA , NBC ANNOUNCER, C

THE WILLIAM HEDGES COLLECTION

Mr. Hedges, former NBC executive and presi-

dent of the National Association of Broad-

casters, collected some 13,000 items in 540 subject

categories for

the Broadcast

Pioneers His-

tory Project

(1964-1971) that

formed the core

collection of the

Library. In-

cluded are

primary and

secondary

sources on

nearly every

aspect of broad-

cast history

from 1915 to

1971.

THE EDYTHE MESERAND COLLECTION

Ms. Meserand donated items from her tenure

as first president of the American Women in

Radio and Television, her career as a documentary

producer, and other material relating to women in

broadcasting.

scrapbooks

The Library has more than one hundred scrap-

books in its holdings, documenting the careers

and concerns of people as varied as RCA chief

engineer Dr. Alfred N. Goldsmith, James M. Gaines,

the press agent for the Major Bowes Original Amateur

Hour, radio actress Mildred Funnel, and Herbert C.

Ovendon's

journal of his

work at the Otter

Cliff Naval Radio

facility during

World War I.

NBC TELEVISIONPRODUCTION, 1936:ARTHUR HUNGERFORDSCRAPBOOKS

Asmall but interesting portion of the Library's

holdings consist of items that might best be

described as "museum pieces," including com-

memorative plaques and awards, radio premiums,

several vintage radio microphones and receivers,

press badges and 7THIS IS TO CERTIFY that

political buttons.

RADIO CITY COMMEMORATIVE,C. 1933

IS AN HONORARY MEMBER

of the

CHANDETECTiVE ASS

Team/ Mciek

1956 TELEVISION PREMIUM

Some of the more unique

items include a life size bust of

Jimmy Durante, an 1885 letter from

Thomas Edison, a framed four-panel Blondie strip

from the 1940s drawn and autographed by the

comic's creator, Chic Young, and a baton used by

maestro Arturo Toscanini while directing the NBC

Symphony Orchestra.

The Broadcast Pioneers Library originated in 1964with the creation of the Broadcast Pioneers His-

tory Project.As proposedby NBCexecutiveWilliam S.Hedges, theBroadcastPioneers or-ganizationcollected ma-terials for the Library well in advance of its capital-ization in 1971; that year, the Library opened its

doors usingspace donatedby the NationalAssociation ofBroadcasters indowntownWashington,D.C. In October1994, the collec-tion moved tothe Universityof Maryland at

College Park, where it joined the National PublicBroadcasting Archives as part of the University'sgrowing media-related holdings.

MATII,A1A1 EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION STUDIO, KDDA

The Library of American Broadcasting is locatedon the ground floor of Hornbake Library on the

University of Maryland campus. The Library is open

from 9am to 5pm, Monday-Friday. Telephone and

e-mail research requests are also welcomed.

Library of American BroadcastingHornbake Library

University of MarylandCollege Park, MD 20742-7011

(301) [email protected]

http://www.itd.umd.edu/UMS/UMCP/BPL/bplintro.html

Wihile the Broadcast Pioneers Library of Amer-

can Broadcasting actively seeks donations in

all eras and aspects of broadcast history, we are

currently pursuing material focusing on radio and

television from the Fifties and Sixties in order to bet-

ter chronicle this crucial period of broadcast history.

All contributions to the Library are tax deductible.

The Library of American Broadcasting has pro-

vided source material for an impressive array of

patrons, including:

ABC NewsArts and Entertainment Productions

Cronkite/VVard & Company

The Daytime Emmy Awards

HBO

National Geographic Television

National Public Radio

Walt Disney Television

The motion picture Quiz Show

The PBS documentary Empire of the Air

Susan J. Douglas, Inventing American Broadcasting,

1899-1922

Michele Hilmes, Hollywood and Broadcasting: From

Radio to CableB. Eric Rhoads, Blast From the Past: A Pictorial

History of Radio's First 75 Years

Michael Ritchie, Please Stand By

In addition, the Library has answered innumerable

inquiries from people in the broadcasting industry.

RPL 7Library of American BroadcastingHornbake LibraryUniversity of MarylandCollege Park, MD 20742-7011

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RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA

'k,VX

t4:

en the Radio Corporation realized that it couldoperate without the Fessenden and Armstrongts, Westinghouse was brought into the "radio"fold in June, 1921. It contracted to produceof the radio apparatus sold by the Radioration while General Electric would make 60

cent. If orders for one period didn't work out toratio, orders in subsequent periods would be ad-

ed to compensate. Further, if either company

n't meet its quota, it could ask Wireless Spe-to manufacture for it with WSA's share included

e 40% or 60%, or not included, by mutual con-

t.ven after joining the radio group, however, West-

ouse continued to advertise its own receivers and

as its own sales agent until February 1, 1922.

the Radio Corporation was not prepared for,

interested in, the broadcast-receiver market

e that date. In fact, the boom in late 1921 and

1922 caught these companies by surprise in

er respect: it threatened to make their carefully

tiated contracts worthless. Westinghouse sold

of thousands of RC models during the boom, to

say nothing of Aeriola Juniors and Seniors, whileGeneral Electric had nothing to offer but compo-nents and tubes. Obviously, something had to bedone to balance the accounts; the Radio Corpora-tion would have to sell mainly GE products the fol-lowing year while Westinghouse marked time.

Completing Sets at the Westinghouse Electric and ManufacturingCompany's Radio Works. Springfield, Massachusetts

7

Radio Enters the Ilome

v‘i Q.A,La_cx

74 Radiola THE GOLDEN AGE OF RCA

the phone plug into the appropriate phone jack. These jacks simplified the

control panel by eliminating the need for separate filament switches for detector

and amplifier tubes. With this system, inserting the phone plug not only

connected the headset to the appropriate circuit, but also provided power to the

appropriate filaments all in one operation, thus saving both battery and tube life.

KDKA-Ushers in the Broadcast Era

While- the Westinghouse broadcast was declared a complete success, it was not

the first broadcast, nor did it receive the same amount of attention as previous

broadcasts, most notably De Forest's November 1916 election night broadcast

and subsequent concerts and news reports over 2XG,24 the Bureau of Standards

broadcasts and concerts throughout 1919 on station WWV,25 and Madam

Nellie Melba's June 15, 1920 "world" concert over the Marconi station at

Chelmsford, England.26 The Westinghouse inaugural broadcast by comparison

received scant notice in the press, amounting to a four-line article appearing in

the November 6, 1920 issue of the Electrical Review.27 So, what was different

about this broadcast, and why did it usher in the broadcast era where previous

and more notable broadcasts did not?

What set Westinghouse and KDKA apart from the rest was 1)

Westinghouse's commitment to regularly scheduled broadcasting that

continued beyond the inaugural event, 2) the development of interesting

program content that fascinated listeners, and 3) the development and

marketing of low-cost, easy-to-operate receivers that enabled the general public

to listen. Within several days after the inaugural broadcast, Westinghouse was

operating every day—albeit on a very limited basis—with the call sign KDKA.

Within a few weeks transmitter power was boosted to 500 watts, and by the

end of 1921 Westinghouse had opened three additional stations including WjZ

in Newark, NJ., WBZ in East Springfield, Mass., and KYW in Chicago, E11.28

Westinghouse also dedicated resources to develop and improve programming.

Harold W. Arlin was selected as the first radio announcer for KDKA in early

1921, and Thomas H. Cowan was selected as the first announcer for WJZ later

that year.28 Initially, they both relied on playing phonograph records, reading

newspaper headlines and community bulletins, recapping sports scores, giving

weather forecasts, explaining Arlington time signals, and so forth. Cowan is

credited with developing a general program mix which added orchestral music,

humorous speeches, special programs for women and also for children, religious

programming including church services, performers and singers including stars

from Broadway and vaudeville, and opera.

While a great boom in broadcast radio lay ahead, it did not come

immediately after the inaugural broadcast, or even in the first year thereafter,

for that matter. No new broadcast stations were licensed in the first six months

following the KDKA broadcast, and a total of only eight broadcast stations

were licensed in the following six month period ending in November, 1921,

three of them owned by Westinghouse." However, on December 1, 1921 the

Department of Commerce assigned 360 and 485 meter wavelengths specifically

for broadcasting under the category of "Limited Land Stations," and in that

month alone, 20 stations were licensed with frequencies reserved for broadcast

stations. By the end of March of 1922, there were 138 such stations licensed,

and by March 1, of 1923 there were 556 such stations. The year 1922 would

usher in the great broadcast radio craze.

Westinghouse Implements a Bold Strategy to Supply Broadcast

ReceiversThe third element setting Westinghouse apart from others w

as their plan to

provide a line of affordable broadcast receivers to allow even the most

technically unsophisticated to "listen in." Westinghouse was able to meet the

demand for broadcast receivers immediately following the KDKA inaugural

broadcast by commercializing and marketing the RA/DA receiver (later

The Broadcast Era Begins 1920-1921 75

combined to form the RC receiver) originally designed for point-to-pointcommunication—not withstanding an IEEE paper published in December 1922

where Conrad described it as being principally suited for broadcast radio:

".. lone] of those types of receiving apparatus which are adapted for

reception over a limited range of wave length, and which depend for their

operation on such manipulation as can be successfully carried out by persons .unfamiliar with the technique of radio apparatus. Their principal field ofapplication is the reception of broadcast radio telephone signals." "

Serendipitously, Conrad's three major design goals for point-to-pointcommunication between Westinghouse facilities were also optimum forbroadcast radio reception by a technically unsophisticated public:

• simple adjustments that do not interact with each other,• selectivity such that the signal strength from another equal or possibly morepowerful station separated by 10-1(Hz should be below audibility, and

• sensitivity limited by static interference, fading, etc., rather than by actuallack of response.

However, Westinghouse must have realized that the RC was too expensivefor the average broadcast radio listener in the long run, so in order to meet the

demands of a broader range of listeners with varying requirements and means,Westinghouse cleverly set about to design a series of receivers ranging from asimple inexpensive crystal set to a one-tube regenerative receiver with acompanion two-stage amplifier, which when put together, was similar indesign, if not performance, to the higher-priced RC.

Westinghouse designed and produced four different models in an 18 monthperiod from June 1921 to January 1923, each mounted in a rectangular boxwith a similar appearance and dimensions. A fifth model incorporating aphonograph to be used with the Aeriola radio line was under development, butit was dropped after the RCA/Westinghouse agreements were signed in June1921.32 The four models were the Aeriola Jr. crystal set, the one-tube AeriolaSr. regenerative receiver, the two-tube AC audio amplifier, and the two-tubeRadiola RS regenerative receiver with one stage of audio amplification. Thesemodels provided the public with an inexpensive crystal set and three more-sensitive regenerative receiver combinations with one, two and three tubes.Pertinent characteristics of these four models are compared with each otherand with characteristics of the RA/DA/RC technology in Table 3-1.

The Aeriola Jr, crystal set at $25 ($32.50 with antenna) was certainly lessexpensive than the RA tuner using the DB detector at $85.50, and was pricedCompetitively with other crystal sets on the Market at the same time such as theDe Forest Everyman, which ilso- -sold for $25 comparably—equipped. The range

Cif this and mos-t other ciy§-tai sets for reliable reception was on the order of 10-

25 miles, although stations from much greater ranges could be heard at certain

times of the night and under favorable atmospheric circumstances. The Aeriola

Sr. regenerative receiver was designed for those who wanted reception from

greater distances (nominally 100-150 miles), but like the crystal set, this

receiver was unable to actuate a loudspeaker. The AC amplifier was introduced

for use with the Aeriola Sr. to permit the actuation of loudspeakers and/or to

extend the range of reception. The combined price of $143 for the two units

compared favorably to the three-tube RC with a price tag of $213. The RS

receiver augmented the regenerative tuning circuits of the Aeriola Sr. with one

stage of audio amplification, resulting in a set which was described in a

Westinghouse brochure as being designed "primariig for those who feel that the

cost of a receiver embodying two stages of amplification is beyond their means, get

wish to hear their local stations on a loud speaker."The receivers introduced in 1920 and 1921 are described in the following

paragraphs of this chapter—including the RC and variants, the Aeriola Jr., the


Table 3-1. The line of affordable receivers originallyenvisioned by Westin

ModelApparatus

Type bTuesNominalRangea List Price

Dateintroduced

tt0

RC Receiver(Radiola RC)c

RegenerativeReceiver

3 500 miles- $125 without

tubesDecember 1920

071c=C.)

I RA Receiver(with DB detector)

Crystal Receiver None

,

See text $70 August 1921 i

a)i— RA Tuner Tuner None N/A $65 December 1920

0ce DA Detector-

AmplifierDetector plus two-stage audio amplifier

3 N/A$65 without

tubesDecember 1920

'

Westinghouse Broadcast

Receiver Strategy'

_

Aeriola Jr. (RE)

(Radiola Junior)cCrystal Receiver None 25 miles

d

$25 July 1921

Aeriola Sr. (RF);(Radiola Senior)c

RegenerativeReceiver

1 100-150 miles $75 December 1921

Phonograph for

Aeriola radio lineDevelopment discontinued after RCA/Westinghouse agreement signed in Jun

e 1921

Aeriola Sr.Amplifier (AC);(Radiola AC)c

Two-StageAudio Amplifier

2 N/A $68 August 1922

Radiola RSRegenerativeReceiver , See text $85 January 1923

a Nominal ranges as suggested in Andre Catalog R-2-A are listed here to indicate relative sensitivity

b The apparatus in shaded rows were introduced by RCA after the Westinghouse-RCA agreements

c Name changed by RCA in late 1922 to incorporate the new Radiola trade name; no change in design

d Price included earphones

e The price advertised by Westinghouse included headphones, antenna, and tubes, and batteries

Aeriola Sr. and the Radiola Senior. The AC amplifier and RS receiver listed in

the shaded portion of Table 3-1 were introduced in 1922 and 1923 respectively,

and therefore are addressed in subsequent chapters according to the year in

which they were introduced.

Westinghouse Markets the RA, DA and RC Receiver

The RA was a single-circuit tuner unit, the DA was a detector-amplifier unit

with two stages of audio amplification, and the RC was a regenerative receiver

with the RA and DA units combined in a single cabinet. It was common practice

at the time to house the tuner and detector/amplifier in separate cabinets for

several reasons. First, the tuner could be used separately as a less-expensive

crystal set in conjunction with an external crystal detector, and second, the

separate units by themselves did not constitute a regenerative receiver and

therefore did not infringe on the regeneration patient awarded to Edwin H.

Armstrong on October 6, 1914. Westinghouse acquired rights to this patent on

November 4, 1920, and therefore was able to manufacture the RC as a complete

regenerative receiver in a sin -packag,e_without fear of infringement litigation.

Accordingru historia George Clark:*e first RC receiver w4s_sold to W.- - • - -L. Chubb, a Westinghoiseemployee, "Tor use

at a gathering to hear the

election returns transmitted on the first KDKA broadcast on November 2,

1920." This receiver was undoubtedly one of a number of engineering

models made for the first broadcast because the first production models

made in Pittsburgh were dated 11-30-20, clearly after the first KDKA

broadcast in early November.

The Broadcast Era Begins ----- 1920-192177

Many of the early RA and DA units

manufactured in Pittsburgh were housed

in separate cabinets and sold separately

as RA tuners and DA detector-amplifiers.

The interior of the RA was essentially

unchanged throughout its life cycle except

for some very minor rerouting of wires.

Othe Radioana Collection_ documents indicate, the early production models

were first advertisia-and sold in the Pittsburgh area—it was said that the Horne

Department Store was one of the first to sell this receiver. It is not known

exactly when the first production units were sold, but it could not have been

earlier than the November date on the first production units, or later than

April 1921, the month they first appeared in national advertisements.34


According to an interview with Westinghouse engineer Donald G. Little onMarch 27, 1951, about 1500 RA and DA units were manufactured at theShadyside plant in Pittsburgh and were put on the market about Christmas1920.35 From serial number evidence presented later, both individual RA andDA units and RC's were manufactured during the first production run.A companion DB detector designed to convert the RA tuner into the RA

crystal receiver was introduced to the public in the August 1921 issue of TheWireless Age for $5. Retail prices for the RA/DA/RC units were first advertised

Most of the late RA and DA units

manufactured in East Springfield were

combined into one cabinet and sold as RC

receivers.

The tube sockets on the early DA chassis

such as the one shown here with

Moorhead tubes were positioned such that

the key slots all faced the same direction,

and the binding post caps on the rear were

fiber (left). The center socket on later DA

chassis such as the one shown here with

WD-12 tubes was rotated—presumably to

avoid some type of unwanted interaction,

and the fiber binding-post caps were

replaced with metal caps (right).

The Broadcast Era Begins ---- 1920-192179

The first national advertisements for the

RC technology appearing in April and May

of 1921 pictured the RA tuner and DA

detector-amplifier without referring to the

RC. (OST, April, 1921, p.120)

WESTINGHOUSE

.Radio Receiving Equipment.......,.„...

to

k• 1$Nk 's

•.:

W

6 • .. .

l'...'"7.•

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... . – .. •

Typo RA Short-Wave Tuner •Style 3071119-180-700 Meters StyTrryAk DsrettZefri"""

Audio Frequoncy

THIS high-grade Westinghouse regenerative Tuner, andtube detector amplifier embody the latest ideas of

two noted radio engineers, Edwin H. Armstrong andFrank Conrad.

This apparatus provides a most efficient set for telegraphand telephone reception over the amateur and normalship wave length ranges.

Simple in Design—Easy to Operate—Single-tuning CircuitHighly Efficient

.1' •- ' ......- ;

-me. •,T.,,..

. ..amkailit rik . .' .

* *-,.i1 '1 :: ...... ' i.

i e. ,,,••

Interior View of Tn. RA Short-Wave Tuner Interior View of DA Detector Amplifier

Our Radio Folder No. 4446 will interest you.—Ask your dealer for a copy

WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC & MANUFACTURING COMPANYEAST PITTSBURGH, PA.Westinghouse

120 ALWAYS MENTION QST WHEN WRITING TO ADVERTISERS

in the September and October issues of The Wireless Age.36 The RA was

advertised at $65, the DA without tubes at $65, the RC without tubes at $125,

a complete RA crystal receiver with a DB detector, headphones and antenna at

$85.50, and a complete RC receiver with four tubes, a Type CB loading coil,

batteries, and headphones with adaptor at $216.

RCA began to advertise radio equipment manufactured by Westinghouse in

December 1921,37 although Westinghouse continued to advertise the .kA, DA

--a-nd RC—until circa March 1922. When RCA became the exclusive distributor

for Westinghouse products circa January 1922, they tweaked the prices by

adding $3 to the price of RA and DA for-a-total of $68 apiece, by adding $5 to

the price of the RC without accessories for a total of $130, and by adding $4.50

to the price of the RA crystal receiver for a total of $90. They maintained the

$216 price of the complete RC but did not include a spare vacuum tube—


24 THE WIRELESS AGE Anwsr,

A Super-SensitiveCrystal Detector

The new Westinghouse Type DB

Crystal DetectorAlways, ready for operation

Does not require a buzzer

A throw - over switch connects in

either of two crystals, one always

$5,.00 being in reserve

Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing CompanyEast Pittaburrh,

WestinghouseWhoa wrldsc to atl•ortIseto Ritmo zniotion THE WIRELESS AGE

effectively increasing the price by $6.50. The Westinghouse name rarely

appeared in RCA's national advertising, although it was still prominently used

in brochures and distributor catalogs for some time thereafter.

The key technical features of the RC receiver were as follows:

• A regenerative vacuum tube to increase sensitivity and selectivity,

• An inductive coupling method for regeneration to achieve constancy of

regeneration with varying wavelength,

• A single-knob selection of wavelength by mounting tuning coil and

variable capacitor on a single shaft, and

• A "vernier" wavelength adjustment consisting of small variable capacitor

in parallel with the main tuning condenser to compensate for small errors

in the desired ratio of inductance to capacitance as the receiver is tuned

over its range.

The resulting receiver design was excellent and performed well. It could be

operated with the detector alone or with one or two stages of amplification by

The first advertisements for the "Super-

Sensitive" Type DB detector pictured it with

the RA tuner, a combination which was

later referred to as the RA crystal receiver.

(The Wireless Age, August, 1921, p. 24)


RCA began the exclusive distribution of

Westinghouse receivers circa January

1922 with advertisements in national

magazines that rarely mentioned the

Westinghouse name. (The Wireless Age,

January 1922, P. 4)

The CB loading coil was offered as an

accessory for those who wanted to listen

in on time signals, weather forecasts and

other transmissions from stations

operating with wavelengths between 1600

and 2700 meters.

The CB loading coil was positioned on the

rear binding posts between the RA and DA

units.

Listening to Broadcasted News andMusic from the Radio TelephoneYou damp a radio telephone receiver to your ear. What's

that? Schubert's "Serenade" sung in Pittsburgh by a great artist.

And you, two hundred miles away, hear it! And DOW what's this?

News from Chicago.So, you sit in your home and listen tothe voices that float out from a dozencities hzuzdreds of miles away—to grandopera, speeches, sermons The ether isalive with jokes, cracked by merry radio

amateurs, and with serious talk of greatmen. And anybody can listen to ali thiswith the Corporation's new line of broad-casting receivers.

For the beginner there is the Aeriola, Jr.,so simple and inexpensive that anybody

can easily learn to use it.

A Set with a Range of1600 Mies

Have you beard 'LUG"? That's the signalof Manning's station at Salem, Ohio—a station equipped with a Radio Corpo-ration 100-watt set, consisting of twoSO-watt tubes, two Kenotrons, A.C.

power transformer, etc. It is a complete

Radio Corporation set which has a radius

of 1000 to 1600 miles. Manning's sta-

tion puts 5 amperes into the antenna

with two 50-waft Radiotrons Fit up a

station like Manning's "8ZG" and you

will be heard in Havana, New Orleans,

Kansas City, New York and many other

cities if you are in the middle west.

Ask For This CatalogueYour recrio deader will eve rou a copy of thelatest RCA cataktipae containing tireek,

tnaltit Or write forkzatelocue crwect to

Tsp. RC Ozenbination TunerOttorter-Araplifier

S130.00

Type RAShort

TunerS68.00

Sales Division Suite 1801

TIP* DADetector Ana Z-firre•

Amplifier

$68.00

RadioMCorporationof America

233 Broadway, New York City

selecting the appropriate telephone jack for the headset. It was easy to use, and

as sensitive and selective as the more complex designs of the day. It produced

less interference than most other regenerative sets of the day because the

regeneration circuit did not need to be readjusted after each tuning, a

procedure which generally caused the set to radiate a strong signal, invariably

producing an annoying howl in neighboring receivers.

While the RA tuner was designed to operate between wavelengths of 180 to

700 meters for the reception of radio telephone (e.g. broadcast radio), amateur

and ship stations, a Type CB loading coil could also be purchased for the

reception of time signals, weather forecasts, and other types of transmissions

from stations operating on wavelengths of 1600 to 2700 meters.38 The CB coil

with Style No. 307466 and a production date of 7-11-21 was placed on the rear

of the RA tuner as shown in the accompanying photograph.


RCA changed the name of the RC to the Radiola RC in late 1922, and ads forthe Radiola RC began to appear in March, 1923." However, there were no RA,DA, or RC receivers with the Radiola name on the panel because none wasmanufactured after RCA made the name change. While the earliest instructionsheets had only the Westinghouse name, later revisions had both theWestinghouse and RCA name and RCA logo. The RA/DA/RC sets were on themarket until July 1923, when RCA sold off their entire inventory of sets belowcost to Gimbel Brothers, who in turn sold them at a deep discount in their NewYork City store.

RA/DA Production RunsA large number of RA and DA units were made in the 21/2-year period fromDecember 1920 to mid-1923 in six separate production runs, and while the exactnumber made in each production run—or the total for that matter—is not known,the serial numbers provide a clue. Westinghouse numbered the individual RAand DA units with serial numbers presumably beginning with one, and stampeda "production run" date on each serial number plate. As a result, the totalnumber of sets can be inferred from a sampling of serial numbers for each typeof set, and the number in each production run can be inferred from a samplingof serial numbers having the same production run dates.

In a sampling of serial numbers and production dates from approximately288 RA and DA units (both separate units and combined into RC's), thehighest serial number observed to date is close to 143,000. However, this doesnot mean that there were 143,000 units manufactured because of twocomplicating factors: 1) there were approximately 28,000 receivers of othertypes (Aeriola Grand, Radiola Grand, Radiola Senior, and Radiolas DR, AC,RS, AR, and RT) manufactured during the same period with interleaved serialnumbers, and 2) in the last production run there were approximately 31,400RA units without serial numbers paired with DA units having serial numbersto make RC's. It turns out quite serendipitously that these two factors

The early RA instructions showed how thetuner was used in the RA-DA ReceivingSet (below left). Instruction sheets for theRA (top right) were also prepared todescribe how the RA tuner was used withthe DB detector as a complete RAReceiving Set. The early DA instructions(below right) showed how the detector-amplifier was used in the RA-DAReceiving Set.

No. 14 Cuts. WaaAM.... Wiee

WestinghouseRADIO APPARATUS

TYPE RA TUNERsc.,. 4. (As Used in RA-DA Receiving Set)

T IA Weimer Style ;07189

NO 14 [twitted

Ce•Par Wks

DADemeter Autd‘rar

RA Tour Ns. 14 Isselated

Copper Wire

...r•••••••1

zus v•I•jj.,.41..M..1

4 Veit Swart Batters

WowOhm

A Gaid G Tielder PlateB 44 H Maier PlateC Fit Go& + A — B Bat-

D. FA;God. J —AB.&E 'raider K + Det B EstF TsgIder 1. + Amp. B Bat.

M AssEAST SPRIND1-11ELD WORKS

Ne. 14 Capper Weld• Tie Wir•

Re. 14 CAppar WelifAmuse

Ty,. IA thisslater Sciew tr.

No. 14 Copper Wtid AstassaP.Wirii75 tri ISO Ift. leas. 2R 1. 50 Ft. IWO

laseleting Estrum. Bolas

Select leu6sie sad erect itt_isa.explUsedit isstswoliess isdisied with Type AD Reuirieg

e_spesectiou as thew. ;march rd.(Whip sere hewer, wires' us 4.44;.14.1.-K., wins cesssuks i.ldadiagpeel 114 at luet.c feu away frees WiSe le post C N.. III Rai.

k'"aC trTir" I:ucit. Set= eaeeet Iredie ibetesee Iud-im eel the Erma wire.. short

,./1 ""2"Tiau rimmtat Week u for ris this watad.!

