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CHAPTER – I
INTRODUCTION
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Rain fed agriculture in India’s semi-arid tropics is characterized by low
productivity, degraded natural resources, and widespread poverty. Hundreds
of millions of people living in the Indian semi-arid tropics depend on
agriculture and natural resource management for their livelihood so,
development planners are eager to implement productive, environmentally
sustainable land and water management systems. Watershed development
projects are designed to harmonize the use of water, soil, forest, and pasture
resources in a way that conserves these resources while raising agricultural
productivity, both by conserving moisture in the ground and increasing
irrigation through tank and aquifer-based water harvesting. Watershed
programme has become widespread in rain fed areas in recent years, with a
current annual budget from all sources exceeding US$500 million1.
Water is the main source and substance of life. It is very essential for
realizing the full potential of the agricultural sector and for county’s
development. During the recent years, water has become a mater of important
subject for the national level planning and plan formulation, which led to the
establishment of national water resource council as a national apex body. In a
country like India the best way through which a society can progress is by
increasing the productivity of the economic activities. Raising the
productivity of irrigated and rain fed agriculture combined with soil and
water conservation technique is essential for faster development. India, begin
1 Chopra, K. and Kadekodi, G.K. (1993), “Watershed Development: A Contrast with
NREP/JRY”, Economic and Political Weekly, June 26.
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an agrarian country depends a great deal on natural resource for production
of food and economic development of the rural areas. In several parts of
India, a number of initiatives have been taken by the local communities
regarding water harvesting and watershed development.
Watershed development is an important component of rural
development of many countries and natural resource management strategies.
A watershed is an area that drains to a common point, and watershed
development seeks to manage hydrological relationship within a watershed
to optimize the use of natural resource conservation. Watershed may contain
forests, pastures