0 fur is tsp. awl Wert dims Aerie..Type WT.21 is Rastres Typi.DV.241 *Esti.flu Tries is auk.. Match pis is We el thisism with alu Lu sod.. press drum aid(di I.... telsshews rightlued jock wedIs.. loth therwatateward pram of armor rataell tabu are ironies brightly. There Auld uir

p• slight lavers used is the telaphese howl auKathie "Venire huh onisiwa, Wirer step.Relate 'Mader." midway barrens Mops

41 Saute Timer Luis Judy use auk. &_i-55M the sour tine is heed sot far speech erUreal. ROSOirOst Li very sessitiee is adjustsseatoof tie -Tau: knob *NI 4oro ahead he awl teis is,. the poet at which • spell Is houd a seapassed beim the lid.. reuse:nth &gulf oe

Shaft 1•41•0 With@ moved was tbe lunarend el the. risk. whereas the ware lush in-creases mid de upper tad of the scale. Wag

2"."4-44-74243.0ftr"A*(11 le !hostages* w vitieity°11410 ea" -WEAK. =KAU

Tugs Sods 111 Mathias we Iltowdy"

sewewhere betweee 20 • 40 as the auk.Whit tisirissal is issid. II. Mad.sa

iscreued hy swag .Vcreire (1) is ease din.ties u the ether UNI by arliestthe 'Tackle, (7).• istuallty Puy Ise feeder ispitual Ip

derv! h.d 5tetcsittloperatddetector hsiezli Rethetrui risitaer Wm Type)JV-200 say4 issuted is dl• locket at tie rearel the cehiutlissiwid amptifier *4.I... irwartisettudirs, is.... useertiee heirluau um' worked K earl L Cuomo 111 laws.les as "hour.

Causes of Faulty Operation

When me Chet wwe from Kcasseected isattei7 tep at • poiet apprezi.WSW, hvie &native birseiseL Differ.eu Wises 're different B battery seRape•awl the beet sit detsresiesi hywisI, Sons t4.. usury less voltage e.d userertelre rare Ickes* as they iseosse elder. Thesuper earli:t II lottery voltage impsnitieerid, a oat is ffil tut moles tsst it is est••unwary amplifier Weis is esed fee detec,tioe es castle,- soder (4) ahoy. Ha. thecruise we find Onward asisphfier Pah. Rinse.sit preferwil4

WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC 8c MANUFACTURING CO.

lodoodor loolog Loma Timor Knob so4gro0

Is.,... 4.11s,411othasrod UnaryRoo Moro dry Prossl000 woo lotted..

balwa DOM.. 1.1110. Or IRMAsum lobo

Aoloossablo smell laMflhola 10411••••

*sumo& 1.1444,44, bond- Mr. 8411...la le bat41.Leis .7 .54.. o14osto loosSloollorollas

vorod •••••0011M &Mt p..it iei Moe. 4110.V1ILN lo •••.I. POI•'mood

Siosoto or I bona, too. Ch_i will. slisirsos so.1aothlsor awns,

NV HAM

LOCAL 1001313

t:irs'ins:rilirilmho p.n.s. nos Whomshould ousd.

Tao moth Udder ....I Tom '11414, kook to.WWI IMI.,••••• .0•11;014

Woes. I IsoLudiso Mao on. honed.

SPRINGFIELD, MASS.

77P• IA hissluer

DA Detector Amplirwr

A Tees,

I. L. 1127(0,w)


Screw Ciro

14 wehl

T•Wlre

Tepee ta Issoratm.

14 Co.., weld

Antenna Weree

WeRADIO A PPARATUS

77o. IA Insulate,

ne..14 Intsuete4.

tepee. Wive

*anode.,

TYPE RA TUNER(As Used in R A Receiving Set)

Style 30718914 tamest..C.A.. wire.

Screw Ify•.

, nes 14 Copper Wend

1. CAPP. Wet/Antenna

WI" 11.4 "sedate.

Uwe.. Eye

Me. 14 Cm.' Well A, Vit • 71 Is 150 it. I g. 26 to 60 et. Mg,

lesulaUngWesel.bushing

PA Protective Device

Insulating Entrance Bushing

No. 14 InsulatedCopper Wire

Ant.

GridFil. Gnd.Tickler PlatePlate

Thiel carton contains one Type RA Tuner only.For a complete Type RA Receivine Set, the followingare required

1 .-Type DB Crystal Detector S. No. 3072161-Brandes He'd Set S. No. 307423I-AD Receiving Antenna Outgt No.'31541.6

(!) Erect Antenna us explained in instructionseccom,nying the Type A D Antenna Outfit.

O Make connections as shown, using care thatthe two wires leading to the Protective Device donot lie closer together than I ft. These wires shouldbe as short as pouible. Wiring may consist ofNo.18 Rubber covered cop,• oleo. Carefully removethe covering from bath ends of each wire used. scrap-ing clean with • knit. and place the end thus cleanedunder the terminal taps shown. and tighten cap.

(52) Connect head set se shown.

(4) Place Dial Switch in the position shown.

Adjust the Pressure Typo Crystal by ...p-ing black handle ated pulling the Movable Crystol

-4-No. 18 Rubber-Covered sleety from the Stabonary one, and letting it corn.ground Wire into contact with It eit various point.. Crystals

should corm. toeether with firm pressure. WhileGround Clamp. trying carious spot., turn the Tuner Knob (Z) slowly

over the stet, listening •t th• ,rne time in the HeadSot for sign•le. As mien en • sirnel is hosed, atop

.'"'"Wator Pipe Crystal edjuetiment and rotate the Tuner Knob (6)until maximum signal Is heard. Now readjust the

Detector Crystal until spot giving loudest signal isfound. Do not rub Cryst•Is .......h other.

By throwing the Dial Switch (4) to the otherposition. this cryst•I may be used. The /legible wirewith special tip should be brought into contact withthiverioue spots on the stationary crystal. at the W..timemanipulatine the Tuner Handle (6) as explainedunder (5) until the sound is loudest. If the TunerHandle has been •et when edjuellne the crystal (S)it will only be nee...wary to adjust the Detector.Once adjusted, detectors should remain in adjust-merit unless Ars-ed sr unless subjected to heavy at-mospheric diechargeo such a• arc experienced In we•ernweather. When Dectector it once edjusted, differentRadio St•tions may be herird by meetly turningTunit• Knob (6). •

0 Vernier Knob may be treed as a fine lidinx1v,neat on Tuner Knob (4). It should be midwey be-tween its stops when adjuetrnents of the Tuner Knob(6) see made. After Tuner Knob (6) Is adjusted forOhs loudest signal, sisn•I ritoy be improved by ro-tating oh. Vernier Knob <8).tip Thla knots i• not used in this Set. It ahouldbe placed on minimum.

Note- If the Pressure Ts, Crystals see rubbedtoeet her. • bisck deposit will epeesy on the ,oject-ing painIs of the Mcnalsle Crystel, deer...Mg mart-edly the seneitivity. This depoeit may be ...moved bylightly steeping with • knife.

WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC & MANUFACTURING CO.EAST SPRINGFIELD WORKS SPRINGFIELD, MASS.

®0

1.t.„1157

Screw By.No. 14 Capp, weldAntenna Wine

T. WireConnect

Tepe Irarlittor

No 14 InsulatedCoPPee Wire

RA TunerNo 14 lamdatedC.appee Wire

Westinghouse Screw Eye

RAD! 0 A PPARATUS No.14 C.oppee weldWire

No. 14 Cemperweid _„ rAnita". Wire's ---"`v-Type IA Insuleio,TYPE DA DETECTOR AMPLIFIER

5"w Lee (As Used in RA-DA Receiving Set)Type IA fneulator Style 307190

A Grid G Twirler PlateGrid F1 Tickler PlateEiL Cud. 1 +A —B Bat.FiL Gad. J — A Bat.Tickler K + DeL B Bat

Ticidu L Amp. 13 fut.

M Ant.

No. 14 InsulatedCopper Wire

No. 14 Coppenveld Antes,. IkVire 75 to 150 FL loop, 25 to 50Ft. high

Insulating Entrance Bathing

Select lee/dies •od erect...au as espleineden :rise menses included with Type AD ReceivingAmen, Outfit.2 Make coneections ss shows in Circ1e04ts(2)bnine woe Isalt•ry wires •TC peeper', connected.Keep no. connecting to bindiag post H at leastisee lost sway from wire to post C- No 14 Robberte•ered Copper Wire aloe be used I.,....noel:in; See ehmdd hoiso,iTW rs• heels—the •ntea, I end:in and the ground wiree•• shortas pemible.3 Tuns sitoristat knots. as far •s they goterw•rd tail of iirrow.• Opts door in top. sad insert three AerietresType WT.21 or R.dietma Ty, UV.201i.e T1116111 in wickets. Match pia is side of tubeI... with slot is sockel We. 4... I." hi.Saw place.5 lawn telepho, plug in rightdiaad jeck aadtom letth rh.oststaOltoweed,int of •rrow uatilall tubes are bunting brightly. There dunalel no.vbe a slight biasing sound in the telephone bead set.

Ret•te 'Vernier^ knob midway between steps7 Rohm. nieltler" midway between stops.g Rotate Teller knob Jowly mi.. @Wei list.,mg at the same time in head set for opesch •r14,1616 Receiver 4...y64n...dive to adjustmentsof die "Tweet' heels and care ehoold he wed lebe sure tie paint at which a sienal heard it Dot,ssied belong the fact is rou,iaad. Slgstl. oo

short wave 'invite will Ise received DCA, the lowerend of the cal, whenos 111C 11•111 1114111 in-creases toward the 14,11 end of the ecale. U111111the Type AD Receiving Antenna Outfit, •rnateurstetione will be he•rd in the vicMity •I 10 on theTimer Scale. areedessting st•tions ,ell con. insomewhere between 20 sad 40., the Kale.

When the signal is besot, its loudness may he-inereased•berot•teng -Vendee (6) in ontderecr-

hen lir the ether end by adiomin) 'Mailer (7).Signal intensity may be further improvedmaking herther •djustenente of Rb 131.9 Far 1110. saw sleek's to *penile with • •••ofdetector tube a Radiotoon detector tube TypeU V.200 may be iererted intl.. sachet rit the rearof tha cabinet instead slob. amplifier tube. Be.fore insert:tie tubes, neenoirc connection link be.tvicen pests marked K rind I- Connect better-its •s shown (9) trehing care that wire front K iesir...meted to B lottery tap sit • point •ppe,i....Lately 18 velto horn negseive termires1 Pilfer-,. tub., require different 13 battery salinesand the best value eon only be determined bytrial. Some tubes require less woltrige •n.d some6611Aire 'neve voltag• a• Ilscy be•oano older. Theproper •ncl exact B battery whag• is imperativewith • toll tuba to get best results but it to rot somcessary if an amplifier tube is used for done.hen •s called-for under (4) above. Hence thenork• stilt lead the use of •rnplifier tubes through.out preferable.

DA .Detector. AmplifierRA Tuner

Marogurett for

Radi0 'OS Corporationmc

By

Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company

Causes of Faulty Operation

WEAK SIGNALSGAY! Remedy

beware, tuning 9611. Tun. Kruse t•

SroraLgo haturydlevA•roid Cl,,,. bearer -tewm. Ivy Murtha, Punk.. ro. IttalarIn

Niro he anima aroma as., or tnnee.no. a..

Anteons toe rm. I. •ntennaAmara Aletaloallor Load- Moro soarana to loiter1,1 4164 e *Worm torathon it peseiV•

ground ...natal, Ruorernotil gat aro directno ea, raw pr.

11=1:: it601,141, con- CI:orla..7i.th oliararon anal

evat lobo*LOCAL NOISES

mart, non aulaorthoolol Io ward.

Too rah 0164.1. aorta., Taran ..T.alor- knob Is..04 aslant.. positien

Worth. It bentorts• Cetus,. now batten.

84 RadiOia THE GOLDEN AGE OF RCA

approximately cancel—for quite unrelated reasons—so the total number of RAand DA units turns out to be about 144,800 (see Appendix D).The first production runs of RA, DA, and RC units were made in

Pittsburgh with name plates dated 11-30-20, while all units thereafter weremanufactured in East Springfield, Mass. with name plates bearing five

The early production line of Westinghouse

receivers including the RA units shownhere was very labor intensive with littleautomation. (George H. Clark Collection,Smithsonian Institution)

Westinghouse transferred responsibility for

manufacturing broadcast radio apparatus

to its East Springfield, Mass. facility.

,r.1 '`' , - ,,,,.., r

i'. ..v... ̀4 t".ti ;111 !j,i1J'ilil ''.

'11Vc111111ii,i,,i':, . 4..

fr Tp -

'',,t_i"t L •

NEW ENGLAND WESTINGHOUSE FACTORY, EAST SPRINGFIELD, MASS.

•

L • •4.1.71

•ii-!.' •

'

„ IPATECE3 W•t.:

eilplikL WNW

• Sr;s47:1c. s -• -•:-.••


Each of the five different RA serial numberplates has a unique design which can beused to readily identify the production rundate at a glance. A. 11-30-20 B. 9-28-21C.8-2-21 D. 12-14-21 E. 5-29-22

A

Table 3-2. RA and DA production quantities and locations grouped byproduction dates appearing on name plates

ProductionDate

-ProductionLocation

Unit Type Estimated Numberof Units Produceda

11-30-20 Pittsburgh, PA RA and DA 1700

5-18-21 East Springfield, MA DA only 1700

8-2-21 East Springfield, MA RA and DA 4900

9-28-21 East Springfield, MA RA only 1700

12-14-21 East Springfield, MA RA and DA 72,000

5-29-22 East Springfield, MA RA and DA 62,800b

Total RA and DAa

144,_800

aMost of these units were paired and sold as RC receiversbHalf are RA units without serial numbers paired with DA's and sold as RC's

different production dates between 5-18-21 and 5-29-22. Approximately 1700RA and DA units were initially made in Pittsburgh before manufacturing wastransferred to East Springfield.The numbers of RA and DA units manufactured within each of the six

production dates are summarized in Table 3-2. The methodology used to

;• • .

WAVE

3T eLE NC/

ELECTRZC; & CO.PiTJWP.

tq 'ET n'

TYPE

-‘55.1./....K.:;r -;-,T; .11

CH I. !!

Tc ;Cr "

".r.- ACLU

Westirf5house1,ctric & ompDS- .5;z0Cr.Z..7 Y4'SPECE!%11'.... TYPE RA

LEN:7, '

I t N..-

-

I. /

•

•

.r•

86 _Radiola THE GOLDEN AGE OF RCA

A

CACTRTI

• WESTiNGHOUSE". :414.i• '.. ELECTMC & MFG. ,.....,_ 1,

UPETIVE;rJRCit-'4 Ph- J. f.4.1%.:1 '4

'DETECTOR: AMPILgrqPic)TYPE: DA ri

DETECTC.IR-2 STEP AZUDIC.9 1,WPI.i,F3V-M ''V

A'..1-1

.awreis,i,,, A,

•• -"' •-• ,

' 1.' .1%."-e-t :•-' I-: l!' ,../. r r.;41-t ;.: 'CA 'ti "‹.-....; ...4 'A' i7..i. N . .z, ;KA •,-6.•ixt,... It q..."...-,:.: ._,...b,

.._.'m ;;;:j.'. r7-„4,1r.:;•...f1.0..lrfng Coinpzilf.c.c.'..i...: c,..:3?:.;.. S3 .FiaD, 'ec.i,S.S..?i.S./1.. '

Al Fil...JR T'( PE Ei?:!,:L:',•. ;.:,r'-... i:TCP, A Lr..;:o

.4•.-4.•• rg ...0,•.-...-.

. .,

: • V.4,4:•,.4j.:-' , 'At On .:.

1 :".. T t :' 3 0 .-----r. • • I'M.er- -4 ''s, - - • ...

-

'•1.5.•••,\-,•-*41 .• 1". • %• • i • - 1

r • styli•NroF;AFotrEuR f4t.... 0-1 •71O E:-kff".;;.. .ti I. AND isip€

••• t.26: '

Each of the five different DA serial numberplates has a unique design which can beused to readily identify the production rundate at a glance. A. 11-30-20 B. 5-18-21C. 8-2-21 D. 12-14-21 E. 5-29-22

Ai.- /IA , tenegi.i#74C4diaLeWaitSii

rikle-:- ,... z. ,,..,i:ETt-c-t-,ifl i 1)FTECTI,JRN; c;TYit:

1 ? ST% P ftlar,',) ti j' -r.l. 7.'.: !FR .i1

.Afc.71,.!11:;' s. Ft'f'i• rpt i

1 ki,s.,,,,,,, . . .. 3 ‘•,) :' . e :.

' '.. . .......1......

arrive at these results is explained in Appendix D. The numbers of unitsmanufactured in the first four production runs are substantially less than in

the last two, and as a result these units are more desirable from the

collector's viewpoint. The units manufactured in Pittsburgh are the first and

among the rarest, and therefore are the most desirable of all. While there is

some uncertainty in the numbers manufactured within each of the six

groups, the total estimated number of 144,800 units manufactured is

believed to be reasonably accurate.While the total number of individual RA and DA units manufactured can be

determined from the observed serial numbers with some accuracy, determining

the number of RA and DA units paired together and sold as RC receivers issomewhat more complicated. The upper bound to that number is 72,400,which is arrived at by assuming that all of the 144,800 sets indicated in Table

3-2 are paired together. However, a number of these units were sold

individually as RA's and DA's. This fraction can be estimated by taking the

ratio of a) the number of all RA and DA units in the serial number data base

sold individually to b) the number of all RA and DA units in the data base sold

either individually or paired as RC's. Based on the available serial number data

base, this fraction is 50 % for the first group dated 11-30-20, 5% for the last

group dated 5-29-22, and 22 % for the remaining units considered as one group.

Using this technique, the total number of RC sets manufactured is estimated to


Table 3-3. The total number of RA's and DA's combined into RC's

Group DateTotal Number of RA's and

DA's ManufacturedPercentage Sold

IndividuallyTotal RA & DA

Sold Individually ,Total RA & DASold as RC's

Total Numberof RC's _

11-30-20 1700 50% 850 850 425

5-29-22,

62,800 5% 3140 59,660 29,830_

All others 80,300 22%.

17,666,

70,664 35,332

Totals 144,800 15%-

21,656 123,144 65,587

be 65,587 as indicated in Table 3-3.This number of RC's is substantially smaller than the 80,000-85,000

estimated by Douglas,4° who also used serial numbers. Douglas began with anupper bound of 100,000 RC's instead of the 72,400 bound estimated here.4' Hisupper bound included a large number of RC's that are now known to be othertypes of sets with interleaved serial numbers. He then made an educated guessthat the upper bound should be reduced by 15,000-20,000 to account for boththe existence of other models with interleaved serial numbers and the sales ofindividual RA's and DA's. Based on a more detailed analysis of a larger serialnumber data base, it appears that his upper bound should have been reduced byabout 13,000 or so to account for other receiver types, and an additional 21,600or so to account for sales of individual RA's and DA's.

DA Design ChangesThe DA's in the first production run in Pittsburgh were assigned the StyleNumber 307190 and dated 11-30-20, while the Style Number for all DA'smanufactured in East Springfield was altered slightly by adding a "B." Therewere numerous design changes made to the DA throughout the life of this unit.Many of the design changes were cosmetic in nature, intended primarily todecrease cost, but some were clearly caused by functional requirements. Otherchanges were made over time, some coinciding with a new production run, and

Table 3-4. Design features of the DA detector-amplifier evolved in each of thefour DA production runs following the original production run dated 11-30-20

DA Design FeatureChanges from 11-30-20 5-18-21 8-2-21 12-14-21 5-29-22

Copper shield on cabinet wallschanged to ferromagnetic metal / / / ' /

Rear terminals changed from fiberto metal

/ /

Labels added to phone jacks / / / /

Tube socket design changed andall sockets rotated by 45°

/ / / /

Center tube socket rotated by 180° / / /

Panel mounting brackets changedfrom solid blocks to L-brackets

/ / /

Knob diameter decreased;arrowhead pointer design added

/ /

Mortised hinges on lid changed tosurface mounted

/ /


others implemented in the middle of a production run. These design changes

for the DA units are summarized in Table 3-4, along with the production run

or runs in which each change became prevalent.

In addition to these design changes, there were also changes in the supplier

for individual parts such as the telephone jacks and transformers. While the

changes in most of these parts are not readily apparent to the eye, a change in

the physical appearance of the audio transformer was significant, and differs

markedly from the transformer that appears in all of the early ads. These

transformers were changed sometime during the second production run, and

later changed back to the original. The novice collector might believe the

alternate transformer was an after-market replacement for the notoriously

fragile factory-installed transformer, but this is not necessarily the case. Other

minor variations have been observed such as rounded corners on the lids of the

tube access hole on a few sets. The reason for this type of variation on such a

small number of sets is unknown.

There were also some minor wiring changes, perhaps the most well known

being a change to reduce distortion by inserting a "C" battery in the grid

circuit of the amplifier tubes. The RC was originally designed to have 45 volts

applied to the plate of the amplifier tubes, but the desire for increased power

to drive loudspeakers led to increases of plate voltage first to 68 volts and then

to 90 volts. This increase in plate voltage changed the operating point of the

amplifier tubes such that the output became distorted. The distortion could

-

The more obvious changes to the front

panel of early DA detector-amplifiers (top

left) were the addition of labels to the

phone jacks and a change in pointer

design on the filament rheostats of later

panels (top right). The mortised hinges on

earlier DA lids (below) were changed to

surface-mounted hinges with both round

and square shapes on later lids (center

and right units).

IP IIP

9

9

fI


be remedied by inserting a "C" battery in the grid circuit of the amplifier tubesto reposition the operating point to a more linear portion of the operatingcharacteristic. The wiring diagram for this change is shown in the RCA VictorService Notes under the section entitled Radiola RT.42 Later, the WD-12 tubeswere substituted for the UV-200 or UV-201-A tubes, and the distortion thenoccurred at voltages as low as 45 volts. RCA published articles on how the RCowner could retrofit his or her set with a "C" battery to reduce thedistortion,43 and many sets can be found with wiring changes made by ownersto accommodate a "C" battery.

Variations in the thickness of the front panels have been reported,'" butmeasurements on a number of panels from each production run do not showany marked variation. Since the front panels were hand sanded and polished,it is certainly possible that some sets have thicker panels than others, but itdoes not appear to be an intentional design change. Also, a decidedly brownhue has been observed on some of the front panels, but there does not seem tobe any pattern with regard to different production runs, and so it is possiblethat a small number of the panel changed color over time as the result ofexposure to some environmental factors such as sunlight.

RA Design ChangesThere were a number of design changes made to the RA tuner over the lifeof this unit as indicated in table 3-5. The RA's in the original production runmade in Pittsburgh were assigned Style No. 307189 and dated 11-30-20, whilethe Style Number for all subsequent RA's manufactured in East Springfield

Table 3-5. Design features of the RA tuner evolved in each of the four RAproduction runs following the original production run dated 11-30-20

RA Design FeatureChanges from 11-30-20 9-28-21 8-2-21 12-14-21

,

5-29-22..,

Copper shield on cabinet wallschanged to ferromagnetic metal i i i i

Rear terminals changed from fiberto metal i i i i

Wiring rerouted away from coil;minor change to spiral connectors i st i i

Panel mounting brackets changedfrom solid blocks to L-brackets It

Dial skirts changed from Micartato metal; dial print size decreased i i

Westinghouse logo added tolarge center dial i

was altered slightly by adding an "A." The first changes to the RA indicatedin the table were actually made on sets manufactured in Pittsburgh near theend of the 11-30-20 production run, most likely in preparation for thetransfer of production to East Springfield, Mass. The few RA's made inPittsburgh with these changes have serial numbers in the mid-3600s, and arevirtually indistinguishable from those made in the first production run inEast Springfield dated 9-28-21—with the notable exception of the details onthe name plate.

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TOC 1Previous Section: Chapter XLI1Next Section: Appendix A

History of Communications-Electronics in the United States Navy, Captain Linwood S. Howeth, USN(Retired), 1963, pages 501-512:

CHAPTER XLII

Radio Conferences During the Period Between World Wars

1. PREFACE

At the First International Radio Conference, held in Berlin in 1903, delegates of the powers representeddrafted a protocol governing the use of radio to be considered by a second conference to be assembled ayear later. The Second International Conference, postponed by the Russo-Japanese War, met again inBerlin in 1906 and essentially agreed to these previously drafted agreements and regulations. The U.S.delegates took a leading part in drafting this covenant but unfortunately the Senate delayed ratifying ituntil 1912. Late in that year the Third International Conference convened in London and took actions toincrease the utilization and regulation of radio to enhance safety of life at sea. At this time a decisionwas reached to hold the Fourth International Radio Conference during 1917. The U.S. Governmentextended an invitation to hold this in Washington. This invitation was accepted but as a result of WorldWar lit was not convened until 1925.1.

2. ALLIED RADIO CONFERENCE

In 1921 representatives of the United States, France, Great Britain, Italy, and Japan met in Washingtonto discuss the international use of radio and to draft a protocol for consideration at the FourthInternational Radio Conference. These representatives formulated a series of technical questions whichcould not be answered at the time and directed the assembling of a Technical Committee onInternational Radio Communications in Paris at the earliest possible time to consider and advise uponthese questions. This Committee met from 21 June to 22 August 1921 and gave recommendations in thepremises. In closing, the Committee recommended that the United States, being charged with calling thenext international conference, should accept the task of preparing a revised presentation of theWashington draft, which would include the proposals presented by the Technical Committee, andcommunicate this to the other nations with an invitation to attend the Conference. It furtherrecommended that these nations should transmit, within a definite period, all their objections,observations, and proposals with the understanding that no new matters would be presented during theConference. Following receipt of objectives, observations, and proposals the United States was totransmit them to all attending nations in sufficient time to permit at least 6 months for theirconsideration prior to the convening of the ConferenceA

3. NATIONAL RADIO CONFERENCES

Suddenly and unheralded, in 1921 radio broadcasting created one of the most fantastic booms in thehistory of the American people. Without prospect of monetary gain, unless the applicant was a

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manufacturer or purveyor of radio equipment, increasing numbers of requests for station licenses forbroadcasting purposes poured into the Department of Commerce. Under the Radio Act of 1912 nopower existed permitting the denial of a license to any reputable American citizen. At the time therewere only two authorized frequencies for broadcasting purposes, 830 and 620 kc. By 1922 theconditions became so chaotic that President Harding directed Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover toconvene a conference of manufacturers, broadcasters, radio amateur spokesmen, and civilian andmilitary government radio communication personnel to study the problem and to makerecommendations to alleviate the intolerable situation.

In his opening speech to the members of this First National Radio Conference Secretary Hooverremarked:

We have witnessed in the last four or five months one of the most astounding things thathas come under my observation of American life. This Department estimates that todaymore than 600,000 persons possess wireless telephone receiving sets, whereas there wereless than 50,000 such sets a year ago. We are indeed today upon the threshold of a newmeans of widespread communication of intelligence that has the most profound importance

from the point of view of public education and public welfare.2

Although acrimony quickly developed between the several factions striving to gain control of therecently developed medium, all were in agreement that a definite U.S. radio policy was needed and that

Federal control was essential.4The conferees recommended that the public and the Government have priority rights in the use of

radio and that the existing inadequate laws should be changed to give the Government control over alltransmitting stations. They recommended no restrictions upon the use of receivers but reannunciated theinviolability of the contents of private and official messages.

Four classes of broadcasting were recommended:

Government;Public, by States, universities, and others disseminating educational information;Private, by stores, newspapers and others distributing news, entertainment or other

services; and,

Toll, by public service radio telephone companies as a paid service.

The increase in broadcasting stations necessitated that an increase in broadcasting frequencies berecommended. This required the invasion of that portion of the spectrum between 185 and 500 kc.,formerly reserved for military and naval usage by national and international laws. Governmental

broadcasting was allotted two frequency bands, 146 to 162 and 200 to 285 kc.; private and tollbroadcasting was allotted the band 700 to 965 kc., public broadcasting was allocated the band between

1053 and 1090 kc.; and the amateurs were allowed the exclusive use of the band between 1500 and 2000

kc. and the frequency of 910 kc. plus the shared usage of the band 1090 to 1500 kc. with technical andtraining schools. No material changes in the frequencies utilized by ships, aircraft, fixed stations, radio

beacons, and radio compass stations were recornmended.In view of the amount of commercial advertising on radio and television channels today it is of

interest to note that this Conference recommended against this obnoxious means of advertising bylimiting it to the announcement of the name of the program sponsor.

It was recommended that the Secretary of Commerce be given the power to prohibit the use of

radio-transmitting apparatus and methods which created unnecessary interference provided more

satisfactory apparatus and methods should become reasonably and commercially available.2

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Recognizing that radio interference was one of the major problems of broadcast reception, themembers submitted the following program for the study by the U.S. Bureau of Standards:

The reduction of the rate of building up of oscillations in radiating systems;The reduction of harmonics in continuous wave transmitters and of irregularities of

oscillation;Comparison between the variable amplitude and the variable-frequency methods of

continuous wave telegraphy;The preferable methods of telephone modulation to avoid changes in the frequency of

oscillation;The proper circuit arrangements of regenerative receivers to avoid radiation of energy;The use of highly selective receiving apparatus, including a list of approved types;The use of receiving-coil aerials instead of antennas, with special reference to high

selectivity;The reduction of interference with radio communication by other electrical processes,

such as X-ray apparatus; and,

The study and standardization of frequency meters.

In September 1922 Congressman Wallace H. White, Jr., of Maine, who had been a voluntary memberof the First National Radio Conference, introduced a bill which embodied the recommendations of thatConference. The November issue of Radio Broadcast reported that this was "lost in the mazes ofcongressional procedure." Congress, always reluctant to enact legislation controlling radio, simply couldnot get the bill reported out of committee.2The Second National Radio Conference was held in 1923 but, without enabling legislation, the

members could only reiterate the recommendations of the previous Conference. By the middle of 1923,143 radio broadcasting stations had closed because of lack of income and the insistence of the writers ofpopular music that they be paid royalties for its use in radio broadcasting.The failure of Congress to pass the White Radio bill convinced Secretary Hoover that he would be

granted no authority in excess of that which he already possessed. With the concurrence of the majorbroadcast executives he issued a reassignment of frequencies for broadcasting stations in July 1923.Radio Broadcast for the following month stated:

. . . the Secretary of Commerce, acting in accord with the opinion of the radio experts andauthorities of the country has reassigned frequencies to practically all the broadcastingstations in the country and has done it so well that we no longer have any cause forcomplaint. Instead of the bedlam of noise to which we had become almost accustomed,there is practically no interference at al1.11

This new system, which worked for a few weeks, had no compelling basis of law and unscrupulousand selfish individuals soon ruined the Secretary's excellent plan and the situation returned to its formerchaotic condition.12The Third National Radio Conference convened in Washington on 6 October 1924. This was by far

the most important of these Conferences. The present allocations of frequency bands stems from itsrecommendations. Military and naval communication systems voluntarily agreed to use the broadcastband 500-1600 kc. only on a noninterference basis. As a result of this shifting of frequency bands theNavy drew up its first complete radiofrequency plan which was approved by the President upon therecommendation of the Interdepartmental Radio Advisory Board. Later this plan became the basis for an

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international allocation of frequency bands.-1-In this Conference the members unselfishly endeavored to solve the problems of radio usage. This is

amazing when one considers that it was held at the time when the controversy over broadcasting rightswas being waged between the radio and telephone groups. Amateurs cooperated by voluntarily agreeingto abolish the use of spark transmitters and to discourage the use of oscillating receivers within the

broadcast band."-11One of the most significant and controversial events of the Conference was the advocation by Mr.

David Sarnoff, Vice President of the Radio Corp. of America, of the establishment of a chain of 50-kw(superpowered) broadcast stations. This proposal was finally compromised by recommending theSecretary of Commerce issue licenses for such stations which could be revoked if it should be found by

experience that they interfered with other stations.-15

The recommendations of the Conference resulted in dividing broadcasting stations into the threefollowing classes:

Number ofClass Kilocycles

channels1 550-1,070 632 1,090-1,400 323 1,420-1,460 5

This provided for an increase of 10 channels for class 1 stations and the elimination of broadcasting

below 550 kc.1--For the first time in the U.S. allocations of frequencies bands above 2000 kc. were considered and the

following usage was suggested:

Kilocycles Service95-120 Government, CW and ICW, exclusive.

120-157 Marine, CW and ICW, exclusive.157-165 Point-to-point, CW and ICW. Marine, CW and ICW.

165-190 Point-to-point, CW, ICW, spark. Marine, CW and ICW.

190-230 Government, CW and ICW, exclusive.

230-235 University, college, and experimental, CW and ICW, exclusive.235-250 Marine, phone, nonexclusive.250 Government, CW, ICW, nonexclusive.

250-275 Marine, phone, nonexclusive.275 Government, CW, ICW, nonexclusive.

275-285 Marine, phone, nonexclusive.285-500 Marine and coastal, including radio compass and radio beacons.500-550 Aircraft, CW, ICW, phone and fixed safety-of-life stations, phone,

exclusive.550-1,500 Broadcasting services, phone, exclusive.1,500-2,000 Amateur, CW, ICW, phone.2,000-2,250 Point-to-point, nonexclusive.2,250-2,500 Aircraft, exclusive.2,500-2,750 Mobile.2,750-2,850 Relay broadcasting, exclusive.2,850-3,500 Public service.

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2,500-4,0004,000-4,5004,500-5,0005,000-5,5005,500-5,7005,700-7,0007,000-8,0008,000-9,0009,000-10,00010,000-11,00011,000-11,40011,400-14,00014,000-16,00016,000-18,00018,000-56,00056,000-64,000

64,000-infinity

Amateur and Army mobile.Public service and mobile.Relay broadcasting, exclusive.Public service.Relay broadcasting, exclusive.Public service.Amateur and Army mobile.Public service and mobile.Relay broadcasting, exclusive.Public service.Relay broadcasting, exclusive.Public service.Amateur.Public service and mobile.Beam transmission.Amateur.

Beam transmission.11

http://earlyradiohistory.us/1963hw42.htm

The Committee on Marine Communications recommended allocation of the frequency bandsrecommended for this service as follows:

Kilocycles120-190

ServiceUnassigned, except as noted below, with the recommendations thatallocations to various marine services be made by the Department ofCommerce.

160-175, and 185 Government use. It was further recommended that the frequency of 185kc. be used for ice-patrol broadcasting and for other navigational aidmessages.

235-285 Marine radiotelephony. It was recommended that specific allocationswithin this band should be made by the Department of Commerce and,pending further developments, should be tentative.

343, 410 and 454 Ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore communications.425 It was recommended that ships now assigned this frequency be assigned

other frequencies within a reasonable time.Government use.Radio compass.Government use for aircraft and submarines, CW and ICW.Exclusive for calling and distress signals and messages relating thereto.

Mobile marine services.11

315345-410445500

2,500-2,750

The Fourth National Radio Conference was convened in the autumn of 1925. The Secretary ofCommerce had practically been forced to abandon his policy of issuing licenses to all applicants, fordespite numerous failures of broadcasting stations, applications for new licenses increased by leaps andbounds. The Secretary keynoted his opening speech of this Conference by declaring the radio industryshould solve its problems by private initiative and not be too ready to ask the Government to assume theresponsibility. However, the members were almost unanimously in favor of the Department ofCommerce in illegally assuming the responsibility, for reducing and limiting the number of stations. The

Secretary yielded to this recommendation and assumed the authority.-2 He also entered into an

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agreement with the Canadian Government which allocated the use of six broadcasting channels for theexclusive use of their broadcasting stations. Meanwhile, the Zenith Radio Corp. had applied for licensefor a station in Chicago. This was granted and the station was assigned a frequency shared with aGeneral Electric Co. station in Denver. Only a few hours a week were available to the Chicago station.This was unsatisfactory to Zenith officials who requested the assignment of one of the channels whichhad been allocated to Canada. Their request was denied. They then ignored the prescribed rules and theZenith Co. was promptly sued by the Government. On 16 April 1926, a decision was rendered which didnot uphold the right of the Department of Commerce to assign frequencies. The Attorney General of theUnited States was forced to issue the edict that the Secretary of Commerce had no power to withholdlicenses from reputable U.S. citizens, nor authority to prescribe frequencies for or hours of operation ofstations. With the last vestige of control removed one can readily picture the conditions whichimmediately ensued. This country, scheduled to be the host nation for the first International RadioConference since 1912, unable to control an industry within its own boundaries and unable to enforce

international agreements, set a horrible example for the remainder of the world.

4. THE FEDERAL RADIO COMMISSION

Immediately following the edict issued by the Department of Justice a new bill establishing a FederalRadio Commission, with authority to allocate commercial frequencies and hours of usage as well as toprescribe and supervise radio discipline, was agreed upon. This action was taken too late for the bill tobe enacted into law prior to the adjournment of Congress. It was considered and passed in early 1927and was signed by President Coolidge on 25 February 1927. The new established commission consistedof five members. The President immediately nominated Rear Adm. W. H. G. Bullard, USN (retired), aschairman and Messrs. Orestes H. Caldwell, Eugene 0. Sykes, Henry A. Bellows, and John F. Dillon asmembers. Three of the Commission's members were confirmed on 4 March. One of the other two, Mr.Bellows, resigned on 8 October prior to confirmation. Colonel Dillon, one of the three early confirmed,died on that day and the chairman, Rear Adm. Bullard, died of a heart attack on Thanksgiving Day of the

same year. The organization meeting was held on 15 March 1927.11.The lack of understanding of the radio situation by most of our legislators is evidenced by the

provision of this Radio Act of 1927 which envisioned that the licensing authority of the Commissionwould be returned to the Department of Commerce at the end of one year and thereafter the Commission

would only act in an advisory and appellate capacity. No engineering staff was provided to assist themembers in their gigantic task. In order to provide such assistance, and to eliminate the chaoticconditions which were rendering naval radio communications on and near our coastlines practicallyimpossible, the Navy Department volunteered the services of the Radio Division of the Bureau of Ships.This proffer was accepted.The initial action taken by the Commission occurred on 17 April 1927 when it ordered 129 stations,

which had been operating on unassigned frequencies, to return to the frequencies previously assigned

them by the Department of Commerce.Having established the Commission, Congress immediately proceeded to make it a political football.

Broadcasters sought more favored frequencies and enlisted the support of their Congressmen as well astheir listeners. The latter were encouraged to write directly to the Commission as well as to theirCongressmen imploring that the station of their choice be given most favorable consideration. TheCommission was quickly buried under an avalanche of letters and affidavits. One station, alone, is

purported to have filed 170,000 affidavits collected from its listeners.2it Constant congressional pressure

was brought to bear upon each member of the Commission. Lawrence F. Schmekebier stated, "Probably

no quasijudicial body was ever subject to so much congressional pressure as the Federal Radio

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Commission. Much of this, moreover, came at a time when several members of the Commission had notbeen confirmed."Even under favorable conditions it is doubtful that the Commission could have executed its licensing

responsibility within the alloted year. Faced with outside interference and loss of membership, it madeslow progress and even that was subject to the most severe criticism. Congress, in March 1928,reluctantly extended the Radio Commission's authority for another year but curbed its authority byproviding for five broadcasting zones and "a fair and equitable allocation among the different Statesthereof in proportion to population and area." This amendment was subject to different interpretationsby the several Commission members and hindered them in carrying out their responsibilities. Thisresulted in additional legislation being enacted in 1929 and thereafter such legislation becameincreasingly frequent-21

5. THE FOURTH INTERNATIONAL RADIO CONFERENCE

The Fourth International Radio Conference had been scheduled to convene during 1917 with the U.S.Government as host. World War I prevented this meeting. Following the conclusion of the war, themembers of the Inter-Allied Radio Conference endeavored to convene this Conference at an early date.They established a Technical Committee to submit proposed redrafts of the London Convention of 1912which would provide a new convention more in keeping with technological advances in radio. The U.S.Government agreed to circulate these proposals through diplomatic channels to the numerous nationswhich were to be invited to the Conference in order that they might have at least 6 months to study themprior to the convening of the Conference. The initial deliberations of this Technical Committeecoincided with the beginning of enormous technological improvements in radio equipment and with thecommencement of radio broadcasting. The improvements were so rapid that the Technical Committeecould not make the required changes and have them circulated and studied before these changes requiredmodifications. This condition continued for several years and was further complicated by thedevelopment of the use of short waves and the concurrent expansion of the spectrum and an increase ininternational radio interference.

Finally, on 4 October 1927, a decade later than its original scheduling, the Conference was convenedin Washington. Almost 300 delegates, from 79 countries, including those of several colonies andpossessions which were authorized independent action, were participants. The primary purpose of theConference was to formulate international, regulations to minimize interference between radio stationsengaged in international service or which were international in their capabilities of creatinginterference.The U.S. delegation of 15 members, appointed by President Coolidge, was headed by the Hon.

Herbert Hoover, Secretary of the Department of Commerce. Capt. T. T. Craven, USN, Director of NavalCommunications, was the Navy member. Capt. S. C. Hooper, Comdr. F. H. Roberts, Lt. Comdrs. W. S.Hogg, Jr., T. A. M. Craven, R. H. Blair, and L. Cooper and Lt. A. I. Price, all of the U.S. Navy, weredesignated technical advisors. Lt. Comdr. Tully Shelley, USN, was a member of the receptioncommittee.29

The Conference was opened with a welcoming address by President Coolidge which was immediatelyfollowed by addresses by Secretary Hoover, Col. T. F. Purvis, chief of the British delegation, and Mr. G.J. Hotker, chief of the Netherlands delegation.21-:-) Conforming to international protocol Secretary Hooverwas installed as the presiding officer of the Conference.

Secretary Hoover's address stressed the necessity of providing regulations which would not impedeadvances in the art or fetter the minds of persons who might be directed toward scientific discovery andtechnical improvement. He pointed out that the London Conference had to deal with but a few

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frequencies which concerned calling and communication channels for ships' use but that the presentConference must concern itself with the entire usable radio spectrum. He stated that the radiotelephone,broadcasting, direction finding, beacons, facsimile, aircraft, and the thousands of amateurs engaged ininternational communication, research, and experimentation had resulted in an enormous expansion ofthe original application of radio. He closed his address with a plea that the conferees endeavor to reach

an international understanding to control these extended uses of radio.-3-1At the plenary session the following committees were established to facilitate and expedite the work

of the conferees:

Committee for revision of the London Convention;General Regulations Committee;Mobile and Special Services Regulation Committee;Point-to-point and Other Fixed Services Regulation Committee;Tariff Committee;Technical Committee;Drafting Committee; and,International Code of Signals Committee.

The United States proposed the use of both French and English and offered to provide the interpretors.

This was agreed to by the Conference.In some countries radio was a government or quasi-government monopoly while in others it was

purely a commercial operation. Difficulties arose as to the legality of regulating the latter. On a motionof the United States, this was solved by dividing the regulations into two parts, General Regulations andSupplementary Regulations. Those regulations and rules of a managerial nature and relating to theoperation of radio service were put in the Supplementary Regulations. These were not to be signed bythe delegates of the United States and other countries where radio was a commercial venture. Aprovision making the regulations of the International Telegraph Convention, to which the United States

was not a party, applicable to radio was included in the Supplementary Regulations.1The Convention as accepted, contained 24 articles, couched in broad terms covering the licensing of

transmitting stations and operators, the inviolability of the contents of messages, intercommunicationbetween ship and ship, and ship and coastal stations, the settlement of commercial accounts, theestablishment of an international radio consulting committee, the allocation of blocks of call letters by

nations, and the settlement of disputes concerning radio matters by arbitration.L/The radio arbitration plan caused a rift to develop during a plenary session held on 19 November.

Japan and Great Britain opposed the inclusion of this article which was strongly advocated by thedelegations of the United States, Argentina, Mexico, and Uruguay. The motion in favor of the articlewas brought to vote after extensive debate and effort at compromise, and was carried. This was the firsttreaty to which the United States was a party which contained an unconditional, compulsory arbitration

clause.35

The General Regulations contained articles. The most important of these, article 5, dealt with theallocation of frequencies. Frequency was adopted as the standard of measurement, supplanting the lessaccurate means of specification by wavelength. Instead of making frequency allocations by countries, theConference made allocation to specific services, all nations having equal rights to the uses of thesespecified bands. The allocations basically conformed to those established in the United States basedupon the recommendations of its Third National Radio Conference. The band from 10 to 100 kc. was

assigned to stations engaged in point-to-point service, chiefly transoceanic service. The band from 100

to 550 kc. was designated primarily for ship-to-ship, ship-to-shore, and aircraft services. This included

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radio beacons on a band at about 300 kc. and provided for a radio compass service on a band around 375kc. The 500-kc. frequency remained the international calling and distress wave and could be used formessage traffic only on condition that interference with call signals and distress signals would not result.The band between 194 and 285 kc. was one on which it was somewhat difficult to secure agreement.This difficulty arose because many of the European countries desired to utilize it for broadcasting. It wasfinally agreed that part of this band could be used for broadcasting in Europe only, and that the rest ofthe band would be assigned to mobile and aircraft services and to fixed stations not open to publiccorrespondence. The band from 550 to 1500 kc. was universally recognized as the broadcasting band.One frequency in this band, 1365 kc. was assigned to small ships. The entire band could be used bymobile service in any part of the world on a noninterference basis. The band between 1500 to 60,000 kc.was divided into 40 smaller bands and apportioned between mobile services, communication betweenfixed stations, broadcasting, and amateur stations. This allocation of the short waves involved somechanges from the Third National Radio Conference allocation, but had the advantage of giving someassurance that stations of a given type operating in this band would be able to continue their operationsubject only to the adjustment of interference with other stations engaged in similar service.The Conference gave definite recognition to the amateur in international radio communication by

allocating for amateur use four exclusive bands and two nonexclusive bands. This was accomplished bythe efforts of the American delegation supported by the Canadian and New Zealand delegations. Thisprovision gave amateurs greater assurance of making international contact one with another.L7

Although the Conference recognized that the allocation of frequency bands to specific services wasnecessary to minimize interference, there was a corresponding desire to leave to each country, or togroups of countries in a certain region, as much freedom as possible in making assignments to stationswhich are not international in their effect. Freedom was left for the assignment of any frequency to anystation which could not cause international interference.

It was recognized that it was inadvisable to write into the regulations definite provisions of a technicalor engineering nature which might become obsolete during the next few years. Instead, generalprovisions calling for the maintenance of a high technical standard were adopted. For example, article 4of the General Regulations required that a station must maintain its authorized frequency as closely asthe state of the art would permit, and its radiation must be kept as free as practicable from all emissionsnot essential to the authorized type of communication. The various nations were allowed to fix theallowable tolerance between the assigned and transmitted frequencies, and they agreed, to takeprogressive advantage of technical improvements to reduce this tolerance. The width of the frequencyband of a transmitter was required to be reasonably consistent with good current engineering practice forthe type of emission.The conferees considered that definite dates must be set on which certain restrictions on the use of

damped-wave transmitters would become effective. The regulations provided that no furtherinstallations of transmitters of this type would be installed at fixed or land stations and that, after 1January 1930, such transmitters installed on ships should, at full power, use less than 300 wattsmeasured at the input of the supply transformer. It was provided, however, that no restriction should beplaced upon the means which an operator of a mobile station in distress could use in attracting or inindicating his position and obtaining assistance. The use of existing damped-wave transmitters was tobe discontinued by all land stations prior to 1 January 1935.The Regulations annexed to the London Convention were applicable exclusively to ship-to-ship and

ship-to-shore services. In the Washington Convention most of the Regulations were applicable to mobileservice, including aircraft. Provisions were included covering the use of traffic frequencies, thenecessary control of traffic by land stations, the routing of messages by mobile stations, and other relatedmatters. The Regulations required absolute priority for distress calls and messages and traffic pertaining

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thereto. A radiotelephone distress call consisting of the spoken expression "May Day" was included inaddition to the telegraphic signal. "SOS." Provision was also made for the use of a special signal forsetting into operation an apparatus to give an automatic alarm and to warn someone on a ship fitted withsuch an installation that a distress signal would follow. A safety signal, "TTT," was also established tobe used as a preamble for messages concerning the safety of navigation or containing meteorologicalwarnings. Article 6 of the General Regulations covered the issuance of operator's certificates. Theseprovisions differed but little from the existent requirement of the United States, except that a chiefoperator's license on a vessel of the first class could only be issued to persons who had a year'sexperience under a first-class license. Provisions were included designating the hours of service forships with one or with two operators. Complete revised lists of abbreviations or operator's procedure

signals were included. These were also made applicable to aircraft communications.Throughout their work, the delegates endeavored to keep before them the principle, enunciated by the

presiding officer, that the conclusions of the Conference should be of such a nature as not to interferewith the development of the art. The regulations adopted were the absolute minimum necessary tomaintain orderly communications. The Convention and annexed Regulations became effective onJanuary 1, 1929 for all of the ratifying governments. The Governments of Spain, Egypt, and Hollandvolunteered to be host to the next Conference scheduled for 1932. The invitation of Spain was

acceptedAIn this most important of all the international radio conferences, every effort was made by all of the

delegates to secure the correct solution of the problems under discussion. The technical questions inparticular were usually, discussed, and the conclusions arrived at, from a technical rather than anationalistic standpoint. The general attitude was one of cooperation and of realization that the problemsshould be solved on their merits.The preliminary work of the U.S. delegation and their technical assistants was thorough and of the

highest order. With an allocation plan, based on services, ready to lay before the conferees, the U.S.delegation was in a position to dominate the Conference. Our delegation was ably supported by theFrench and Italian delegations as well as by most of those of the Western Hemisphere. In the manycommittee and subcommittee meetings our delegates never failed to show unanimity of opinion andeffort to obtain decisions which would eliminate interference and further the art. The Navy was animportant factor in the matter of radiofrequency allocation, in furthering the interests of the amateurs,and in protecting the interests of commercial communications against unnecessary governmental

controls.-42

In his closing address, made on 25 November 1927, Secretary Hoover stated:

It is a great honor to be able to congratulate the delegations and in fact the peoples of theircountries on the successful issue of this Conference. That the representatives of 80 differentgovernments, the largest international conference of history, have been able to sit togetherfor a period of 7 weeks and, without any important disagreement, to reach a unanimousconclusion upon so highly a technical and so difficult a problem, is in itself, not only a signof progressive capacity of the world to solve international problems, but it is a fine tribute tothe character and spirit of the delegations from all these nations.

The effects of this Conference and other national developments during 1927 were ably summed by the

Director of Naval Communications, Capt. T. T. Craven, USN. He stated that the Fourth International

Conference provided an agreement which made international administrative conditions more stable; the

Federal Radio Commission was making the Radio Act of 1927 effective; and that national policies were

becoming more firmly established. As a result of these developments, radiofrequency allocations would

be more stable than heretofore and permit the improvement of radio communications equipment along

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definite lines. This would permit the more rapid advancement of the naval communications

improvement program.-The Navy Navy willingly gave up the use of many frequencies in the successful endeavor to obtain

allocations based on usage. The elimination of interference on their assigned frequencies far outweighedthese losses. Basic exchanges were those of 75, 85 and 95 kc. for five frequencies between 400 and 485kc. and 315 kc. for 355 kc. Other losses necessitated the rearrangement and sharing of frequencies by

certain of the naval shore radio stations.The Washington Conference established the International Technical Consulting Committee on Radio

Communications. The purpose of this body was to provide opinions and advice on technical questions ofradio communications which might be submitted by adhering nations or private enterprises. ThisCommittee, which met between International Radio Conferences, was limited to advising theInternational Berne Bureau of Telecommunications on questions studied. The Bureau transmitted theseadvices to participating nations and private enterprises concerned to provide a basis for determination oftechnical standards to be adopted in drafting succeeding conventions.

6. THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL RADIO CONFERENCE

The Fifth International Radio Conference was held, as scheduled, in Madrid in 1932. For the first time itwas held concurrently with the International Telegraph Conference. This Radio Conference was the leastimportant of all those held. The work of the previous one had been so complete and the worldwideeconomic depression had resulted in the reduction in research capabilities and the resultant lack ofprogress in the art. The Conference was concerned primarily with further interference reduction,providing additional communication facilities for the rapidly expanding use of aircraft, making availableadditional broadcast channels in the European area where chaotic broadcast conditions existed, and inexpanding the spectrum upward from 23,000 to 30,000 kc. This Conference also recognized theeffectiveness of high-frequency communications for mobile marine stations and the resultant conventionassigned specific high-frequency channels for this purpose in order to further reduce interference and toprovide useful long-distance communication facilities.

7. THE SIXTH INTERNATIONAL RADIO CONFERENCE

The Sixth International Radio Conference was held in Cairo, Egypt, with the opening session being heldon 1 February, 1938. Prior to this Conference the need for regional considerations of common interestswas recognized. In 1937 a conference of North American countries concerning the broadcast bands washeld in Ottawa. Another conference of Western Hemisphere nations was held in Lima, Peru, to discussaeronautical radio and, finally, one of all American countries was held in Havana to consider theWestern Hemisphere position at the forthcoming conference. Similar regional conferences were held bythe European nations.The United States delegation to the Cairo Conference was headed by Senator Wallace H. White of

Maine. He was assisted by three other delegates, one each from the War and Navy Departments, and onefrom the Federal Communications Commission.-41 Capt. S. C. Hooper, USN, was a delegate.The Cairo Conference was important because of the rapid increase in hemispheric and transoceanic

aviation, the increased uses of high frequencies, and the uses of the newly developed portion of the radiospectrum between 30 and 300 mc.The more important changes incorporated in the convention were:

Designation of radio channels for the world's seven main intercontinental air routes,

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including calling, safety, and service channels;Requirement that aircraft flying maritime routes carry radio equipment capable of

operating on the distress frequency of 500 kc.;Widening high-frequency broadcast bands to 300 kc. and assignment of special bands for

tropical regions:Limiting the use of spark transmitters to three channels and making it unlawful to use

such transmitters with an output in excess of 300 watts;Limiting the frequency tolerance and decreasing bandwidth tables;Allocation for service uses of bands between 30 and 300 mc.;Narrowing of bandwidth assigned amateurs;Provision of meteorological services for use of balloon-carried miniature transmitters;Establishment of 5000 kc. as the dividing line between regional and international

frequencies;Slight improvements in operating regulations based upon experience; and,

Provision for holding regional radio conference.

Prior to completing their work the conferees accepted the invitation of the government of Italy to holdthe next Conference in Rome in 1942. This did not materialize because of World War II. Instead, the

next International Radio Conference was held in Atlantic City following that war.

1 Supra, Ch. XII.2 ,'Report of the Technical Committee on International Radio Communications," p. 2.3 Gleason L. Archer, "History of Radio to 1926," the American Historical Society, Inc., New York,

1938, pp. 248-249.4Ibid.5 Popular Radio, 1922, p. 61.6 Ibid., p. 62.

7 Ibid.8 Ibid., p. 63.9 Gleason L. Archer, "History of Radio to 1926," the American Historical Society, Inc., New York, p.

281.10 Ibid., p. 317-318.11 ibid.

12 Ibid.13 Ibid., pp. 350-351.14 Ibid., p. 351.15 Ibid.

16 ,'Recommendations For The Regulations Of Radio," adopted by Third National Radio Conference,Washington, Government Printing Office, 1924, p. 17.

17 Ibid., p. 15.18 Ibid., pp. 20-21.19 Gleason L. Archer, "History of Radio to 1926," the American Historical Society, Inc., New York,

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1938, p. 567.20 Gleason L. Archer, "Radio and Big Business," the American Historical Society, Inc., New York,

1939, pp. 271-272.21 Bpia p.306.22Ibid p 425.

23 Ibid., p. 307.24 /bid.,pp 306-307.

25 "The Federal Radio Commission," service monograph of the U.S. Government No. 65, p. 55.

76 Davis amendment to the Radio Act of 1928.

27 Gleason L. Archer, "Radio and Big Business," the American Historical Company, Inc., New York,1939, pp. 425-426.28 Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 1928, W. D. Terrell, "The International Radio

Telegraph Conference of Washington, 1927," p. 409.29

U. S. Naval Communication Division Bulletin No. 58, 18 Oct. 1927, p. 2.30 ibid.,

p.1.

31 Ibid., pp. 1-2.

32 Ibid., P. 2.

33 Institute of Radio Engineers, 1928, W. D. Terrell, "The International Radiotelegraph Conference ofWashington, 1927," pp. 409-411, the Wireless Engineer. "The Washington InternationalRadiotelegraphic Convention 1927," p. 667.

34 Ibid. App. N contains extracts of this Convention.35 Washington Post, 20 Nov. 1927.36 Institute of Radio Engineers, 1928, W. D. Terrell, "The International Radiotelegraphic Conference

of Washington, 1927," P. 412.

37 Ibid.38 "International Radiotelegraph Conference, and General and Supplementary Regulations Thereto,"

Washington, Government Printing Office, 1937.

39 Ibid.40 Ibid.

41 ibid.

42 U. S. Naval Communications Bulletin No. Sixty, 15 December 1927.

43 Ibid., p. 2.44 Ibid.45 Journal of American Society of Naval Engineers, vol. 51, no. 2, May 1939. "International

Telecommunication Conferences," S. C. Hooper, pp. 159-160.46 Ibid., p. 159.47 Federal Communications Commission, successor to the Federal Radio Commission was

established as a permanent commission by act of Congress in 1934.48 Journal of American Society of Naval Engineers, vol. 51, no. 2, May 1959. "International

Telecommunication Conferences," S. C. Hooper, pp. 169-175.

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Answers.c: A,1

CommunicationsUS Military History Companion

Cornmunications

Related Topics

• Combat Support• Command and

Control • Reconnaissance

Satellites

oxFoRD°UNIVERSITY PRESS

From the Revolutionary War to the present, the American military has used communications in order tocommand and control its forces and other assets, but the technology has changed dramatically. Methodsemployed during the nation's war for independence (messengers, signal lights, and voice commands) differedlittle from those used by ancient armies.

During the Civil War, visual signaling remained the primary communications method. The utility of theelectric telegraph (invented 1837) had been amply demonstrated by European armies since the 1850s; butAlbert J. Myer gave it little attention when designing the nation's first military communications organization,the U.S. Army Signal Corps. Established by an act of Congress on 21 June 1860, the Signal Corps employedMyer's "wigwag" system. Using an adaptation of the Bain telegraph code, movements of flags (and at night,torches) transmitted tactical communications within visual range. Although army signalers operated"telegraph trains" (communications wagons with telegraphs and field wire), fixed wire communicationswere beyond Myer's purview. With regular trips to the War Department, President Lincoln read the latesttelegraphic reports on the progress of the war. The conduit for that information, more than likely, was therival U.S. Military Telegraph, a contract firm that used commercial lines and civilian employees to meet theadministrative and strategic needs of the army.

After the war, the Signal Corps assumed responsibility for the electric telegraph and used it to create anational weather service as well as a military communications network. Although visual signaling—wigwag,sun-powered heliograph, and observation balloons—remained important to the U.S. military, theSpanish-American War found commercial and military telegraph enjoying extensive use. Commanders inwidely dispersed theaters of war—Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines—made use of both military andcommercial telegraph. Telegraph and ocean cable connected the front lines of Cuba with defense plannersin Washington. Wire communications facilities across the Philippine Islands linked the archipelago bysubmarine cable. At the same time, Adolphus W. Greely (chief signal officer 1887-1906) adapted andequipped the army with emerging late nineteenth-century technology, such as the telephone (invented1876), to command and control its forces. Its use was demonstrated by the telephone system in Cuba thatenabled Gen. William Shafter's Fifth Army to communicate within yards of the front line, as well as with theadmiral of the U.S. Fleet.

While providing a communications network and trying to quell the Philippine War (1899-1902), the SignalCorps simultaneously supported the army on another frontier. Signal Corps celebrities such as then Lt. Billy Mitchell helped to construct the Washington-Alaska Military Cable and Telegraph System (WAMCATS). Thenetwork, which connected the region's isolated military posts, helped the army coordinate its peacekeepingefforts in the territory during the Alaska gold rush. Renamed the Alaska Communication System in 1936, itremained under military control for over sixty years. Radio replaced Alaska's telegraph system in 1928, owingmuch to the efforts of George Owen Squier (chief signal officer 1917-24), who tested Marconi's invention,

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the wireless (1895), for military use.

The U.S. Army and the U.S. Navy both employed the wireless. In 1904, a radio station in the Boston Navy

Yard transmitted the first official Naval Observatory time. Although experimentation continued and the navy

employed wireless to transmit time and weather reports, the navy's admirals had little faith in its tactical

uses.

The Army Signal Corps introduced the first portable wireless sets into the field in 1906, and began

experimenting with radio telephony (voice radio) the following year. In 1914, it tested a radio set mounted

in an automobile. Parallel efforts by the navy during this period included in-house experimentation and

support of the commercial development of radio. Regarded as a novelty, however, radio remained largely

unused. Army land forces in World War I relied on the telephone, telegraph, and even homing pigeons for

communications in the era of trench warfare.

Supporting the American Expeditionary Forces, the army was also responsible for combat photography and

aviation. Nevertheless, the Signal Corps' grandest achievement was the establishment of a massive wire

communications system that ran from the seacoast to the American battle zone in France. The system

consisted of literally thousands of miles of administrative and combat lines: 134 permanent telegraph offices

and 273 telephone exchanges, facilitated by 200 bilingual American telephone operators. Multiplex printing

telegraph equipment linked Tours, Chaumont, Paris, and London.

The army's communications arm also oversaw the adaptation of the airplane to military use. With its genesis

in Civil War and Spanish-American War observation balloons, the Signal Corps purchased a Wright brothers'

flying machine in 1908. James Allen (chief signal officer 1906-13) and his immediate successors perceived

the airplane as an observation platform and vehicle for courier service. When aviation's role as a fighting

and bombing force expanded during World War I, the army created the Army Air Service (1918), separating

aviation from the Signal Corps.

Experimentation before and during World War I contributed to the Signal Corps' development of radio for

military purposes. Stepping stones included the achievements of Signal Corps captain (later major) Edwin H.

Armstrong. Armstrong invented a major component of amplitude modulated (AM) radio—the superhetrodyne

circuit—during World War I. His next invention, frequency modulated (FM) radio, came during the interwar

years. Chief Signal Officer Squier facilitated the standardization and mass production of vacuum tubes. He

established the first Signal Corps Laboratory at Camp Alfred Vail, New Jersey. Introduction of the SCR-68, an

airborne radio telephone, and its companion ground set, the SCR-67, were significant steps in the

development of radio communications.

During the interwar years, developments in both wire and radio technology set the stage for communications

support for World War II. Naval research included experimentation with the radio compass, airborne radio,

and radio remote control. The teletype, remarkable for its accuracy, speed, and simplicity of operation,

came into the arsenal in the 1930s. The battery-powered field telephone was developed as the Germans

improved both the switchboard and communications cable. The War Department Radio Net (established

1922) became the genesis for an elaborate command and control communications system that enveloped

both army forces and navy ships during World War II. About the same time, the International Radio

Convention (1927) adopted the navy's plan for worldwide frequency allocation.

A 25-pound army walkie-talkie, developed in 1934, made its debut in the army maneuvers of 1939. A

truck-mounted long-range radio, with a 100-mite voice range and several times greater range for Morse

Code, was introduced in the 1940 Louisiana maneuvers. Captain Armstrong helped Col. Roger Colton develop

his invention into the army's first FM pushbutton, crystal-controlled, tactical radio in the Signal Corps

Laboratory at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey. Although the army's armor and artillery branches communicated

via FM radio (proven feasible by 1936), the infantry (as well as the navy) failed to integrate the new

technology until after World War II.

Numerous countries claimed ownership of radar, developed during the 1930s. Its significance in World War II

communications cannot be overstated. By 1943, the Germans were effectively using radar as an early

warning and weapons-directional device. In the United States, navy research and development paralleled

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that of the Army Signal Corps. Prewar, the navy installed it on ships (1940), while the army used it as ashort-range radio locator for directing searchlights. A new, long-range aircraft detector radar, on Oahu,Hawaii, issued a warning (unfortunately ignored) when Japanese aircraft approached the island on 7December 1941. By early 1942, the Signal Corps SCR-517 microwave radar was used in aircraft to search forships in the Atlantic. In 1944, a microwave SCR-584 helped aim U.S. weapons in combat at Anzio, Italy. Bythe end of the war, such communications advances as the bi-service advancement of radar, navy perfectionof sonar, army development of FM radio, and overall miniaturization of electronic components laid thegroundwork for the electronics and space ages to follow.

The Signal Corps used a modified SCR-271 long-range radar set (1946) to bounce radar signals off the Moonto test the properties of radio communications in space. Postwar navy technological achievements includedover-horizon VHF radio communications, the use of radar waves to reflect signals off the Moon (1951), andMoon-relayed messages between Honolulu, Hawaii, and Washington (1956). Both services contributed to thedevelopment of artificial space satellites and communications. By the 1960s, rockets of the U.S. Air Forcewere sending manned and unmanned vehicles into space.

Improved radar supported land and air forces and naval batteries in the conduct of the Korean War. TheSignal Corps played a major supporting role in that conflict. Although doctrine dictated wire as the primarymeans of communication, the exigencies of Korea—distance, terrain, primitive roads—led to a dependenceon very high frequency (VHF) radio. VHF, effective far beyond its 25-mile range, carried teletype as well asvoice traffic. It proved adaptable to the frequent infantry moves characteristic of the fighting in the firsttwo years of the conflict. But line-of-sight properties restricted its usage; VHF station components, weighinghundreds of pounds, often required transportation to—and operation and maintenance from—high, remotecommunication sites. In spite of the difficulties, army communicators proclaimed VHF the backbone ofcommunications during the Korean War.

Between Korea and Vietnam, military efforts again focused on the peaceful uses of communications. Thearmy, in 1958, used its technology to explore outer space. The Signal Corps Space Sentry bounced signalsfrom the Moon, developing the ability to ensure the close tracking of satellites. The same year, Vanguard II'sinfrared scanning devices mapped the cloud cover over the Earth.

Technological advances in communications during the Vietnam War were the end product of twenty years ofresearch and experimentation by the army, navy, and air force. Miniaturized electronic componentsincreased the payloads of U.S. communications satellites propelled into space by air force boosters. Onenotable benefit was initiation of the first operational satellite communications system in history when theArmy Satellite Communications Command established two clear channels from Tan Son Nhut, South Vietnam,to Hawaii (1964).

Radio transmission had improved as well. Line-of-sight wave transmission was surpassed by tropospheric scatter or troposcatter propagation radio with a maximum 400-mile range. The new technology enabledradio waves to travel long distances by using special antennas to bounce them off clouds of ionized particlesin the higher ionosphere before they returned to Earth hundreds of miles away.

Military communications support in Southeast Asia proved that advanced electronics could master thegeography. Although Vietnam's Integrated Wideband Communications System (established and funded by theair force and operated jointly with the army) never fulfilled the promise of a regional civil-military network,it demonstrated the need and effectiveness of a high-capacity area telecommunications system in anundeveloped region. More important, the wideband system reflected a permanent move to an area-orientedcommunications doctrine. Improved technology was directly responsible for the shift in focus.

As a joint-services endeavor, Vietnam communications included numerous examples of inter-servicecooperation. For example, army field commanders enjoyed rapid aircraft response because of connectivitywith air force support centers. Joint army-navy mobile riverine forces, using command and communicationsboats, had well established internal as well as external communications with the South Vietnamese army. Acontinuing problem in Vietnam, security was addressed first by the navy's "Talk Quick" system whichpreceded the army's automatic secure voice system (1967).

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Major communications systems in Vietnam included the 1st Signal Brigade's Southeast Asia DefenseCommunications System and the Southeast Asia Automatic Telephone Service (1968). The latter comprised 9switches connected to 54 automatic army, navy, and air force dial exchanges. Overall, communicationssupport for the Vietnam war could be characterized as the beginning of an ongoing trend toward the use ofcommercial-type facilities for both strategic and tactical communications. While mobile multichannel radios, switchboards, and teletype centers linked headquarters throughout the chain of command, strategicand administrative networks comprised a variety of commercial sets.

Changes in military strategy and tactics such as the long-range and heavy logistical requirements of modernweapons, and reliance on coordinated air-ground operations, both prevalent in Vietnam, dictated moreflexible and extensive communications support than that offered by traditional chains of command.Technical advances in communications made it possible—indeed, imperative—to create interconnecting areanetworks. The merger of tactical and strategic communications became official in 1966 with the formationof the 1st Signal Brigade. As part of the Strategic Communications Command, area networks linked fighterswith intelligence, personnel, and logistical centers in the United States. At the same time, combatcommanders kept organic tactical communications to respond to military requirements.

Higher-echelon advances did little to change Vietnam's combat communications from those of previousconflicts. Field telephones connected by single-strand wire linked artillery battery, guns, fire directioncenters, and commanders. Infantry platoon command posts used small field switchboards and wire lines toconnect squads, sentries, and listening posts. The 173rd Airborne Brigade, in 1965, deemed the PRC-25(transistorized FM voice radio) its greatest communications device. Hand-held, vehicle-, andaircraft-mounted PRC-25s were the primary means of combat communication for army units from squadsthrough division level.

The Vietnam conflict demonstrated the interdependence of the army, navy, and air forces in the conduct of

mid-twentieth-century warfare. The secretary of defense acknowledged this fact in such cooperative efforts

as the Joint Tactical Satellite Research and Development Program (1965). At the same time, thecommunications arms of the various military branches continued to invest in their own unique informationsystems.

Post-Vietnam technology further changed the face of military communications. The 1970s development of

the semiconductor dramatically decreased size and power requirements of communications systems. Themicroprocessor revolution, in turn, led to the development of modules rather than discrete systems.Miniaturization, greater standardization, and modules all made commercial equipment cheaper, moreadaptable, mobile, and secure.

The U.S. military's post-Cold War operations revealed major weaknesses in the Department of Defense's

(DoD) efforts to weld its various communications assets into a cohesive whole. Communicators in Operation

Urgent Fury (Grenada, 1983) encountered major obstacles in the coordination and provision of support for

the Joint Task Force. Both the DoD and Congress took positive steps to strengthen cooperation among thevarious service components—DoD through the establishment of the Joint Tactical Command Control andCommunications Agency (1984) and Congress with the Goldwater-Nichols Act (1986). The positive results of

these and other actions became clear in Operation Just Cause (Panama, 1989-90).

Operation Desert Storm (1990-91), a major joint operation directed by the U.S. Central Command, provided

a true test of service cooperation. The Persian Gulf War demonstrated that military communications hadexpanded and transformed into information technology. In the few years between Panama and the gulf,joint training had become the rule.

As information systems achieved equal footing with military hardware in the conduct of the Gulf War, all ofthe services incorporated numerous commercially produced systems. The Army Signal Corps' network,connected with those of the other services and Allied Coalition forces, spanned the geographic area withcommercially developed cellular telephone and a single-channel ground and airborne radio system.

Operation Desert Storm left little doubt that late twentieth-century military communications embraced all

aspects of information management. Using multimedia sources, communicators need to get the right

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information to the right people almost instantaneously. At the end of the twentieth century, informationactivities in war have equaled and in some cases supplanted industrial activities.

Military communication—or more accurately, information management—presents a seamless network on theLate twentieth-century battlefield. As a result of technological advancements, the centerpiece of thebattlefield is no longer simply the weapons platforms but also an information grid into which weapons areplugged.

Information technology will continue to transform military communications. Because the value ofinformation increases exponentially through dissemination, its potential is virtually limitless.

[See also Combat Support; Command and Control; Satellites, Reconnaissance.]

Bibliography

• U.S. Naval Communications Chronological History, 1961.• Carroll V. Glines, Jr. Compact History of the United States Air Force, 1973.• Paul J. Scheips, Military Signal Communications, 2 vols., 1980.• John D. Bergen, A Test For Technology, 1986.• John G. Westover, Combat Support in Korea, 1987.• Kathy R. Coker and Carol E. Stokes, A Concise History of the U.S. Army Signal Corps, 1995.• Rebecca Robbins Raines, Getting the Message Through, 1996

Shopping promptus communications aironet wireless communications

Socket Communications Lightwave Communications 200.0066

Post a question to the Wikilknswerstommunity.

0

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The International Radiotelegraph Conference of Washington

Irvin Stewart

The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 22, No. 1. (Jan., 1928), pp. 28-49.

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The American Journal of International Law is currently published by American Society of International Law.

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http://www.jstor.orgTue Jun 26 10:50:31 2007

THE INTERNATIONAL RADIOTELEGRAPH CONFERENCEOF WASHINGTON

BY IRVIN STEWART

Assistant Solicitor, Department of State *

The International Radiotelegraph Conference of Washington was opened

on October 4, 1927, with an address by President Coolidge 1 and was closed

on November 25, 1927, with the signing of an International Radiotelegraph

Convention and Annexed General Regulations by delegates representing

78 governments 2 and a set of Annexed Supplementary Regulations by

representatives of 75 governments.' In his closing address, Secretary

Hoover, president of the conference, referred to it as "the largest inter-

national conference of history." 4

The Washington Convention, embodying the general principles agreed

* Technical Adviser to the American delegation to the International Radiotelegraph

Conference.

1 Published in New York Times, October 5, 1927.

2 Union of South Africa, French Equatorial Africa and other colonies, French West

Africa, Portuguese West Africa, Portuguese East Africa and the Portuguese Asiatic posses-

sions, Germany, Argentine Republic, Commonwealth of Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bo-

livia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Republic of Colombia, Spanish Colony of the

Gulf of Guinea, Belgian Congo, Costa Rica, Cuba, Curacao, Cyrenaica, Denmark, Domini-

can Republic, Egypt, Republic of El Salvador, Eritrea, Spain, Estonia, United States of

America, Finland, France, Great Britain, Greece, Guatemala, Republic of Haiti, Republic of

Honduras, Hungary, British India, Dutch East Indies, French Indo-China, Irish Free State,

Italy, Japan, Chosen, Taiwan, Japanese Sakhalin, the Leased Territory of Kwantung and

the South Sea Islands under Japanese Mandate, Republic of Liberia, Madagascar, Morocco

(with the exception of the Spanish Zone), Mexico, Nicaragua, Norway, New Zealand,

Republic of Panama, Paraguay, the Netherlands, Persia, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Rumania,

Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, Siam, Italian Somaliland, Sweden, Switzer-

land, Surinam, Territories of Syria and The Lebanon, Republic of San Marino, Czechoslo-

vakia, Tripolitania, Tunis, Turkey, Uruguay, and Venezuela. Of these Liberia, Persia

and Rumania signed ad referendum. In signing the general regulations, Poland made a

reservation concerning paragraph 4 of Article 5 in the terms found in the proces verbal of

the eighth plenary session, Nov. 22.A statement was inserted in the proces verbal of the eighth plenary session, Nov. 22, to the

effect that the list of names appearing in the preamble as those of the contracting govern-

ments should not affect the question of votes in the next Conference.

The convention and regulations were sent to the Senate by the President on December 12,

1927, and the injunction of secrecy removed from the document on December 17. An

English translation of the convention and regulations has been published as Senate Docu-

ment, Executive B, 70th Congress, 1st Session. That document, hereinafter referred to as

Executive B, also contains English translations of the proces verbaux of the plenary sessions.

3 All of the countries listed in note two except the United States, Canada and Honduras.

Procez verbal of ninth plenary session, Nov. 25, 1927; Executive B, p. 288.

28

INTERNATIONAL RADIOTELEGRAPH CONFERENCE OF WASHINGTON 29

upon by the conference, is the third of the series of conventions treatinggenerally of the subject of radio.' The Berlin Convention of 1906 was thefirst international convention which purported to cover the field of radio asit currently existed; it is of little or no importance now, as it is binding onlyas between countries adhering to it, when one of the interested governmentshas not become a party to the London Convention of 1912.7 This latterconvention, which is at present in force and will continue to be bindinguntil it is superseded by the Washington Convention, had at the time ofthe opening of the 1927 conference been adhered to by 97 separate contract-ing parties.' By the time of the second plenary session, held on October 25,"four additional countries had adhered to the London Convention, and theadherence of still another was announced at the third plenary session,November 3." Of the original 97, several adhered only a short time beforethe convening of the Washington Conference. The reason for adherenceat that time was that the 1912 convention, under the terms of which the1927 conference was held, permitted only governments which were partiesto that convention to participate in subsequent conferences with the rightto vote.The fifteen years between the signing of the London and the Washington

Conventions were exceedingly important in the field of radio communica-tion, and the need of revising the London Convention was felt long beforethe 1927 conference. At the time the London Convention was signed, itwas thought that the next radiotelegraph conference would be held inWashington in 1917. The World War, however, made impossible the con-vening of a conference at or near the tentative date. As the London Con-vention was not sufficient adequately to provide for the regulation of theenlarged field of radio communication, the Allied and Associated Govern-

Of course, conventions not in this series have contained provisions bearing upon radio,or even, as in the case of the draft prepared by the Commission of Jurists in 1922, have beendevoted to a particular phase of radio. The various earlier provisions of multilateral treatiesbearing upon radio are to be found conveniently listed in The Law of Radio Communicationby Stephen Davis, pp. 175-185. In addition to those treaties which have radio as theirspecial subject matter, Judge Davis mentions the Convention Respecting the Rights andDuties of Neutral Powers and Persons in War on Land (1907), the Convention for theAdaptation to Naval War of the Principles of the Geneva Convention (1907), the ConventionConcerning the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers in Naval War (1907), the unratifiedDeclaration of London (1909), the Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (1914), theresolution on Radio Stations in China passed by the Limitation of Armament Conference ofWashington (1922), and the draft prepared by the Commission of Jurists (1922). To thislist should be added the Convention for the Regulation of Aerial Navigation (1919).

° U. S. Treaty Series No. 568; Malloy, Treaties, Conventions, International Acts, Pro-tocols, etc., Vol. III, p. 2889.

7 U. S. Treaty Series No. 581; Malloy, Vol. III, p. 3048.8 Proces verbal of the opening session; Executive B, p. 100.9 Proce,s verbal of the second plenary session; Executive B, p. 134.10 Proces verbal of the third plenary session; Executive B, p. 153.

30 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

ments prepared and put into effect a draft of revised radio regulationsresponsive to current developments."A resolution was adopted at Paris by the five Principal Allied and Asso-

ciated Powers, looking toward the convoking of an international congressto consider all international aspects of communication by land telegraphs,cables, or radio. A conference, preliminary to such an international con-ference and composed of representatives of the Principal Allied andAssociated Powers, convened at Washington on October 8, 1920.12 Theproduct of the labors of this preliminary conference was a draft of conven-tion and regulations for a universal electrical communications union, toserve as the basis for an electrical communications conference. A technicalconference held in Paris in July and August of the following year revisedthe technical parts of the Washington draft. Differences of opinion asto the advisability of forming an electrical communications union led to adecision to hold separate telegraph and radiotelegraph conferences. TheTelegraph Conference was held in Paris in 1925, the Telegraph Regulationsthere adopted including as well a number of radio regulations.°

One of the results of these various conferences and conventions and regu-

lations was that by the time of the opening of the Washington Conference,

the problem of adjusting radio regulation to the present state of the radio

art had been given thorough consideration. The governments invited toparticipate in the Washington meeting were well aware of the questionswhich would arise; and the delegates, familiar with the viewpoints of thevarious countries, were prepared to take all the steps which should provenecessary to reach an agreement on the proper solution of these questions.As the basis for its labors, the Washington Conference had a Book of

Proposals compiled by the International Bureau of the Telegraph Union atBerne from replies received to requests for proposals of modifications to be

made in the London Convention and in the revised Washington draft of

1920. The book was printed in two columns: on the left appeared the

11 The EU-F-GB-I (United States, France, Great Britain, Italy) Radio Protocol of Aug.

25, 1919. This document was published by the United States Navy Department in 1920.

12 Provided for by an act dated Dec. 17, 1919, 41 Stat., Vol. I, p. 367.

13 Particularly Articles 1 and 64; see page 34 infra. It is of interest to note that at its

second plenary session, the Paris Conference passed the following resolution: "The confer-

ence expresses the opinion that, after the Radiotelegraph Conference of Washington, the

contracting governments should consider the best way of modifying the St. Petersburg

Convention, and of introducing into it the provisions of the Radiotelegraph Convention by a

congress possessing the necessary powers. It, expresses the hope that the WashingtonConference may be able to make a similar recommendation."

At the eighth plenary session, Nov. 22, the following resolution passed by the Convention

Committee on Nov. 19 was adopted: "The International Radiotelegraph Conference ofWashington expresses the desire that the contracting governments shall examine the possi-bility of combining the International Radiotelegraph Convention with the InternationalTelegraph Convention, and that, eventually, they shall take the necessary steps for thispurpose." Executive B, p. 271.


articles of the London Convention and of the Washington draft, while onthe right appeared proposals for the amendment of the particular articles orfor the insertion of relevant new matter. The book proper contained601 pages with 1768 separate proposals. It was circulated for study severalmonths before the date set for the convening of the conference. After thepublication of the book, various additional proposals were sent to the Bureauand were circulated in the form of Supplements to the Book of Proposals.Still other proposals were made during the course of the conference, sothat by the time the conference adjourned a total of 1951 proposals had beencirculated and had been considered by the conference.

ORGANIZATION OF THE CONFERENCE

The conference was opened by President Coolidge at 3.00 p. m., October4, 1927, with a brief address emphasizing the importance of the work beforeit.'4 Mr. G. J. Hofker, head of the delegation from the Netherlands,acting as dean of the conference in the absence of Count Hamilton of Sweden,responded and nominated Mr. Herbert Hoover, head of the delegation ofthe United States, as president of the conference. Mr. Hoover was electedby acclamation. In his address the new president alluded to a number ofthe problems confronting the conference and touched in particular uponone which loomed large at the beginning of the conference—that of provid-ing regulations which would be acceptable to those countries in which thecontrol and management of radio communication were in the hands ofprivate enterprises as well as those in which such communications wereoperated by government administrations.The first plenary session of the conference, held on October 5, was devoted

largely to the adoption of rules of procedure and the organization of com-mittees." Printed copies of a "Draft of Rules of the Conference, Sub-mitted by the President" had been distributed in advance. In the main,the draft followed the rules which had governed the procedure of the LondonConference. The more important alterations were those in Article 2giving the president the power to select a vice-president to preside in hisabsence and to appoint such acting vice-presidents as might be necessary,and in Article 5 recognizing in a qualified manner the use of English. Thefirst of these changes was made necessary because the demands upon Mr.Hoover's time were such that it would be impossible for him to be presentat all of the plenary sessions. Under this provision, the president im-mediately designated Judge Stephen pavis, vice-chairman of the UnitedStates delegation, as vice-president. On the occasions when Judge Davisalso was unable to be present, the Honorable Wallace White, Member ofCongress from Maine, was designated to preside. In all three cases theconference was very fortunate in the choice of its presiding officers.

" Proces verbal of the opening session; Executive B, pp. 77-118.15 Proces verbal of the first plenary session; Executive B, pp. 119-128.


Article 5 of the draft rules provided that French should be the officiallanguage of the conference. It continued: "Nevertheless, since the pre-siding administration has so requested, and as an exceptional measure,English may be used. Delegations are recommended to use this privilegewith discretion. Translations from French into English and vice versa willbe made only at the request of a delegation. French alone will be used forthe prods verbaux and the text of the convention and regulations." On thefloor of the conference the Italian delegation moved to replace the thirdquoted sentence by the following: "Declarations, remarks and speechespronounced in English shall immediately be translated into French." TheChinese delegation in supporting this motion suggested the following addi-tion to it: "Those pronounced in French shall be translated into Englishonly upon request of a delegation." The article was adopted with theamendments suggested by these two delegations.In the course of the discussion on the adoption of Article 5 of the Rules

of Procedure the Japanese delegation indicated that it desired translationsfrom French into English. This was followed at the first meeting of theConvention Committee by a request on behalf of that delegation that allstatements made in French be translated into English without furtherrequest for translations of particular remarks." This procedure was adoptedand was followed at all committee meetings Where translation was desiredas well as in plenary sessions. All documents necessary to the work of theconference were published in French by the Bureau of the conference, butunofficial English translations were usually furnished by the Americandelegation shortly after the distribution of the French originals.A plan for the organization of the committees of the conference, together

with an assignment of the committee chairmanships and vice-chairmanshipsby countries, had been prepared in advance of the opening of the conferenceand distributed prior to the first plenary session. Before submitting thesuggested plan to the conference, the president announced some changes inthe list of committee chairmanships and vice-chairmanships. The list asamended by the Chairman and adopted by the conference without change,"is as follows:

Committee Chairman Vice-Chairman

1. Convention United States Canada2. General regulations Great Britain Spain3. Mobile and special service regulations Germany Brazil4. Point-to-point regulations and regula-

tions for other services Uruguay5. Special section to consider the report of

the Committee on the Study of CodeLanguage Italy Czechoslovakia

6. Tariffs, word count, and accounting Italy Australia

16 Proces verbal of first meeting of Convention Committee, Oct. 7.17 Proces verbal of first plenary session, Oct. 5.


Committee Chairman Vice-Chairman7. Technical France Denmark8. Drafting Belgium Sweden9. International Code of Signals Japan Netherlands10. Work of the International Bureau China Mexico

At the second plenary session, October 25, a committee on full powerswas appointed, consisting of the heads of the delegations from Finland, aschairman, Siam and Venezuela."Though the chairmanship of the Convention Committee was assigned to

the United States, all of the sessions of that committee were presided overby the head of the Canadian delegation. Italy was given the chairmanshipof one of the regular committees of the conference (tariffs, word count, andaccounting). In addition, because of the highly specialized character ofthe work to be performed by the Committee to Consider the Report of theCommittee on the Study of Code Language, which latter committee hadmet at Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy, in 1926, under the chairmanship of thechief of the Italian delegation to the Washington Conference, the chair-manship of this special committee was likewise given to Italy. This specialcommittee of the conference had an interesting, though brief, history,which will be touched upon later."As the Book of Proposals had been the subject of study prior to the con-

ference with a view to the assignment of proposals to the various com-mittees, the president submitted a preliminary list of assignments of pro-posals at the first plenary session. Tentatively, each committee wascomposed of representatives of those governments which had made pro-posals included within the list referred to that committee. As a delegation,however, might obtain assignment to any committee by notifying theDirector of the International Bureau of its desire to serve on such com-mittee, each delegation was represented on such committees as it cared to be.At its first session the Convention Committee adopted as a rule of

procedure, that before an article would be discussed by the committee itmust be considered by a sub-committee consisting of delegates representingthose governments which had made proposals for the amendment of theparticular article.20 In practice, the subcommittee was enlarged to includeany delegates who desired to attend. Prior to each session of the sub-committee, its chairman prepared a transactional text of each article tobe considered at that session, based upon a consideration of the variousproposals for the amendment of the particular article. After a number oftransactional texts had been debated, amended and finally adopted by thesubcommittee, the full committee would adopt them, with or without amend-ment. Similar procedure was established for most of the other committees,some of which had three or more subcommittees.

28 Proces verbal of second plenary session; Executive B, p. 136." See page 38 infra.20 Proces verbal of first meeting of Convention Committee, Oct. 5.


After an article had been adopted by the appropriate committee, thelanguage in which it was couched was revised by the chairman and therapporteurs of the Drafting Committee for consideration by the DraftingCommittee.21 Only after that committee had placed them in proper formdid the articles come before the plenary session. In plenary session, theyreceived two readings; the first as groups of articles came from the DraftingCommittee, the second at the closing session of the conference when theentire treaty was read for the second time, the reading being of articles bynumber only.

THE TWO SETS OF REGULATIONS

The relationship between the Telegraph Convention and Regulationsand the Radiotelegraph Convention and Regulations promised to be oneof the most difficult problems of the conference.22 The Telegraph Conven-tion remains as it was drawn up in St. Petersburg in 1875, while the mostrecent regulations annexed to that convention are those drawn up in Parisin 1925. Although the United States and Canada, among other countries,have never adhered to the Telegraph Convention and Regulations, thosedocuments are in effect among most of the countries participating in theWashington Conference.The complications arose largely from the fact that the Regulations

Annexed to the London Radiotelegraph Convention, to which the UnitedStates is a party, provide in Article 50 that:

The provisions of the International Telegraph Regulations shall beapplicable analogously to radio correspondence in so far as they are notcontrary to the provisions of the present regulations.

The article then specifically enumerates a number of articles of the Tele-graph Regulations applicable to radio communications. The first articleof the Paris Telegraph Regulations provides:

So far as these Regulations do not provide otherwise, provisionsapplicable to wire communications are also applicable to wirelesscommunications.

In addition to this blanket clause and to several brief provisions applyingspecifically to radiotelegrams, the Paris Regulations contain an entirearticle (64), several pages in length, governing radiotelegrams. Paragraph19 of this article states:

Modifications of the provisions of these Regulations relating toradiotelegrams and to telegrams for multiple destinations (Art. 69),which may be rendered necessary in consequence of decisions of sub-sequent Radiotelegraph Conferences, will be put into force on the datefixed for the application of the provisions made by each of these latterConferences.

21 To Mr. Pierart, of Belgium, chairman of the Drafting Committee, more than to anyother single individual, belongs the credit for the final form of the convention and regulations.

22 See the notes exchanged between the United States and France prior to the ParisConference; Dept. of State press release Sept. 28, 1927, Ti. S. Daily, Sept. 29, 1927.


The situation which confronted the conference was this: On the onehand, the governments not parties to the Paris Regulations did not desireto adopt without consideration rules in the formation of which they did notparticipate or of which the operation might involve constitutional difficul-ties. Moreover, they did not desire to incorporate by reference, rules whichin the future might be altered without their consent. On the other hand,the parties to the Telegraph Regulations were opposed to reopening ques-tions which had been settled only two years previously after long discussionand serious consideration. They felt that in services as analogous as cableand point-to-point radio, different rules should not be permitted to obtain.And they objected even to writing into the Radio Regulations the exactwording of the Paris Regulations, because future amendments of the Tele-graph Regulations would not affect the corresponding changes in the RadioRegulations.To this complication, a further one was added. While most of the im-

portant Powers represented at the conference conducted their own communi-cation services, those services in the United States were largely in the handsof private enterprises. This meant that most of the delegates could actas representatives of governments and as heads of telegraph administra-tions, while the delegates of the United States were present solely as repre-sentatives of their government. Consequently, the United States dele-gation was compelled to refrain from taking part in those matters whichwere a matter of internal administration as distinguished from those ofgovernmental concern.This dual problem was given serious consideration by the American

delegation prior to the conference. The American proposals for the amend-ment of the London Convention were divided into two groups: the first,the Convention and the annexed Government Regulations; the second,so-called Management Regulations.23 At the first meeting of the Con-vention Committee on October 7, Judge Davis, on behalf of the delegationof the United States, formally called attention to the proposed division ofthe regulations into two parts.24

After much informal discussion of the situation with delegates from othercountries, the American delegation, on October 25, presented a plan for thesolution of the difficulty.25 In brief, its four points were: (1) that the con-vention and annexed regulations adopted by the conference be dividedinto three classes, of equal binding force among the countries which signed

23 The Management Regulations were to be signed by the operating agencies, whethergovernment administrations or private companies. A clear and concise statement of theUnited States position was printed in French and Spanish, as well as English, and distributedprior to the conference. See Projet de Convention Radioglectrique Internationale et de Regle-ments Gouvernementaux Annexes, and Proyecto de ConvenciOn Internacional de Radio yReglamentaci ones de Gobierno Anexas (Government Printing Office, 1927)." Proces verbal of the first meeting of the Convention Committee.25 At the sixth meeting of the Subcommittee of the Convention Committee.


them, namely, the convention, general regulations, and supplementaryregulations; (2) that the convention consist of general provisions coveringthe subjects included in the London Convention and any further proposalsof an amendatory character which might be adopted at the conference; (3)that the general regulations include the provisions which all governmentsagree must, in the public interest, be followed by their operating agencies,whether publicly or privately owned; (4) that the supplementary regulationsinclude all rules which the countries adhering to the International Tele-graph Convention and Regulations consider desirable among themselves,

either in addition to those regulations or as modifications of them, and any

further provisions which might be deemed advisable by the conference.

It was stated that the United States expected to become a party to the

convention and general regulations but not to the supplementary regulations.

The heads of a number of important delegations immediately declared them-

selves in favor of the adoption of the plan, and it was followed by the con-

ference without a formal vote being taken on it. •

No attempt was made to separate the articles in the committees which

acted upon them in the first instance, though a number of changes were made

from time to time in order to avoid the necessity of certain articles being

placed in the supplementary regulations. The division of the regulations

into two groups was not definitely made until the Drafting Committee met to

prepare the text of the entire convention and regulations for second reading,

although the United States delegation made a preliminary designation on

November 17." The desires of the United States in the matter of placing

certain articles in the supplementary regulations, arrived at in conjunction

with Canada, were observed by the conference; and the document as it

appears in its final form carries in the supplementary regulations only those

articles which were placed there at the request of the United States."

VOTES

Aside from technical problems, the question which offered the most

difficulty was that of voting. The provisions of Article 12 of the London

Convention on this point were unusual. According to that article, each

country was entitled to one vote. If, however, a government adhered to the

convention for its colonies, possessions or protectorates, subsequent con-

ferences might decide that such colonies, possessions or protectorates, or a

part thereof, should be considered as forming a country as regards the right

to vote. The only qualification upon this was that the votes at the disposal

26 At a joint meeting of the General Regulations, Mobile Services, Point-to-Point Services,

and Technical Committees called for that purpose; see proces verbal of that session.

22 In the proces verbal of the seventh plenary session, Nov. 19, there was inserted a state-

ment by the American delegation that references in the convention or general regulations to

provisions of the supplementary regulations should not be binding upon the United States.

Executive B, p. 240.


of one government, including its colonies, possessions or protectorates,might never exceed six. The article concluded with a list of dominions,colonies, possessions and administrative units each of which was to be givena vote under the terms of the article.The net effect of the article was to give Germany, the United States,

France, the British Empire and Russia six votes each; Italy, the Netherlandsand Portugal three votes each; Belgium, Spain and Japan two votes each;and the remainder of the contracting parties one vote each.Whatever might have been the justification of such a provision in 1912,

clearly it did not represent any adequate measure of the relative importanceof the contracting countries in radio communication in 1927. Moreover,certain complicating factors had arisen. Germany had lost the colonieswhich had nominally been given the five extra votes accorded to the GermanEmpire." The Irish Free State had been created, and it was clearly ap-parent that strenuous efforts would be made to obtain for it the right to vote.Japan had been given six votes in the Washington Draft Convention of aUniversal Electrical Communications Union" and gave notice that a similarnumber would be requested at the Washington Conference." In additiona number of other countries had indicated their dissatisfaction with theexisting arrangement.The most comprehensive proposal for the modification of Article 12 was

submitted by the British Government.31 Briefly, it was to the effect thatevery independent state, dominion, colony, possession, protectorate, orterritory under mandate which conducted public communication services orauthorized private enterprises to conduct such services might become a con-tracting country and as such be entitled to one vote. Under such a planthe internal organization of the communications system would be the con-trolling, if not the sole, factor in the determination of the number of voteswhich would be accredited to a single political sovereignty. Amplifying theproposal, the British Government suggested that not more than one voteshould be claimed in respect of the British non-self-governing colonies, pro-tectorates, etc., it being understood that the British Government itself andthe government of each of the self-governing dominions and British Indiashould be given votes. The exact number of votes which it would be pos-sible for a single government to obtain under this proposal was never defi-nitely stated, though the number would certainly be very large.No other general plan for the revision of Article 12 having been proposed,

the British proposal formed the basis of the discussion in the subcommitteeof the Convention Committee. The debate on the proper distribution ofvotes extended over several days, during which exceedingly divergent viewswere expressed. Among other suggestions was one by Dr. Wang, head of

28 At the second plenary session, Oct. 25, Germany was granted the right to cast six votes.Executive B, p. 136.

29 Article 22. 30 Proposal No. 105a. 21 Proposals Nos. 100, 101, 138-140.

Amr


the Chinese delegation, which would have given to each country a number ofvotes conditioned upon its importance in the field of radio communication,as determined by the number of radio messages in the international serviceoriginating in its territory within a specified time. Shortly after this, theUnited States delegation declared itself absolutely opposed to the Britishproposal, and indicated that it was prepared to accept as an alternative,either a system of plural votes worked out along the lines of the suggestionmade by Dr. Wang or a plan under which each contracting government shouldreceive only one vote, the term "contracting government" being narrowlydefined. Finding agreement in full committee or subcommittee difficult,the delegations represented passed on to the consideration of subsequentarticles.A series of informal conferences followed, as a result of which it was decided

to suppress Article 12 of the London Convention, to make no provision what-ever for votes, and to leave the question of votes to be settled by the foreignoffices prior to the next conference, or, failing that, by the next conferenceitself. The conference followed this decision.

This action called for a further decision. Various units which normallywould not be considered as properly parties to an international agreement"were, in accordance with the terms of the London Convention, participatingin the conference. The decision to abolish the unusual situation created bythe London Convention gave rise to the question whether the delegates rep-resenting these units were entitled to sign the convention embodying thework of the conference. A special subcommittee of the Convention Com-mittee, presided over by Mr. W. R. Castle, Assistant Secretary of State andmember of the United States delegation, was appointed to consider thequestion. This subcommittee decided that as the London Conventiondetermined the composition of the Washington Conference, the latter hadno authority to refuse to any participating government the right to sign thedocuments adopted by the conference." The course recommended by thesubcommittee was adopted by the committee and followed by the conference.To forestall complications in future conferences, a statement was inserted inthe prods verbal of the seventh plenary session, November 19, to the effectthat the manner of signing the convention and regulations should have noeffect whatever on the question of votes. A similar declaration was madein connection with Article 16, relating to adherences to the convention.34

THE CORTINA REPORT ON CODE LANGUAGE

The Paris Telegraph Conference of 1925 created a special committee forthe study of the question of code language, which met at Cortina d'Ampezzo,Italy, from August 2 to August 26 of the next year. The committee's re-

n Compare the list of signatories given in footnote 2.33 Prods verbal of meeting of Subcommittee on Signatures, Nov. 15.Proces verbal of seventh plenary session, Nov. 19; Executive B, p. 235.


port, according to the resolution passed by the Paris Conference on October17, 1925, was to be "submitted to the examination and decision of the firsttelegraph or radiotelegraph conference following the conclusion of the laborsof the Committee."The Cortina Conference issued a majority report signed by fourteen

countries and a minority report signed by one.35 The fundamental differencebetween the two reports was that the former favored a five letter code wordwith a rate coefficient to be determined, while the latter preferred theretention of the ten letter code word with certain modifications.In accordance with a request transmitted by the French Government in

its capacity as manager of the Telegraph Union, the Government of theUnited States issued invitations to the interested countries to send delegatesto the Washington Conference empowered to consider and dispose of theCortina Report. These delegates composed Committee No. 5 in the list ofcommittees of the conference.The first question considered by that committee at its opening session on

October 11 was whether it was sitting as a part of the Washington Radio-telegraph Conference or, with the consent of the United States, as an entirelydistinct Telegraph Conference. After some discussion the chairman, Mr.Gneme, head of the Italian delegation, concluded that the committee mustproceed as a special Telegraph Conference, convened in Washington with theconsent of the Government of the United States. This ruling was acceptedby the committee, and rules modeled on those of the Paris Conference wereadopted to govern the work of the newly created Telegraph Conference.After further debate on the constitution of the conference, the meetingadjourned in order that formal notification of the opening of the Tele-graph Conference might be given to all the nations represented at Wash-ington.Two days later, October 13, the first plenary session of the Telegraph

Conference was held. Immediately upon the opening of the session theBritish delegation made a declaration challenging the existence of the con-ference, on the ground that the conference had not been established in con-formity with the provisions of the Telegraph Convention. The Frenchdelegation agreed with this view because the Paris Conference had decidedthat the next Telegraph Conference would be held in Brussels in 1930, andArticle 88 of the regulations while permitting the date to be advanced, didnot permit a change in the place of meeting. Other delegations expressedthe fear that a difference of opinion as to ,the validity of the decisions reachedby the conference might imperil the eventual solution of the entire questionof code language.As its final action, the committee decided to report to the Washington

Conference that (a) the question of code language could not be treated as amatter pertaining to the International Radiotelegraph Conference of Wash-

36 Great Britain.


ington; (b) that the telegraph delegations present at Washington could notorganize themselves into an International Telegraph Conference in view of

the provisions of Article 15 of the St. Petersburg Convention; and (c) that

it was desirable that the date of the Brussels Conference be advanced from

1930 to 1928 for the sole purpose of the study of code language. The British

delegation abstained from voting on paragraph (c).The report of the committee was presented to the fourth plenary session,

November 10, at which time the head of the Belgian delegation read a tele-

gram from his government authorizing him to declare that the Belgian Gov-

ernment was willing to advance the date of the Brussels Conference to 1928.

The British delegation objected to advancement of the date of the conference,

stating that the matter deserved further consideration. At the suggestion

of the President, the conference adopted the report of the committee and

postponed the decision to be taken with regard to the Telegraph Conference.

Later in the same session, the chairman of the Italian delegation stated that

in his opinion the date for the Telegraph Conference was not within the

province of the Radiotelegraph-Conference; that the normal procedure would

be to inform the French administration as manager of the Telegraph Union of

the recommendation of the Washington Conference and to request it to corn-

nunicate with the Belgian Government. This course was followed by the

conference.

THE CONVENTION AND REGULATIONS

Although the article setting out definitions is the first in the convention,"

it was among the last adopted. Terms were used with an understanding of

their general meaning, and near the end of the conference a special subcom-

mittee was charged with the duty of defining terms in the sense in which they

had been used. The definitions in the convention are supplemented by

additional definitions in the general regulations, each group defining terms

used in the document in which it appears. Of the convention definitions

probably the most interesting is that of "radio communication," which is

defined to apply "to the transmission by radio of writing, signs, signals,

pictures, and sounds of all kinds by means of Hertzian waves." As this

definition indicates, the title of the convention does not reveal its extent.

Although the document is called a "Radiotelegraph Convention," its pro-

visions were written to apply not only to radiotelegraphy but also to radio-

telephony, facsimile transmissions, and all other radio transmissions by means

36 As has been stated, the conference took the London Convention and Regulations as the

basis for its labors. Consequently, the article i coming from the various committees bore

numbers corresponding to those in the London documents. This numbering was retained

by the plenary session, the Berne Bureau being charged with renumbering the articles and

writing titles. (See proces verbal of ninth plenary session, Nov. 25; Executive B, p. 279.)

In the succeeding pages the numbers assigned to the articles are those which will be given by

the Berne Bureau; the numbers in parentheses are those designating the articles in the con-

vention and regulations as signed.


of Hertzian waves. Another definition bearing upon the scope of the con-vention is that of "international service," which, after including servicesthat are strictly international, continues: ̀(An internal or national radiocommunication service which is likely to cause interference with other serv-ices outside the limits of the country in which it operates is considered as aninternational service from the viewpoint of interference."

Article 2 (Article 1) defines the scope of the convention. In the firstparagraph the contracting governments undertake to apply the conventionto all radio communication stations established or operated by them, open tothe international service of public correspondence, as well as to special servicescovered by the regulations. These special services are defined in Article 1of the general regulations as "services of radiobeacons, radiocompasses,transmissions of time signals, notices to navigators, standard waves, trans-missions having a scientific object, etc." By paragraph 2 they furtheragree to take or to propose to their respective legislatures the necessarymeasures to impose the observance of the provisions of the convention andregulations upon individuals and private enterprises authorized to establishand operate radio communication stations in international service, whetheror not open to public correspondence." Paragraph 3 recognizes the right oftwo contracting governments to organize radio communications betweenthemselves within certain limits."The difference between the scope of the 1912 and 1927 conventions is

readily apparent. While the provisions of the earlier treaty applied only to

37 Over the objection of the United States, this paragraph as reported out of the Conven-tion Committee imposed upon the contracting parties a similar obligation with regard to"individual and private enterprises authorized to establish and operate radio communicationstations whether or not open to the international service of public correspondence." Such aprovision would have made the convention and regulations applicable to all radio communi-cation stations, regardless of the service in which they were engaged. The conference at thesecond plenary session, Oct. 25, changed the paragraph into its present form; but in order toprotect international communications from interference set up by stations engaged innational service, the term international service was extended to include such interference.Executive B, p. 137.

38 The Convention Committee at its second meeting, Oct. 11, adopted a fourth paragraphin which the contracting governments agreed to exchange traffic with properly authorizedprivate enterprises. Upon further consideration in the Subcommittee of the ConventionCommittee, the government administrations represented were of the opinion that theparagraph lacked mutuality; and an amended paragraph was suggested to the effect that allof the contracting parties would refuse to exchange traffic with a private enterprise thatdeclined to deal with a government administration for the sole reason that the latter was anadministration. This new provision was believed by the United States and other countriesin which radio communication is conducted by private enterprises to deal too severely withsuch an offending company. It was finally decided to eliminate the paragraph, a decisionwhich was reached the more readily because it was believed that no administration orprivate enterprise respectively would give as the sole reason for refusing to deal with aprivate enterprise or administration the private or public character of the latter. (Sixthsession of the Subcommittee of the Convention Committee, Oct. 25.)


stations in the maritime mobile service," the later one has the enlarged scopejust indicated. The necessity for enlarging the scope of the 1912 conventionwas in a large measure responsible for the convening of the WashingtonConference; the changes made merely reflect the progress of the radio art.

Article 3 (Article 3) is largely a repetition of provisions in the 1912 con-vention. The first paragraph relating to the organization of the service of,and the determination of the correspondence to be exchanged by, fixedstations is carried over from Article 21 of the London Convention. Thatpart of paragraph 2 subjecting fixed stations when engaged in internationalservice from country to country to the appropriate provisions of the conven-tion and regulations is new, though that referring to correspondence withstations in the mobile service is not. Paragraph 3 makes obligatory thereciprocal exchange of radiotelegrams by stations in the mobile service,without regard to the radio system employed by those stations. It waslargely for the purpose of obtaining the insertion of a provision similar tothis that the Berlin Conference was called in 1906. It appears in both theBerlin and London Conventions. A fourth paragraph, found also in theLondon Convention, states that in order not to impede scientific progress thepreceding paragraphs shall not prevent the eventual use of a radio systemincapable of communicating with other systems, provided that this incapac-ity be due to the specific nature of that system and not the result of devicesadopted solely to prevent intercommunication. Article 4 (Article 4) furtherlimits the application of Article 3 by providing that notwithstanding theprovisions of the latter article, a station may be assigned to a limited inter-national service of public correspondence determined by the purpose of thecorrespondence or by other circumstances independent of the systememployed.

Article 5 (Article 4 bis) is designed to insure the secrecy of radio corre-spondence.40 The commitment of the governments in this article is not veryextensive, but it is the most stringent upon which agreement could bereached. The Convention Committee clearly recognized that the agreementby the contracting governments "to take or to propose to their respectivelegislatures the necessary measures to prevent," etc., was one which couldeasily be made of no effect by any government so desiring. It was felt,however, that the contracting parties could be relied upon to carry out thespirit of the article, within the limits of their powers.The specific acts to be prevented are (a) the unauthorized transmission and

39 Article 1. The provisions relating to interference and distress had a wider scope. SeeArticle 15.

49 The debate on this article revealed the difference between the position of the UnitedStates and that of a number of European countries in the matter of licensing of receivingsets. The United States Government has never attempted to require any such license, andthe American delegation was continually on the alert to prevent the insertion of any provi-sion in the convention or the regulations which would compel it to do so.

INTERNATIONAL RADIOTELEGRAPH CONFERENCE OF WASHIN,GTON 43

reception by means of radio installations of correspondence of a privatenature; (b) the unauthorized divulging of the contents, or even of the exist-ence, of correspondence intercepted by means of radio installations; (c) theunauthorized publication or use of correspondence received by means ofradio installations; and (d) the transmission or the placing in circulation offalse or deceptive distress signals or distress calls. The London Conventioncontains no similar provision.By the terms of Article 6 (Article 4 ter) the contracting governments

undertake to assist each other by supplying information concerning viola-tions of the convention and regulations, as well as, if necessary, in theprosecution of persons violating the provisions of these documents. Thisarticle, likewise, has no parallel in the London Convention.

Article 7 (Article 5) of the Washington Convention has the same purportas Article 5 of the London Convention. The earlier convention bound thecontracting governments to connect coast stations with the telegraph net-work of the country, or at least to take other measures to insure a rapidexchange between coast stations and the telegraph system. It was clearlyimpossible for a government situated as that of the United States to fulfillthe obligation to connect the coast stations with the telegraph system. Inthe Washington Convention, therefore, the provision was altered to bind thecontracting governments to take the necessary measures in order that suchconnections be made, or at least to take steps to assure rapid and directexchanges between land stations and the general communication system.It will be noted that the Washington Convention differs from the LondonConvention in that it requires the connection to be with the general com-munication system, whereas the London Convention merely required con-nection with the telegraph system.

Article 8 (Article 6) makes the International Bureau of the TelegraphUnion the intermediary between the contracting governments in the fur-nishing of the names of stations engaged in the international service ofpublic correspondence, of the names of stations carrying on public corre-spondence, of the names of stations carrying on special services, and of alldata for facilitating and expediting radio communication. This article isexpanded by the provisions of Article 13 of the general regulations; it is anenlargement of Article 6 of the London Convention, responsive to theenlarged scope of the new convention.

Article 9 (Article 7) is a reservation of the right of each of the contractinggovernments to permit in the stations mentioned in the preceding article theestablishment and operation of devices, other than those covered by thedata to be published in accordance with that article, for special radiotransmission. It is practically identical with Article 7 of the LondonConvention.

Article 10 (Article 8) contains a statement of the ideal sought in inter-national radio service. "The stations covered by Article 2 (Article 1) must,


SO far as practicable, be established and operated under the best conditions

known to the practice of the service and must be maintained abreast of

scientific and technical progress." Delegates from a number of the smaller

countries kept constantly before the conference the fact that radio apparatus

is expensive, and that in view of the rapid development of the art, installa-

tions comparatively new in point of time may soon not be the most efficient

developed. The phrase "so far as practicable" was inserted to cover this

situation; it is to be hoped that it will not be extended to permit the continu-

ance in operation of an antiquated and inefficient station whose activities

constitute a disturbance to a large number of more modern and more efficient

stations.The article is completed by a second paragraph to the effect that all

stations, whatever their purpose, must, so far as practicable, be established

and operated so as not to interfere with radio communications or services

authorized by one of the contracting governments. It is to be noted that

this paragraph applies not only to the stations covered in Article 2 (Article 1),

but also to those stations, including naval and military installations, with

regard to which liberty is reserved by Article 22 (Article 21). The article

corresponds to Article 8 of the London Convention, but it so far expands

that article that the resemblance between the two is slight indeed.

Article 11 (Article 9) relative to priority for distress calls is identical with

Article 9 of the London Convention. Article 12 (Article 10) contains the

only reference which the convention makes to charges. It differs from Arti-

cle 10 of the London Convention (upon which the United States reserved at

the time of signing) in that all details concerning charges are left to the regu-

lations. Detailed provisions concerning charges are contained in two arti-

cles of the regulations (numbered 24 and 33 in the draft adopted by the

conference), both of which at the request of the United States were inserted

in the supplementary regulations."In Article 13 (Article 11) official recognition is accorded to the division of

the regulations into two parts—general regulations which have the same

force and go into effect at the same time as the convention, and supplement-

ary regulations which bind only the governments which have signed them.

Only the United States, Canada and Honduras did not sign the supplement-

ary regulations, so that if ratification follows signature in all cases, the sup-

plementary regulations will be effective among by far the larger number of

parties to the convention.The second paragraph of this article, making provision for the alteration

of the convention and regulations, corresponds to Article 11 of the London

Convention with some important changes. Under the Washington Conven-

tion changes may be made only by conferences of plenipotentiaries of the

41 In accordance with a statement made by the American delegation at the seventh

plenary session, reference in the convention to articles in the supplementary regulations is

not binding upon the United States. Executive B, p. 240.


contracting governments, each conference fixing the time and place of thenext meeting.° The London Convention had also a provision for themodification of the convention and regulations between conferences by com-mon consent. With the deletion of the article relating to votes, and theunderstanding that the entire question of votes would be settled before thenext conference, the deletion of the provision for amendments between con-ferences necessarily followed. Article 13 also carries a third paragraph,without precedent in the London Convention, stating that before any de-liberation, each conference shall establish rules of procedure to govern debate.In Article 14 (Article 12 bis) the contracting governments reserve for

themselves and for private enterprises duly authorized by them, the rightto make special arrangements on matters of service which do not affect thegovernments generally, on the condition that such arrangements must bein conformity with the convention and regulations so far as concerns inter-ference which their execution might produce with the services of other coun-tries. No similar provision occurs in the London Convention.In Article 15 (Article 12 ter) each government reserves the right to sus-

pend international radio communication service for an indefinite periodeither generally or only for certain connections or certain kinds of radiocommunication, provided that it immediately so advise the other contractinggovernments through the intermediary of the International Bureau.The first paragraph of Article 16 (Article 13) relating to the duties of the

International Bureau is almost identical with the corresponding paragraphof Article 13 of the London Convention, the changes being responsive to theenlarged scope of the new convention. The second paragraph of the articleprovides for the expenses of the bureau and the manner in which they are tobe borne. It is completed by Article 34 (Article A49) of the general regu-lations, which follows Article 84 of the Telegraph Regulations rather thanArticle 43 of the London Regulations. Unlike the Telegraph Regulations,the Washington Radio Regulations do not assign the contracting govern-ments to particular classes for the payment of expenses, but leave eachgovernment to notify the International Bureau of the class in which it desiresto be placed.

Article 17 (Article 13 bis) of the convention is entirely new, the subjectmatter of the article having caused one of the most prolonged debates in theconference. It provides that an International Technical Consulting Com-mittee on Radio Communications shall be established for the purpose ofstudying technical and related questions pertaining to these communica-tions. This provision is amplified by Article 33 (Article 34) of the regula-tions. There it is specifically stated that the functions of the committee arelimited to giving advice on questions which shall have been submitted to it

42 The conference at the eighth plenary session, Nov. 22, accepted the invitation of theSpanish Government to hold the next conference in Madrid, and set the date for 1932.Executive B, p. 274.


by the participating administrations or private enterprises, and which itshall have studied. This advice is to be transmitted to the InternationalBureau with a view to its being communicated to the administrations andprivate enterprises concerned. The opposition to the establishment of thecommittee was based on the fear that it might develop into a supercom-mittee which might tend to stifle radio development. Agreement upon thecreation of the committee was obtained by the limitation of its functions to astrictly advisory character.

After the question of the creation of the committee and of its powers hadbeen disposed of, the contest centered on its composition. Countries inwhich radio communication is a government function felt that the dignityand authority of the committee would be impaired if representatives of pri-vate enterprises were accorded the full rights and powers granted to repre-sentatives of the administrations. They recognized the importance ofhaving representatives of the large radio communication companies at themeetings of the committee, but they wished this presence to be in an ad-visory character only without carrying with it a vote in the determination ofthe decisions of the committee. Such a system, however, would havedeprived the United States and other countries not operating their radiocommunication systems of any effective participation in the work of thecommittee. This situation, reenforced by the desire of the contractinggovernments to obtain the advice of the technical experts to be found in theemployment of American companies, led to a compromise embodied inArticle 33 of the regulations. It is there provided that the committee shallbe formed, for each meeting, of experts of the administrations and authorizedprivate companies who wish to participate in the work of the committee.Experts of the private companies participate in the work in an advisorycapacity. When, however, a country is not represented by an administra-tion, the experts of the authorized private enterprises of that country havethe right to cast a single vote. Expenses of any meeting are to be borne inequal parts by the administrations and private companies participatingtherein; personal expenses of the experts are to be borne by the administra-tions or private enterprises which appointed them.The administration of the Netherlands is charged by Article 33 with

organizing the first meeting of the committee, and of drawing up its program

of work.43 Thereafter, the administrations represented at any meeting are

to designate the administration which shall call the following meeting.Questions to be studied by the committee are to be sent to the administrationorganizing the next meeting, and this administration shall fix the date andprogram of that meeting. While no regular schedule of meetings of the com-mittee is designated in the regulations, it is provided that in principle thesemeetings shall take place every two years.

43 At the sixth plenary session, Nov. 18, the Netherlands delegation announced that the

first meeting of the committee would be at The Hague. Executive B, p. 229.


Article 18 (Article 14), which declares that each of the contracting govern-ments shall determine the conditions under which it will accept telegrams orradiotelegrams originating in or destined to a station not subject to theprovisions of the convention, is almost identical with the first part ofArticle 14 of the London Convention. The article further provides that ifthe message is accepted, it must be transmitted and the usual chargesapplied to it; in the corresponding part of the London Convention nothingwas said of the obligation to transmit, though the provision relative tocharges is contained therein.

Article 19 (Article 16), authorizing the adherence to the convention ofnon-contracting governments and stating the effect of adherence and de-nunciation upon colonies, etc., is identical with Article 16 of the LondonConvention, except that the later provision treats of "colonies, protectorates,or territories under sovereignty or mandate" while the earlier one listed"colonies, possessions, or protectorates."

Article 20 (Article 18) is devoted to the arbitration of disputes regardingthe interpretation or execution of the provisions of the convention or regula-tions. In addition to rearranging and rewriting the provisions of Article 18of the London Convention, the conference wrote into the new document onedeparture from the older one, namely the provision for compulsory arbitra-tion. While the change was opposed, there can be no doubt that the newprovision is responsive to the desires of a large majority of the contractinggovernments."

Article 21 (Article 20) differs from Article 20 of the London Conventiononly in providing that regulations as well as laws relating to the object of theconvention shall be exchanged and that the exchange shall be through theintermediary of the International Bureau.In Article 22 (Article 21) each of the contracting governments reserves

its liberty regarding radio installations not covered in Article 2 (Article 1),and especially with reference to naval and military installations. It isfurther provided that, so far as practicable, these installations must complywith the provisions of the regulations regarding assistance to be given incase of distress and measures to be taken to avoid interference. To thispoint the article closely resembles Article 21 of the London Convention.The 1927 convention, however, proceeds to state that they must also, sofar as practicable, observe the provisions concerning the types of waves andthe frequencies to be used, according to the type of service which thesestations carry on. The subject matter of this latter provision is more recentthan the 1912 convention. Article 22 carries a further concession in theinterests of efficient international radio communication in a third para-

"Opposition to compulsory arbitration was led by Great Britain and Japan. A Britishmotion to eliminate the compulsory feature was defeated 43 to 7, and the article with theprovision for compulsory arbitration was adopted, 38 to 10. See proch verbal of seventhplenary session, Nov. 19; Executive B, pp. 237, 238.


graph which obligates these stations when used for public correspondenceor for special services, to conform, in general, to the provisions of theregulations for the conduct of these services. That portion of Article 21 ofthe London Convention which deals with fixed stations has its counterpartin paragraph 1 of Article 3 of the Washington Convention, no correspondingprovision being carried in Article 22.

Articles 23 and 24 (Articles 22 and 23) are formal articles dealing with thetime the convention shall go into effect, its duration, and ratification. Theeffective date of the convention is fixed at January 1, 1929, and the place ofdeposit of ratifications at Washington; otherwise Articles 22 and 23 of theLondon Convention are almost unchanged.The general regulations annexed to the convention are composed of 34

articles and 8 appendices taking up more than 67 pages, as against 24articles of the convention filling 9 pages. The provisions are largely of atechnical nature, of interest primarily to telegraph operators. Extensivechanges have been made in the London Regulations.Probably the most important of the new provisions of the regulations is

that contained in Article 5 relating to the allocation of frequencies. Theprinciple of allocation of frequencies to services, not countries, was followed,and an elaborate table showing this allocation was incorporated into thearticle. Beginning with frequencies in the band 10-100 kilocycles persecond (30,000-3,000 meters), the table shows the allocation of frequenciesup to 60,000 kc/s (5 m.), with only two bands unreserved. Above thelatter figure, frequency bands are unreserved.

Another important decision incorporated into the regulations is that forthe eventual abolition of damped waves. Generally, the use of dampedwaves of a frequency of less than 375 kc/s (wave length above 800 m.) isforbidden beginning January 1, 1930; no new installations of damped wavetransmitters (spark sets), except low-power transmitters, may be made inships or aircraft beginning at the same date; the use of damped waves of allfrequencies is forbidden beginning January 1, 1940, except for the low-powertransmitters mentioned above; no new installations of damped wave trans-mitters may be made in land or fixed stations henceforth; and waves of thistype are forbidden in all land stations beginning January 1, 1935. (Article5, paragraph 8 and Article 16 [181, paragraph 1.)The supplementary regulations are few in number, consisting of but six

articles and one appendix. For the most part these relate either to raidotele-graph charges or to the procedure to be followed in radiotelephony. TheGovernment of the United States has consistently refused to attempt toregulate charges to be applied in the radio communication service. Thereason for the insertion of the article and appendix regarding radiotelephonyin the supplementary regulations was the belief that the service has not yetdeveloped to the point where specific detailed regulation is desirable. Twoother articles relate to priority of communications (a part of this article


appears as Article 23 of the general regulations) and to ocean letters. Theremaining article provides that the International Telegraph Conventionand annexed regulations shall be applicable to radiotelegrams in so far asthey are not inconsistent with the International Radiotelegraph Conventionand regulations. In part it corresponds to Article 50 of the London Regu-lations.One of the committees of the conference devoted its entire time to a study

of the International Code of Signals. Though its labors constituted animportant part of the work of the conference, the conclusions of the com-mittee have been incorporated in another document and do not appear in theconvention or regulations." In other cases also, careful work on the part ofcommittees of the conference is not immediately apparent; as, for instance,in the delicate problem of preserving the proper relationship between theRadio Convention and the Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea andthe Convention for the Regulation of Aerial Navigation.An appreciation of the difficulties confronting the conference can be

obtained from a careful study of the convention and regulations. Some ofthose difficulties appeared insurmountable even as late as the opening ofthe conference. The fact that the conference was a success is a tribute tothe ability and earnestness of the delegates, and to the decision of theirgovernments that a working basis for the conduct of the radio communica-tions of the future must be found. The conference made no attempt todevise permanent regulations. It is believed that the fruit of its labors,not unduly restrictive of the progress of the radio art, will be a satisfactoryguide for the period of approximately five years it is due to remain unchanged.

" Report of the chairman of the Committee on the International Code of Signals to thePresident of the International Radiotelegraph Conference, November 17, 1927.

Vallance, William Roy http://www.library.rochester.edu/index.cfm?page=1175

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Vallance, William Roy

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CONSTRUCTION NOTICE -- READING ROOM SUMMER CLOSING

June 11 - August 3, 2007 : More Information

Title: WILLIAM ROY VALLANCE PAPERSDate range: 1908-1967Location: A.V17Size: 212 boxes

The Valiance Papers were presented by William Roy Valiance (University of Rochester, Class of1910) in 1964 and 1967. The papers, related to Vallance's career in the State Department,consist of correspondence, memoranda, reports, proposals, documents, pamphlets, publications,other printed material, and memorabilia. Where not otherwise specified, the material is classifiedin two categories: correspondence and printed material. Much of the correspondence, especiallyletters from prominent government officials, exists as carbon copies. "Printed material" is a termused loosely to refer not only to the products of the printing press, but also to typewrittenreports, directives, speeches, articles, and anything else that cannot properly be classified ascorrespondence. Where no type of material is specified in the description, it is understood thatboth types are included.

The bulk of the collection covers the years 1920-1940 and falls into two large subject categories:state and personal papers. In the 163 boxes of state papers there is emphasis on prohibitionviolations and early conferences on radio and telegraph law. Also represented are aliens andimmigration, international claims, maritime issues, miscellaneous State Departmentcorrespondence, and other subjects. Since Valiance served on the British Empire desk in theoffice of the Solicitor of the State Department, a good deal of his state papers concerns BritishCommonwealth countries, especially Canada.

Three quarters of the 49 boxes of personal papers deal with the formation and perpetuation ofvarious law groups in which Valiance was active, in particular the American Bar Association, theInter-American Bar Association, which he helped to found, and the Federal Bar Association, ofwhich he was a six-time president. The remainder of the personal papers include affiliations andpersonal correspondence.

See also "The I'm Alone Case: A Tale from the Days of Prohibition" (University of RochesterLibrary Bulletin XXIII:3, Spring 1968) by Nancy Galey Skoglund, and article based on thiscollection.

The collection was a gift of William Roy Valiance, presented to Rush Rhees Library in 1964 and1967.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF COLLECTION BY SECTION AND TABLE OF CONTENTS TOREGISTER

STATE PAPERS

Boxes 1 - 12: Aliens and Immigration, 1922 - 1946. Interdepartmental Visa Review Committeeopinions, memoranda, testimony

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Vallance, William Roy http://www.library.rochester.eduJindex.cfm?page=1175

Box 13: Aviation, 1919 - 1946. Air radio law and international conferences on air law

Boxes 14 - 25: Canadian Relations, 1919 - 1962. Seizure of U.S. fishing vessels, InternationalJoint Commission projects such as Columbia River, Passamaquoddy Power, and St. LawrenceSeaway

Boxes 26 - 78: Communications, 1869 - 1945. International radiotelegraphy and cable laws,communications in foreign countries, international conferences at Washington (1920 and 1927),Mexico City (1924), Paris (1921 and 1925), Brussels (1928), the Hague (1929), Madrid (1932),and Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee

Boxes 79 - 82: Diplomatic Immunity, 1885 - 1942. Immunity from various forms of taxation

Boxes 83 - 95: International Claims, 1899 - 1963. American and British Claims Arbitration cases,business, criminal, inheritance, shipping, and war claims, claims on Canada and Mexico

Box 96: Latin American Relations, 1921 - 1962. Organization of American States, Pan-AmericanUnion

Box 97: League of Nations, 1920 - 1941. Communications, codification of international law

Boxes 98 - 103: Maritime Issues, 1894 - 1946. Fishing, whaling, seamen, shipping

Boxes 104 - 139: Prohibition, 1906 - 1935. Liquor control conferences and rumrunners,especially the I'm Alone case

Boxes 140 - 149: State Department, 1889 - 1962. Miscellaneous correspondence and printedmaterial

Box 150: Taxation, 1921 - 1941. Taxing Americans abroad and foreigners in the United States

Box 151: United Nations, 1944 - 1967. General Assembly documents mainly from the late 1940's

Boxes 152 - 155: U.S. Foreign Service, 1920 - 1946. Regulations

Boxes 156 - 160: U.S. Government, 1911 - 1966. Comptroller General decisions on the EconomyAct of 1932, Courts of Appeal and Supreme Court briefs and opinions

Box 161: U.S. Territorial and Insular Possessions, 1920 - 1941. Antarctica, Philippines, District ofColumbia

Boxes 162 - 163: World Wars. World War I, 1919 - 1923: Neutral rights and commerce,Versailles Treaty. World War II, 1935 - 1946. Claims, neutrality laws, prisoners of war, internees

PERSONAL PAPERS

Bibliography of articles and addresses by William Roy Vallance

STATE PAPERS

ALIENS AND IMMIGRATION

Box 1. Aliens

Folder:

1. Rights of Aliens. Correspondence, 1922 - 19412. Rights of Aliens. Correspondence, 1922 - 19413. Rights of Aliens. Printed Material, 1923 - 1940, undated4. Suit Testing Pennsylvania Alien Registration Law. Correspondence and Printed

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Material, 1939 - 19405. Enemy Aliens in the United States. Correspondence, 1940 - 19426. Insane Aliens. Deportation and Reception. Correspondence, 19407. Federal Code on Aliens, 19188. Clippings, Articles, Press Releases, 1917 1941

Box 2. Immigration Acts of 1921 and 1924

Folder:

1. Immigration Act of 1921. Correspondence, 1922 - 19242. Immigration Cases. Correspondence, 1922 - 19243. Immigration Act of 1924. Correspondence, 19244. Immigration Act of 1924. Correspondence, 19245. Immigration Act of 1924. Correspondence, 19246. Immigration Act of 1924. House Committee on Immigration and

Naturalization Hearings, March 3, 19247. Immigration Act of 1924. Copy of Act8. Immigration Act of 1924. Printed Material, 19249. Extradition Treaty with Mexico. Correspondence and Drafts, 192510. Immigration. Printed Material, 1922 - 1945

Boxes 3-9. Interdepartmental Visa Review Committee Opinions, January, 1942-January, 1945

Box 10. IVRC Memoranda, 1942 - 1945

Box 11. IVRC Testimony, 1942 - 1945

Box 12. Visas

Folder:

1. Correspondence, 1923 - 19462. Correspondence, 1923 - 19463. Correspondence, 1923 - 19464. IVRC Daily Calendar, 1942 - 1945, undated5. IVRC Daily Calendar, 1942 - 1945, undated6. IVRC Daily Calendar, 1942 - 1945, undated7. Non-Hearing Cases, 1943 - 19448. Board of Appeals Cases, 1942 - 19449. IVRC Rules and Regulations, 194210. Instructions and Information, 1942, undated11. Printed Material, 1941 - 1954, undated

AVIATION

Box 13. Aviation. Correspondence and Printed Material, 1919 - 1949

CANADIAN RELATIONS

Boxes 14-15. Correspondence and Printed Material, 1919 - 1959, undated

• Material on customs, shipping, taxation, stolen goods, Americans in Canadian army,Indians, boundary disputes, inland waters, extradition, narcotic smuggling. See alsoINTERNATIONAL CLAIMS, Box 88 - Inheritances; MARITIME ISSUES, Boxes 98, 101, 102 -

Fishing, Shipping

Box 16. Seizure of U.S. Fishing Vessels. Correspondence

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http://www.librarysochester.edu/index.cfm?page=1175

Folder:

1. Curlew, 1933 - 19342. Siloam v. Malaspina (J. M. Yorke case), 1923 - 19323. Minnie B. 1933 - 19364. Minnie B. 1933 - 19365. Minnie B. 1933 - 19366. Minnie B. 1933 - 19367. Natale S. 1931 - 19328. St. Patrick, 1931 - 19339. St. Patrick, 1931 - 1933

10. Salmon trawlers, 1930 - 193311. Salmon trawlers, 1930 - 1933

Box 17. International Joint Commission

• Material on St. Lawrence Seaway, Chicago Diversion of Lake Michigan, Passamaquoddy PowerProject, Niagara River and Falls Beautification, Missouri River Basin, Libby (Montana) Dam, RioGrande International Storage Dams Projects, and other boundary waters between U.S. andCanada

Folder:

1. Correspondence, 1941 - 19592. Correspondence, 1941 - 19593. Vallance's 1957 Lectures at Havana, 1956 - 19584. Printed Material, 1913 - 19475. Printed Material, 1913 - 19476. Printed Material, 1913 - 19477. Printed Material, 1913 - 19478. Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee

on the St. Lawrence Seaway Project, 1947


Alaska. A Reconnaissance Report on the Potential Development of Water Resources, 1948

Folder:

1. Printed Material, 1948 - 1950

The Columbia River Supplemental Reports on the Bitterroot Valley, vol. 2, March,1950


The Columbia River Supplemental Reports on the Bitterroot Valley, vol. 2, March,1950


DC Report on the Pollution of Boundary Waters, 1951

IJC Report on the Preservation and Enhancement of Niagara Falls, 1953

Folder:

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1. Printed Material, 1951 - July, 19562. Printed Material, 1951 - July, 19563. Printed Material, 1951 - July, 1956

Boxes 20-21. International Joint Commission: Printed Material, August, 1956 - 1966, undated

Box 22. International Joint Commission: Columbia River and Tributaries Review Report, October1, 1948

Boxes 23-24. International Joint Commission: Passamaquoddy Tidal Power Project Report to theIJC, October, 1959 and Appendices 1 - 18

Box 25. International Joint Commission: St. Lawrence Seaway. Correspondence and PrintedMaterial, 1939 - 1962, undated

COMMUNICATIONS

Box 26. Correspondence

Folder:

1. Copies of Correspondence between Hamilton Fish and Elihu BenjaminWashburne et al., 1869 - 1871

2. Copies of Correspondence of Reverdy Johnson in the Western UnionWeather Bureau case, 1874

3. Copies of Correspondence, 1877 - 18794. Copies and Original Correspondence, 1880 - July, 19205. Copies and Original Correspondence, 1880 - July, 19206. Copies and Original Correspondence, 1880 - July, 19207. Copies and Original Correspondence, 1880 - July, 19208. Copies and Original Correspondence, 1880 - July, 19209. Copies and Original Correspondence, 1880 - July, 192010. Copies and Original Correspondence, 1880 - July, 192011. Copies and Original Correspondence, 1880 - July, 1920

Boxes 27-30. Correspondence : August, 1920 - 1941, undated

Box 31. Reports, Directives, and Miscellaneous Non-correspondence: 1909 - 1935, undated

Box 32. Printed Material by Topic

Folder:

1. Report of State Department Special Committee on Cables, 19182. Speeches, 1923 - 19453. Articles about Communications, 1920 - 1940, undated4. Articles about Communications, 1920 - 1940, undated5. Frequency Assignments, 1917 - 19416. Charts, Maps, Frequency Graphs, Frequency Allocations7. Clippings about Cables8. Clippings about Radio Telegraphy

Boxes 33-34. Printed Material: 1885 - 1941, undated

Boxes 35-37. Information on Communications in Foreign Countries

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• Areas included: Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China,Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, DutchGuyana, Ecuador, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Guatemala, Honduras,Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Liberia, Lithuania, Mexico, Morocco, Netherlands, NewZealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Persia, Peru, Philippines, Poland,Portugal, San Salvador, Scandinavia, Siam, South and Central America, South Pacific,Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tangier, Turkey, U.S.S.R., Uruguay, Venezuela, Yugoslavia

Box 38. Allocation of German Cables After World War I

Folder:

1. Correspondence, 1901 - 19292. Correspondence, 1901 - 19293. Correspondence, 1901 - 19294. Correspondence, 1901 - 19295. Correspondence, 1901 - 19296. Correspondence, 1901 - 1929

Material on the Preliminary Conference on Electrical Communication, 1920

7. Non-correspondence, 1919 - 1930

Copies of miscellaneous material

8. Documents and Printed Material, undated

Box 39. International Conference on Electrical Communications [Washington, 1920]

Folder:

1. Correspondence, 1919 - 1932, undated2. Correspondence, 1919 - 1932, undated3. Non-correspondence, 1919 - 1920, undated4. Proposals 1 - 91, 1488 - 1591 (I - II, V - IX)5. Proposals 1 - 91, 1488 - 1591 (I - II, V - IX)6. Printed Material, 1919 - 1920


• Proceedings of Sub-committee No. 1 to consider the disposition of German cables ceded tothe 5 principal Allied Powers, 1920 - 1922


Folder:

1. Documents concerning Sub-committee No. 2 on Drafting of the EU-F-GB-IRadio Protocol, 1920

Proceedings of Sub-committee No. 2A on Wave Lengths


• Proceedings of Sub-committee No. 3 on Universal Communications Union and Telegraph

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and Radio Conventions


Folder:

1. Sub-committee No. 4 on International Cable and Radio Law. Correspondenceand Miscellaneous, 1920 - 1921 Report of Sub-committee on InternationalCable and Radio Law and Cable Landing Rights

2. Report of Proceedings of Sub-committee on Publicity


• Proceedings of Sub-committee No. 5 on Improvement of Communication FacilitiesBetween the 5 Great powers

• Card Index to Sub-committees I, 2, 2A, 3, 4, 5


Folder:

1. Index to Proceedings2. Conferences with Representatives of Private U.S. Communication Companies,

May, 1921 Proceedings of conferences to obtain views on draft conventions ofproposed Universal Electrical Communications Union<

3. Schedule, Minutes, Resolutions, Press Releases4. Expense Account Ledger

Box 46. Technical Interallied Committee on Radio Communication [Paris, 1921]

* Minutes, June - July, 1921

Box 47. Technical Interallied Committee on Radio Communication [Paris, 1921]

Minutes, August, 1921

Folder:

1. Convention, Regulations

Box 48. Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee

Folder:

1. Correspondence, 1923 - 19312. Correspondence, 1923 - 19313. Reports and Proceedings, 1923 - 1933, undated4. Reports and Proceedings, 1923 - 1933, undated5. Printed Material, 1912 - 1931, undated6. Printed Material, 1912 - 1931, undated7. Printed Material, 1912 - 1931, undated8. Printed Material, 1912 - 1931, undated9. Printed Material, 1912 - 1931, undated

Box 49. Inter-American Committee on Electrical Communications [Mexico City,

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4111=11Nir

1924]: Correspondence, 1918 - 1928

hup://www.librarysochester.edu/index.cfm?page=1175

Box 50. Inter-American Committee on Electrical Communications [Mexico City, 1924]

Folder:

1. Fifth International Conference of American States [Santiago, 1923] 1923 -1924

2. Revision of the [1884] Paris Convention, 19243. Instructions for Ambassador Charles Beecher Warren4. Instructions for Ambassador Charles Beecher Warren5. Sub-committees: Rostra, schedules, agenda6. Sub-committee No. 1 on Legislation and Conventions7. Sub-committee No. 2 on Communications by Wire and Cables8. Sub-committee No. 3 on Radio Communication9. Sub-committee No. 4 on Rates, Accounting and Traffic10. Sub-committee No. 5 on Improvement of Communications


Folder:

1. Regulations Adopted at Santiago2. Agenda3. Delegates: Correspondence, biographical sketches, statement of U.S. aims4. Mexican Proposals5. Mexican Proposals6. United States Proposals7. Proposals from other Latin American Nations8. Speeches by Wallce Humphrey White, Jr.


Folder:

1. Minutes of Meetings 1 - 12, 142. Minutes of Meetings 1 - 12, 143. Minutes of Meetings 1 - 12, 144. Minutes of Meetings 1 - 12, 145. Minutes of Meetings 1 - 12, 146. Minutes of Meetings (Spanish Text)7. Minutes of Mixed Committee Meetings8. Minutes of American Delegation Meetings

Box. 53. Inter-American Committee on Electrical Communications [Mexico City, 1924]

Folder:

1. Drafts of Convention2. Convention3. Final Reports4. U.S. Delegation Dinner [June 25, 1924]5. Expenses6. Clippings and Press Releases7. Miscellaneous8. Miscellaneous

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Box. 54. International Telegraph Conference [Paris, 1925]

Folder:

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1. Correspondence, 19212. Correspondence, 19213. Correspondence, 19214. Correspondence, 19215. Correspondence, 19216. Correspondence, 19217. Printed Material, 1921 -8. Printed Material, 1921 -

- 1930- 1930- 1930- 1930- 1930- 19301925, undated1925, undated

Box 55. International Telegraph Conference [Paris, 1925]

• Book of Proposals• Suggestions, vols. I - II

Box 56. International Telegraph Conference [Paris, 1925]

Folder:

1. Lists of Delegates2. Proceedings of Plenary Sessions 1 - 73. Reports of Committee Meetings4. Proposals5. Proposals6. Convention (English and French texts)7. Convention (English and French texts)8. Convention (English and French texts)9. Convention (English and French texts)

Box 57-58. International Radiotelegraph Conference [Washington,- 1931

1927]: Correspondence, 1913

Box 59. International Radiotelegraph Conference [Washington, 1927]

Folder:

1. American Delegation and Meetings, June - October, 19272. American Committees Minutes of sub-committees on Special Aircraft,

Definitions and Use of Special Signals, Frequency, and Drafting3. American Committee No. 1 on Convention, August 22 - September 26, 1927.

Sessions 1 - 7, 9 - 194. American Committee No. 2 on General Regulations, September 2 -8, 1927.

Sessions 1 - 55. American Sub-committees 2a and 2b on Mobile and Point to Point, July 8 -

September 26, 1927. Joint sessions 1 - 39; first and second sessions of 2a,2b, and No. 4 in joint session

6. American Committee No. 3 on Tariffs, Word Count and Accounting, August 9 -September 8, 1927. Sessions 1 - 9

7. American Committee No. 4, Technical, July - September 23, 1927. Sessions 1- 25

8. American Committee No. 6 on International Code of Signals, July -September, 1927


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Folder:

1. Minutes of Plenary Sessions 1 - 92. Committee Delegations and Assignments3. Committee No. 1 on Convention4. Committee No. 2 on General Regulations Includes sub-committees on call

signals, nomenclature, service abbreviations5. Committee No. 3 on Mobile Service. Documents Includes sub-committees on

regulations, meteorology, and texts to be submitted to drafting committee6. Committee No. 3 on Mobile Service. Minutes. (Includes sub-committees as in

Folder 5)7. Committee No. 4 on Regulation of Point to Point and Other Services


Folder:

1. Committee No. 5 on Cortina Report on Code Language2. Committee No. 6 on Tariff, Word Count and Accounting3. Committee No. 7, Technical4. Committee No. 7, Technical5. Sub-committees on Meteorology and Frequency of Committee No. 7. Minutes6. Sub-committees on Meteorology and Frequency of Committee No. 7.

Documents7. Sub-committees on Meteorology and Frequency of Committee No. 7.

Documents8. Committee No. 9 on International Code of Signals9. Committee on Voting Rights10. Committee on the International Bureau


Folder:

1. Proposals2. Proposals3. Proposals4. Proposals5. Supplements 1 - 7 to Book of Proposals6. Supplements 1 - 7 to Book of Proposals

Box 63 International Radiotelegraph Conference [Washington, 1927]

Folder:

1. Text Submitted, Documents Nos. 113 - 325 incomplete2. Articles Submitted and Approved3. Articles Submitted and Approved4. Minutes, Documents 102 - 2005. Minutes, Documents 102 - 2006. Minutes, Documents 102 - 2007. Minutes, Documents 102 - 200

Box 64. International Radiotelegraph Conference [Washington, 1927]: Minutes, Documents 201 -334 (French text)

Box 65. International Radiotelegraph Conference [Washington, 1927]: Minutes, Documents 101 -

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335. Bound

Box 66. International Radiotelegraph Conference [Washington, 1927]: Minutes, Documents 180 -265 (French text). Bound


• Minutes, Documents 266 - 335 (French text).• Bound Committee Reports. Bound

Box 68. International Radiotelegraph Conference [Washington, 1927]: Minutes, Documents 102 -329. Extra, incomplete

Box 69. International Radiotelegraph Conference [Washington 1927]

Folder:

1. Drafts of Convention2. Drafts of Convention3. Drafts of Convention4. Remarks on Draft Convention5. Convention and Signers6. Convention and Signers7. Convention and Signers8. Bibliography of Conference Documents, 1928


Folder:

1. Convention Rules2. Lists of Delegates3. Lists of Delegates, American Representative Companies4. Printed Material5. Printed Material6. Printed Material7. Press Releases and Clippings8. Articles and Addresses on the Conference

Box 71. International Telegraph Conference [Brussels, 1928] : Correspondence and PrintedMaterial, 1926 - 1933, undated

Box 72. International Technical Consultative Committee on Radio Communications [The Hague,1929]: Correspondence, 1929 - 1931

Box 73. International Technical Consultative Committee [The Hague, 1929]

Folder:

1. Lists of Delegates and Representatives2. Proposals3. Proposals4. U.S. Delegation Report5. Documents, Statements, and other Printed Material6. Press Releases

Box 74. Fourth International Radio Conference [Madrid, 1932]

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Folder:

1. Correspondence, 1929 - 19352. U.S. Proposals3. U.S. Proposals4. Regulations Annexed to the Convention5. Printed Material

Box 75. Miscellaneous International Communications Conferences, 1921 - 1928

Folder:

1. International Radio Telegraph Conference [London, 1912], 1912 - 19262. International Radiotelegraph Convention [London, 1920]: Appendix No. 1 to

Convention and Service Regulations, Charts3. International Radiotelegraph Convention [London, 1920]: Appendix No. 1 to

Convention and Service Regulations, Charts4. Third National Radio Conference [Washington, 1924], 19245. Fourth Annual Radio Conference [Washington, 1925], 1925. (Canada, Mexico,

Cuba, United States participants)6. Conference with Canada on Wave Lengths [Washington, 1925], 19277. Second International Juridical Congress on Wireless Telegraphy [Geneva,

1927], 19278. International Juridical Congress on Wireless Telegraphy [Rome, 1928], 1928.9. International Juridical Congress on Wireless Telegraphy [Rome, 1928], 1928.

Box 76. Miscellaneous International Communications Conferences, 1929 - 1936

Folder:

1. North American Radio Conference [1929], 1927 - 1929. (Short waveconference among U.S., Canada, Newfoundland, Cuba)

2. North American Radio Conference [1929], 1927 - 1929. (Short waveconference among U.S., Canada, Newfoundland, Cuba)

3. European Radio Conference [Prague, 1929], 1928 - 19294. European Radio Conference [Prague, 1929], 1928 - 19295. International Congress on Radio Communication [Liege, 1930], 1929 - 1930.

Correspondence, proposals, terminology, word changes, reviews ofCongresses

6. International Congress on Radio Communication [Liege, 1930], 1929 - 1930.Correspondence, proposals, terminology, word changes, reviews ofCongresses

7. International Congress on Radio Communication [Liege, 1930], 1929 - 1930.Correspondence, proposals, terminology, word changes, reviews ofCongresses

8. Aviation Radio Conference [New York, 1930], 19309. Fifth International Juridical Congress on Radio [Warsaw, 1931] , 193110. Seventh International Congress on Radio [Tangier, 1936], 1936

Box 77. Miscellaneous U.S. Communications Conferences, 1921 - 1933

Folder:

1. Interdepartmental Committee on Electrical Communications, 1921 - 19252. American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 1924 - 19283. American Radio Relay League, 1924 - 1933. International Committee on

Wireless Telegraphy. American Section

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4. Correspondence, 1927 -Caldwell)






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March, 1930. (Chiefly with Louis Goldsborough






Box 78. International Committee on Wireless Telegraphy. American Section. Correspondence,April, 1930 - 1937; Printed Material, 1927 - 1930, undated

DIPLOMATIC IMMUNITY

Box 79. General Correspondence

Folder:

1. Correspondence, 1916 - 19422. Correspondence, 1916 - 19423. Automobile Accidents, 1929 - 19414. Court Testimony, 1932 - 19415. Free Entry, 1921 - 19386. Legal Suits, 1931 - 19417. Legal Suits, 1931 - 19418. Legal Suits, 1931 - 19419. Legal Suits, 1931 - 194110. Liquor Imports during World War I, 1919 - 1937

Box 80. Tax Exemptions

Folder:

1. Correspondence, 1885 - 1941, undated2. Correspondence, 1885 - 1941, undated3. Correspondence, 1885 - 1941, undated4. Correspondence, 1885 - 1941, undated5. Correspondence, 1885 - 1941, undated6. Correspondence, 1885 - 1941, undated7. Correspondence, 1885 - 1941, undated8. Correspondence, 1885 - 1941, undated9. Opinions, Treaty Provisions, 1920 - 1937


Folder:

1. Automobile Taxes, 19112. Automobile Taxes, 1911 -3. Automobile Taxes, 1911 -4. Automobile Taxes, 1911 -5. Automobile Taxes, 1911 -6. Automobile Taxes, 1911 -

- 1940, undated1940, undated1940, undated1940, undated1940, undated1940, undated

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AIMINiimior

7. Automobile Taxes, 1911 - 1940, undated8. Automobile Taxes, 1911 - 1940, undated9. Gasoline Taxes, 1932 - 1939

10. Gasoline Taxes, 1932 - 193911. Gasoline Taxes, 1932 - 1939


Folder:

1. Income Taxes, 1927 - 19412. Income Taxes, 1927 - 19413. Income Taxes, 1927 - 19414. Income Taxes, 1927 - 19415. Income Taxes, 1927 - 19416. Inheritance Taxes, 1925 - 19387. Sales Taxes, 1927 - 19418. Sales Taxes, 1927 - 19419. Social Security Taxes, 1936 - 1938

10. Telegram Taxes, 1924 - 1941

INTERNATIONAL CLAIMS

Box 83. Correspondence, 1918 - 1948

Box 84. American and British Claims Arbitration

http://www.library.rochestenedu/index.cfm?page=1175

• Correspondence and Printed Material, 1912 - 1963, undated. Includes Burt Fiji Landclaims, Americans in British army, Herbert Priestly Brock's kidnapping of the Vinallbrothers, U.S.-Great Britain Rio Grande dispute, Irish Land Annuities, cables, and IndiansClaims Commission on claims by Pottawatomi and Cayuga tribes

Box 85. Business Claims

Folder:

1. Correspondence and Printed Material, 1920 -Royalties





6. Correspondence and Printed Material, 1920 -7. Correspondence and Printed Material, 1920 -8. Correspondence and Printed Material, 1920

1942. Patents, Copyrights, and





1941, undated1941, undated

- 1941, undated

Box 86. Cable Claims

Folder:

1. Commercial Cable Company & Ex-German Cables, 1899 - 1928. CanadianClaims


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9. Jacob Braun Estate v. Canadian Government. Correspondence, 1939 - 1942

10. Luton Trust Fund. Correspondence, 1940

Box 87. Criminal Claims

Folder:

1. American Criminals Abroad. Correspondence, 1918 - 1941

2. American Criminals Abroad (Thurman E. Gantt). Correspondence, 1934 -

19373. American Criminals Abroad (Thurman E. Gantt). Correspondence, 1934 -

19374. American Criminals Abroad (John Mulgrew). Correspondence, 1931 - 1932

5. American Criminals Abroad (George E. Reeves). Correspondence, 1935

6. Foreign Embassies in the U.S. Correspondence, 1931 - 1932

7. Foreign Criminals in the U.S. Correspondence, 1935 - 1936

8. British Suits v. the U.S. Correspondence, 1921 - 1936

9. U.S. Suits v. Great Britain. Correspondence, 1920 - 1936

Box 88. Inheritance Claims

Folder:

1. Correspondence, 1920 - 19572. Correspondence, 1920 - 19573. Correspondence, 1920 - 19574. Correspondence, 1920 - 19575. Correspondence, 1920 - 19576. Canadian Inheritances. Correspondence, 1918 - 1941

7. Canadian Inheritances. Correspondence, 1918 - 1941

8. Canadian Inheritances. Correspondence, 1918 - 1941

9. Foreign Claims in the U.S. Correspondence, 1920 - 1940

10. Real and Personal Property. Correspondence, 1920 - 1941

11. Treaty Rights. Printed Material, 1931 - 1940

Box 89. Inheritance Claims

Folder:

1. U.S. Claims in Europe. Correspondence, 1920 - 1946




5. U.S. Claims in Europe (Eugenic Sekkinghaus Zelinka). Passports, letters used

as evidence

Laws Governing Enforcement of Claims in Foreign Countries

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Box 90. Mexican Claims

Folder:

1. General Claims Commission, 1928 - 1929. (Decisions 92 - 142 incomplete.)2. General Claims Commission, 19363. International Boundary Commission. Correspondence, 1924 - 19374. International Boundary Commission. Pamphlets, 1944 - 19595. Mexican Claims Commission, 1929 - 19386. Mexican Insurrection State Department memorandum regarding protection of

American interests, 19227. Vera Cruz Claims, 1929 - 1930

Box 91. Mexican Expropriation

Folder:

1. Correspondence, 1938 - 19392. Mexican Expropriations in International Law, October 11, 19383. Decision in case of Compania Mexicana de Petroleo "El Aguila" et al. V.

Expropriation Law, December 2, 19394. Pamphlets, 1938 - 19405. Articles about Mexican Expropriation, 1938 - 1940, undated6. Articles about Mexican Expropriation, 1938 - 1940, undated

Box 92. Shipping Claims

Folder:

1. Correspondence, 1918 - 19412. Collisions. Correspondence, 1921 - 19443. Collisions. Correspondence, 1921 - 19444. Collisions. Correspondence, 1921 - 19445. Court Decisions, Reports, 1899 - 19386. Manatawny. Correspondence, 1927 - 19287. Pre-World War I Claims. Correspondence, 1922 - 19388. Salvage. Correspondence, 1924 - 19469. U.S. Seizures of Foreign Ships. Correspondence, 1921 - 1941

Box 93. World War I Alien Property Claims

Folder:

1. Diplomatic Correspondence, 1916 - 19202. Correspondence, 1915 - 1940. Material covers British-owned property in the

U.S. and U.S.-owned property in the United Kingdom3. Correspondence, 1915 - 1940. Material covers British-owned property in the





U.S. and U.S.-owned property in the United Kingdom

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8. Correspondence, 1915 - 1940. Material covers British-owned property in theU.S. and U.S.-owned property in the United Kingdom

9. German Property in the U.S. Seized by Great Britain. Correspondence, 193010. Printed Material, 1919 - 1928, undated

Box 94. World War I Claims Commission

Folder:

1. Mixed U.S.-German Claims Commission, 1921 - 1939decisions, orders, briefs, printed material

2. Mixed U.S.-German Claims Commission, 1921 -decisions, orders, briefs, printed material





7. Tripartite [U.S.-Austria-Hungary] Claims Commission. Documents, 1927 -1930, undated

Correspondence,

1939 Correspondence,

1939 Correspondence,

1939. Correspondence,



Box 95. World War I Prize Court Cases

Folder:

1. Belgian Prize Cases. Decisions, 19192. British Prize Cases. Correspondence, 1920 - 19233. French Prize Cases. Correspondence, 1919 - 19204. French Prize Cases. Decisions, 1915 - 19175. French Prize Cases. Decisions, 1915 - 19176. French Prize Cases. Decisions, 1915 - 19177. French Prize Cases. Decisions, 1915 - 19178. French Prize Cases. Decisions, 1915 - 19179. French Prize Cases. Decisions, 1915 - 191710. French Prize Cases. Decisions, 1915 - 1917

LATIN AMERICAN RELATIONS

Box 96. Latin American Relations

• Correspondence and Printed Material, 1920 - 1962, undated Material covers Tacna-AricaAward (Peru-Chile land dispute), 8th American Scientific Congress, 6th InternationalConference of American States, the Organization of American States, the Pan-AmericanUnion

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Box 97. League of Nations

Folder:

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1. Correspondence, 1920 - 19412. First General Conference on Communications and Transit, 1920. Preparatory

Documents3. Second General Conference on Communications and Transit, 1923 - 1925.

Records, texts, preparatory documents I - II4. Second General Conference on Communications and Transit, 1.923 - 1925.

Records, texts, preparatory documents I - II5. Codification of International Law, 1927 - 1928. Report and printed material6. Codification of International Law, 1927 - 1928. Report and printed material7. Articles about the League of Nations8. Printed Material

MARITIME ISSUES

Box 98. Fishing

Folder:

1. Correspondence and Printed Material, 1920 - 1942. Material coversInternational Fisheries Commission created by El Paso Conference onsmuggling 1925, U.S. legislation regarding fishing, international incidentsinvolving U.S., Canada, Japan, Iceland, and others.









10. Whaling. Correspondence, 1934 - 1946, undated11. Whaling. Correspondence, 1934 - 1946, undated12. Whaling. Correspondence, 1934 - 1946, undated

Box 99. Whaling

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Folder:

1. International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling [Geneva, 1931], 1935- 1936

2. Agreement for the Regulation of Whaling [London, 1937], 1937 - 19393. International Whaling Conference [Washington, 1946], 19464. Printed Material, 1932 - 1940, undated5. Printed Material, 1932 - 1940, undated6. Printed Material, 1932 - 1940, undated

Box 100. Seamen

• Correspondence and Printed Material, 1918 - 1940. Material covers foreign laws regardingrelief of national seamen, relief of sick, injured, destitute, shipwrecked seamen, personalinjury suits, wages, altercations (Algic), arrests, U.S. legislation regarding seamen.

Box 101. Shipping

• Correspondence, 1921 - 1943. Material covers legislation (especially in mid-1930's),National Recovery Administration Code of Fair Competition, U.S. government-ownedcommercial vessels, U.S. Maritime Commission, foreign shipping laws, and freight rates.

Box 102. Shipping

Folder:

1. Brussels Collision Convention [1910], 1931 - 19382. Brussels Collision Convention [1910], 1931 - 19383. International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea [1929], 1927 - 1937,

undated4. International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea [1929], 1927 - 1937,



undated7. International Labor Organization Conference [1936], 1937 - 19398. Inter-American Maritime Conference [1940], 1940

Box 103. Shipping. Printed Material, 1894 - 1940, undated

PROHIBITION

Boxes 104-107. Correspondence, 1906 - 1939

• Material includes chiefly correspondence and memoranda among the Departments ofState, Treasury, and Justice with U.S. Foreign Service officers and foreign ambassadors tothe U.S. regarding infractions of the prohibition laws

Box 108. Clippings and Press Releases, 1922 - 1935

Box 109. Legal Documents and Speeches

Folder:

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1. U.S. Liquor Legislation, 1920 - 1938, undated. Material covers liquor laws inU.S. and Philippines, and lists smuggling cases

2. Canadian Court Proceedings, 1923 - 19303. Canadian Court Proceedings, 1923 - 19304. Canadian Government Customs Documents, 1917 - 19265. Citations from International Smuggling Laws6. Speeches and Articles on Smuggling, 1923 - 1962, undated. Includes

Vallance's lectures to Foreign Service School

Box 110. Liquor Control Conferences, 1919 - 1926

Folder:

1. Convention to Control African Liquor Traffic [1919], 1919 - 19222. Conventions on Liquor Traffic: Italy and Serbia, 1922; U.S. and Netherlands,

1923-1925; U.S. and Panama, 1924; Helsingfor Protocol (north andnortheastern European countries), 1924; U.S. and Belgium, 1925; Norway(proposals only), 1926

3. Ottawa Conference on Smuggling [1923], 1922 - 19294. Ottawa Conference on Smuggling [1923], 1922 - 19295. Ottawa Conference on Smuggling [1923], 1922 - 19296. Ottawa Conference on Smuggling [1923], 1922 - 19297. Ottawa Conference on Smuggling [1923], 1922 - 19298. Washington Conference on Smuggling [1925], 1924 - 19259. Washington Conference on Smuggling [1925], 1924 - 1925


Folder:

1. El Paso Conference on Border Smuggling [1925]:reports, proposals, proceedings, 1923 - 1927







8. Washington Conference [With Mexico, 1926], 1925 - 1927

Correspondence, drafts,





Correspondence,

Correspondence,


Folder:

drafts,

drafts,

1. Havana Conference [1926], 1924 - 19262. Havana Conference [1926], 1924 - 19263. Havana Conference [1926], 1924 - 19264. London Conference [1926]: Printed Material, 1926 - 19315. Washington Conference [1927], 1926 - 1928. Canadian Royal Commission

hearings, minutes, printed material6. Washington Conference [1927], 1926 - 1928. Canadian Royal Commission

hearings, minutes, printed material7. Washington Conference [1927], 1926 - 1928. Canadian Royal Commission

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hearings, minutes, printed material8. Miscellaneous Liquor Control Conventions: United Kingdom and Finland,

1933; Brazil and Argentina, 1933; Buenos Aires Convention, 1935

Box 113. Coast Guard Intelligence Reports

Folder:

1. Indices to Circular Nos. 1-600, 701-8002. Law Enforcement Intelligence Circulars, 1924 - 19273. Law Enforcement Intelligence Circulars, 1924 - 19274. Law Enforcement Intelligence Circulars, 1924 - 19275. Law Enforcement Intelligence Circulars, 1924 - 19276. Law Enforcement Intelligence Circulars, 1924 - 19277. Law Enforcement Intelligence Circulars, 1924 - 19278. Law Enforcement Intelligence Circulars, 1924 - 19279. Law Enforcement Intelligence Circulars, 1924 - 192710. Law Enforcement Intelligence Circulars, 1924 - 1927

Boxes 114-119. Rumrunners. A - Z

Boxes 120-129. I'm Alone Case. Correspondence, 1925 - 1934

• Material covers sinking and arbitration of Canadian-registered smuggler

Box 130. I'm Alone Case. Correspondence

Folder:

1. Correspondence, 1935 - 1938, undated2. Correspondence, 1935 - 1938, undated3. Correspondence, 1935 - 1938, undated4. Correspondence, 1935 - 1938, undated5. Correspondence, 1935 - 1938, undated6. Justice Department Reports, 19347. Indices 1-393 to Papers 1-4573, 1926 - 19358. Indices 1-393 to Papers 1-4573, 1926 - 19359. Indices 1-393 to Papers 1-4573, 1926 - 193510. Indices 1-393 to Papers 1-4573, 1926 - 193511. Indices 1-393 to Papers 1-4573, 1926 - 1935

Box 131. I'm Alone Case. Hearings

Folder:

1. Preliminary Hearings and Statements, 1928 - 19342. Preliminary Hearings and Statements, 1928 - 19343. Preliminary Hearings and Statements, 1928 - 19344. Preliminary Hearings and Statements, 1928 - 19345. Preliminary Hearings and Statements, 1928 - 19346. Testimony in U.S. v. John Magnus et al., February, 19287. Affidavits, 1929 - 19348. Grand Jury Decisions in Louisiana Criminal Suits, 1929 - 1930

Box 132. I'm Alone Case. Court Proceedings

Folder:

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1. Court Minutes in U.S. v. Dan Hogan, 1929 - 19302. Court Minutes in U.S. v. Dan Hogan, 1929 - 19303. Court Minutes in U.S. v. Dan Hogan, 1929 - 19304. Court Minutes in U.S. v. Dan Hogan, 1929 - 19305. Court Minutes in U.S. v. Frank Allen etal., 19306. Court Minutes in U.S. v. Malcolm McMasters et al., 1931

Box 133. I'm Alone Case. Trials, Evidence, Appeals

Folder:

1. John Campbell Papers, 19312. Marvin James Clark Family Letters and Naval Records, 1918 - 19283. Marvin James Clark Family Letters and Naval Records, 1918 - 19284. Marvin James Clark Family Letters and Naval Records, 1918 - 19285. Daniel E. Hogan Papers, 1927 - 19296. George J. Hearn Papers, 1928 - 19307. Cecil P. Molyneaux Family Letters, 19308. Frank H. Reitman Papers, 1925 - 19329. Edward Satinover Papers, undated10. Telegrams, 1928 - 1929. Photostats of coded telegrams and decoded

translations from I'm Alone operators from Belize, B. H. to New York11. Expense Accounts, 1929 - 193112. Trial Brief Memorandum13. Appeals. Dan Hogan et al. v. U.S., 1930 - 193114. Appeals. Hogan, Molyneaux, Baker, McMasters, et al. v. U.S.

Box 134. I'm Alone Case. Arbitration Documents

Folder:

1. Registry of I'm Alone, 1923 - 19292. Coast Guard Cutter Logs, 1927 - 1929: I'm Alone's movements described3. Canadian Immigration Statements, 1928: Documents regarding crew's

nationality4. Nautical Charts5. Appropriations and Expenses, 1924 - 19356. Miscellaneous Documents, 1928 - 1934

Box 135. I'm Alone Case. Arbitration Hearings. Transcripts: December, 1934 - January, 1935,vols. 2-4

Box 136. I'm Alone Case. Arbitration. Government Publications

Folder:

1. U.S. Statements and Evidence Documentary evidence, diplomaticcorrespondence, and answers to the Canadian Claim

2. U.S. Statement regarding Claim, June 30, 19333. U.S. Statement regarding Claims for Compensation, June 30, 19334. U.S. State Department Publications: Arbitration Series No. 2, (1) - (5), (7)5. Canadian Government Publications, 1929 - 19356. Canadian Government Publications, 1929 - 1935

Box 137. I'm Alone Case. Documents and Photographs

Box 138. I'm Alone Case. Photograph Albums

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Vallance, William Roy Intp://www.library.rochester.edu/index.cfm?page=1175

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Box 139. I'm Alone Case. Clippings

Folder:

1. Press Releases, 1929 - 19352. "A Skipper of the Seven Seas," by John Thomas Randell, 19293. U.S. Newspaper Clippings, 1929 - 1935, undated4. U.S. Newspaper Clippings, 1929 - 1935, undated5. U.S. Newspaper Clippings, 1929 - 1935, undated6. U.S. Newspaper Clippings, 1929 - 1935, undated7. U.S. Newspaper Clippings, 1929 - 1935, undated8. U.S. Newspaper Clippings, 1929 - 1935, undated9. U.S. Newspaper Clippings, 1929 - 1935, undated10. U.S. Newspaper Clippings, 1929 - 1935, undated11. U.S. Newspaper Clippings, 1929 - 1935, undated12. U.S. Newspaper Clippings, 1929 - 1935, undated13. U.S. Newspaper Clippings, 1929 - 1935, undated14. U.S. Newspaper Clippings, 1929 - 1935, undated15. U.S. Newspaper Clippings, 1929 - 1935, undated16. Canadian Newspaper Clippings, 1930 - 193517. Articles on the I'm Alone Case, 1929 - 1935

STATE DEPARTMENT

Boxes 140-144. Correspondence, 1889 - 1957

• Material covers, among other subjects, treaties, international marriages, fur seals, Nazisand other wartime issues, citizenship, extra-territorial rights, territorial waters, andnarcotics

Box 145. Internal Organization

Folder:

1. Correspondence, 1918 - 19412. Department Orders, 1922 - 19373. Department Orders, 1938 - 19414. Edith Miller Case, 1934 - 19375. Personnel Classification. Correspondence, 1923 - 19306. Personnel Classification. Printed Material7. Printed Material8. Vallance's Cases, 1927 - 1934

Boxes 146-149. Printed Material, 1913 - 1965, undated

TAXATION

Box 150. Correspondence and Printed Material, 1921 - 1941

• Material covers taxation of U.S. nationals abroad, of foreigners, property, and securities in

U.S., and maritime taxes (tariffs, tonnage duties, etc.)

UNITED NATIONS

Box 151. Documents

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hnp://www.librarysochestenedu/index.c fm'?page=1175

Folder:

1. Economic and Social Council Drafts and Resolutions2. General Assembly Documents, 1947 - 19543. General Assembly Documents, 1947 - 19544. General Assembly Documents, 1947 - 19545. General Assembly Documents, 1947 - 19546. General Assembly Documents, 1947 - 19547. General Assembly Documents, 1947 - 19548. General Assembly International Law Commission. Minutes, Reports, 1950 -

19679. General Assembly International Law Commission. Minutes, Reports, 1950 -


U.S. FOREIGN SERVICE

Boxes 152-153. Correspondence and Printed Material, 1920 - 1946, undated

• Material covers duty of diplomatic agents, foreign notarial service, embassy financialprocedures

Box 154. Consular Regulations

• Diplomatic Serials, 1927 - 1933 Articles XI - XXI

Box 155. Consular Regulations

• Diplomatic and Consular Laws and Regulations of Various Countries, Books I & II, 1932;Foreign Service Regulations of the U.S.A., 1941

U.S. GOVERNMENT

Box 156. Treasury Department

Folder:

1. Comptroller General's Decisions on Economy Act, 1932 - 19412. Comptroller General's Decisions on Economy Act, 1932 - 19413. Comptroller General's Decisions on Economy Act, 1932 - 19414. Comptroller General's Decisions on Economy Act, 1932 - 19415. Comptroller General's Decisions on Economy Act, 1932 - 19416. Comptroller General's Decisions on Economy Act, 1932 - 19417. Treasury Department Tax Regulations, 1919 - 19448. Treasury Department Tax Regulations, 1919 - 1944

Box 157. Domestic Affairs; Correspondence and Printed Material, 1913 - 1941. Material coversconstitutional amendments and matters pertaining to the Presidency

Box 158. U.S. Courts of Appeal and Miscellaneous Courts. Opinions and Briefs, 1911 - 1957

Boxes 159-160. U.S. Supreme Court. Opinions and Briefs, 1918 - 1966

U.S. TERRITORIAL & INSULAR POSSESSIONS

6/26/2007 10:27 AM


Box 161. Correspondence and Printed Material, 1920 - 1941

• Material covers Antarctica, Philippines (including the Cincinnati Soap Company Case), theDistrict of Columbia, and others

WORLD WARS

Box 162. World War I

Folder:

1. Neutral Rights and Commerce. Correspondence, 1914 - 19192. Neutral Rights and Commerce. Correspondence, 1914 - 19193. Neutral Rights and Commerce. Correspondence, 1914 - 19194. Treaty of Versailles. Correspondence and Printed Material, 1919 - 19235. Treaty of Versailles. Correspondence and Printed Material, 1919 - 19236. Treaty of Versailles. Correspondence and Printed Material, 1919 - 19237. Treaty of Versailles. Proceedings of Committee on New States, I & II8. Treaty of Versailles. Proceedings of Committee on New States, I & II9. Treaty of Versailles. Analytical Table of Contents10. Treaty of Versailles. Analytical Table of Contents

Box 163. World War II

Folder:

1. Claims. Correspondence, 1939 - 19462. Claims. Correspondence, 1939 - 19463. Claims. Correspondence, 1939 - 19464. Claims. Correspondence, 1939 - 19465. Claims. Correspondence, 1939 - 19466. Claims. Correspondence, 1939 - 19467. Neutrality Laws. Correspondence and Press Releases, 1935 - 19418. Neutrality Laws. Correspondence and Press Releases, 1935 - 19419. Prisoners of War and Internees. Correspondence, 1940 - 194110. Printed Material, 1943 - 1946

PERSONAL PAPERS

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Gnvil - LeisNexis(R) Email Request (1842:78628440) http://mail.google.com/maiPui—l&ik=c475862635&view—pt&th-1...

Susan Burgess <[email protected]>

LexisNexis(R) Email Request (1842:78628440)1 message

R LexisNexis Print Delivery <[email protected]> Sat, Mar 1, 2008 at 12:56 PMTo: [email protected]

110MM4Print Request: Selected Document(s): 1Time of Request: March 01, 2008 12:56 PM ESTNumber of Lines: 40Job Number: 1842:78628440Client 1D/Project Name:

Research Information:

Note:Leg History for HR 11964

1 of 1 DOCUMENT

Congressional Indexes, 1789-1969Copyright © 2006, Congressional Information Service, Inc.

TITLE: To Amend the Radio Act of 1912

CIS-NO: H323-9SOURCE: Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries. HouseDOC-TYPE: Published HearingDATE: Jan. 2, 3, 1923LENGTH: ii+66 p.CONG-SESS: 67-4SESSION-DATE: 1922, 1923CIS-HEARINGS-MICROFICHE-GROUP: 1ASUDOC: Y4.M53:R11/12 -CONGRESS: 67

CONTENT-NOTATION: Radio communications regulation by Commerce Dept,authorization

BILL-NO: 67 H.R. 11964

NOTES: Considers legislation to authorize Commerce Dept. regulation of radiofacilities.

DESCRIPTORS: DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE; RADIO (Commerce Dept regulation of radiofacilities, authorization); RADIO ACT; LICENSES; TELEGRAPH; NAVY; CIVIL-MILITARYRELATIONS (Navy radio facilities regulation by Commerce Dept, authorization)

1 of 3/4/2008 11:36 AM

MEW'

Gm4i1 - Ley.isNexis(R) Email Request (1842:78628440) http://mail.google.com/mail/?ui=1&ik=c4758626358Lview=pt&th=1...

2 of 2

WITNESSES: ZIEGEMEIER, HENRY J. (Rear Adm., Dir of Naval Communications, NavyDept, p. 6.) BENDER, L. B. (Maj., Army Signal Corps, p. 9.) SIBLEY, EUGENE T.(PO Dept, p. 10, 48.) WHEELER, W. A. (Bur of Agric Economics, USDA, p. 10.)MAXIM, HIRAM P. (representing Amer Radio Relay League, p. 11.) GREGG, KENNETH P.(mgr, Natl Radio Chamber of Commerce, p. 23.) CHAMBERS, FRANK B. (representingWireless Assn of Pa, p. 25.) Hoover, Herbert 1929-1933 (Sec, Commerce Dept, p.29.) HOGAN, JOHN V. (consulting engr, NYC, p. 43.) BELMONT, ARTHUR R. (asstengr, Boston ; Albany RR and vice chm, committee No 12 on radio and wiredcarrier systems, Amer Railway Assn, p. 51.) THOM, ALFRED P. (representingcommittee No 12 on radio and wired carrier systems, Amer Railway Assn, p. 58.)MCNAUGHTON, ANDREW D. (representing Wireless Assn of Pa, p. 61.) STEWART,CHARLES H. (pres, Amer Radio Relay League, p. 65.))

AFFILIATIONS: Department of Navy; Army Signal Corps; Department of Post Office;Department of Agriculture; American Radio Relay League; National Radio Chamberof Commerce; Wireless Association of Pennsylvania; American Railway Association

3/4/2008 11:36 AM

- Lexis:Nexis(R) Email Request (1842:78628578) http://mail.google.com/mail/'?ui=l&ik=c475862635&view=pt&th=1...

Susan Burgess <[email protected]>

LexisNexis(R) Email Request (1842:78628578)4 messages

R LexisNexis Print Delivery <[email protected]> Sat, Mar 1, 2008 at 1:00 PMTo: [email protected]

110MM4Print Request: Selected Document(s): 1Time of Request: March 01, 2008 01:00 PM ESTNumber of Lines: 46Job Number: 1842:78628578Client ID/Project Name:


Note:leg history for HR 7357

1 of 1 DOCUMENT

Congressional Indexes, 1789-1969Copyright © 2006, Congressional Information Service, Inc.

TITLE: To Regulate Radio Communication

CIS-NO: H346-4SOURCE: Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries. HouseDOC-TYPE: Published HearingDATE: Mar. 11-14, 1924LENGTH: iv+254 p.CONG-SESS: 68-1SESSION-DATE: 1923, 1924CIS-HEARINGS-MICROFICHE-GROUP: 1ASUDOC: Y4.M53:R11/13CONGRESS: 68

CONTENT-NOTATION: Radio communications regulation by Commerce Dept,authorization

BILL-NO: 68 H.R. 7357

DESCRIPTORS: DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE; FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION; INTERSTATECOMMERCE COMMISSION; FEDERAL INTERAGENCY RELATIONS; RADIO (Commerce Deptregulation of radio facilities, authorization); LICENSES; MONOPOLIES;JURISDICTION; MERCHANT MARINE; PATENTS; UNITED FRUIT CO

WITNESSES: Hoover, Herbert 1929-1933 (Sec, Commerce Dept, p. 8.) BINGHAM, DONALDC. (Commdr., Asst Dir, Naval Communications, Navy Dept, p. 12.) MAUBORGNE, JOHN

1 of 4 3/4/2008 11:35 AM

Lexis,Nexis(R) Email Request (1842:78628578) http://mail.google.com/mail/?ui=l&ik=c475862635&view=pt&th=1...

0. (Maj., Signal Corps, Research Lab, Nati Bur of Standards; representing WarDept, p. 28, 136.) CALDWELL, CHARLES P. (representing Radio Broadcaster's Soc ofAmer, p. 28.) COOPER, C. B. (representing Radio Trade Assn, p. 37.) THOM, ALFREDP. (gen solicitor, Assn of Railway Execs; representing Amer Railway Assn, p.38.) BELMONT, ARTHUR R. (vice chm, committee No 12, radio and wire carriersystem, Amer Railway Assn, p. 38.) ASS ERSON, RAYMOND (broadcasting supvr, NYC;on behalf of:) WHALEN, GROVER A. (commr, NYC Dept of Plant Structures, p. 40,95, 201.) DEVERY, JOSEPH A. (asst corp counsel, NYC, p. 50.) KLUGH, PAUL B.(exec chm, Natl Assn of Broadcasters, p. 52.) HEIN, SILVIO (representing AmerSoc of Composers, Authors, and Publishers, p. 61.) ARMSTRONG, EDWIN H. (radioinventor, NYC, p. 63.) WILSON, E. S. (vp, AT;T, p. 71, 101.) HARKNESS, WILLIAME. (asst vp, AT;T, p. 82.) WARNER, K. B. (representing Amer Radio Relay Leagueand Nati Assn of Radio Amateurs, p. 99.) NICHOLSON, JOHN (Counsel, Committee onLegislation, US Shipping Bd, p. 103.) LEE, L. L. (Head, Radio Div, EmergencyFleet Corp, P. 108, 225.) LOGUE, W. G. (sales mgr, Independent WirelessTelegraph Co, P. 122.) SCOFIELD, FREDERIC C. (atty, Interstate Radio TelegraphCo, P. 130.) SARNOFF, DAVID (vp and gen mgr, Radio Corp of Amer, p. 157.)COVINGTON, J. HARRY (atty, representing Tropical Radio Telegraph Co, p. 203.)DAVIS, STEPHEN B. (Solicitor, Commerce Dept, P. 208.) JENKINS, C. FRANCIS (DC,p.213.))

AFFILIATIONS: Department of Navy; War Department; U.S. Shipping Board; U.S.Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corp.; Radio Broadcaster's Society of America;Radio Trade Association; American Railway Association; National Association ofBroadcasters; American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers; AmericanTelephone and Telegraph Co.; American Radio Relay League; National Associationof Radio Amateurs; Independent Wireless Telegraph Co.; Interstate RadioTelegraph Co.; Radio Corporation of America; Tropical Radio Telegraph Co

Susan Burgess <[email protected]>To: Hannah Bergman <hannah.haley©gmail.com>

Can I borrow your Lexis password? I'd like to see if I can find moreabout these documents - I don't really understand these legislativehistories. I wouldn't use it til tomorrow since I'm out of the officetoday. Thanks!

Forwarded message From: R LexisNexis Print Delivery <lexisnexisprod.lexisnexis.com>Date: Mar 1, 2008 1:00 PMSubject: LexisNexis(R) Email Request (1842:78628578)To: skburgessornail.com

110MM4Print Request: Selected Document(s): 1Time of Request: March 01, 2008 01:00 PM ESTNumber of Lines: 46Job Number: 1842:78628578

Mon, Mar 3, 2008 at 9:18 AM

2 of 4 3/4/2008 11:35 AM

Gmai.1- LexisNexis(R) Email Request (1842:78628578) http://mail.google.com/mailf?ui=1&ik=e475862635&view—pt&th=1...

Client ID/Project Name:


Note:leg history for HR 7357

1 of 1 DOCUMENT

Congressional Indexes, 1789-1969Copyright (c) 2006, Congressional Information Service, Inc.

[Quoted text hidden]

Hannah Bergman <[email protected]> Mon, Mar 3, 2008 at 9:28 AMTo: Susan Burgess <[email protected]>

Lexis is so wierd - some things are linked and some are not, and it's often hard to find stuff you knowmust be there. I only scrounged a bit, so some more intense looking will probably yield other stuff.

I have two Lexis accounts for school

lawschool.lexis.comuser name hhb348password 5478779

Lexis Nexis congressionalhttps://proxy.wctamerican.edu/login?url=http://web.lexis-nexis.com/congcomp/form/cong/s pubnumber.html?doctype=searchBillLawhb9218afuckme11

If for some reason it doesn't let you on - like I mixed up my passwords (it happens) just let me knowand I'll double check. Sometimes Lexis is just flakey too.

From my experience, once you get that CIS # from the legislative history it's the key to finding whatyou need on the mircofilm. If it does turn out you need the microfilm, I'm pretty sure AU will have it -I've had to pull stuff like this from their film before. I can help you get it from the library, save on yourtrip to the Archives and the joys of public restroom pumping.

hannah


Susan Burgess <[email protected]>Reply-To: [email protected]: Hannah Bergman <[email protected]>

Thanks!Sent via BlackBerry

Original Message

Mon, Mar 3, 2008 at 9:49 AM

3 of 4 3/4/2008 11:35 AM

•

Gmai,1 - ,Lexiv.Nexis(R) Email Request (1842:78628578) http://mail.google.com/mail/?ui=l&ik=c475862635&view=pt&th=1...

From: "Hannah Bergman" <hannah.haleyqmail.com>

Date: Mon, 3 Mar 2008 09:28:23To:"Susan Burgess" <skburqessaqmail.com>Subject: Re: LexisNexis(R) Email Request (1842:78628578)

Lexis is so wierd - some things are linked and some are not, and it's often hard to find stuff you knowmust be there. I only scrounged a bit, so some more intense looking will probably yield other stuff.

I have two Lexis accounts for school

lawschool.lexis.com <http://lawschool.lexis.com>user name hhb348password 5478779

Lexis Nexis congressionalhttps://proxy.wcl.american.edu/login?url=http://web.lexis-nexis.com/conqcomp/form/conq

/s pubnumber.html?doctype=searchBillLaw <https://proxy.wcl.american.edu/login?url=http://web.lexis-nexis.com/congcomp/form/cong/s pubnumber.html?doctype=searchBillLaw>

hb9218afuckme11

If for some reason it doesn't let you on - like I mixed up my passwords (it happens) just let me know

and I'll double check. Sometimes Lexis is just flakey too.

From my experience, once you get that CIS # from the legislative history it's the key to finding what

you need on the mircofilm. If it does turn out you need the microfilm, I'm pretty sure AU will have it -

I've had to pull stuff like this from their film before. I can help you get it from the library, save on your

trip to the Archives and the joys of public restroom pumping.

hannah

On Mon, Mar 3, 2008 at 9:18 AM, Susan Burgess <skburqessqmail.com

<mailto:skburqessaqmail.com> > wrote:Can I borrow your Lexis password? I'd like to see if! can find moreabout these documents - I don't really understand these legislativehistories. I wouldn't use it til tomorrow since I'm out of the officetoday. Thanks!

Forwarded message From: R LexisNexis Print Delivery <lexisnexisaprod.lexisnexis.com<mailto:lexisnexisaprod.lexisnexis.com> >Date: Mar 1, 2008 1:00 PMSubject: LexisNexis(R) Email Request (1842:78628578)


4 of 4 3/4/2008 11:35 ANI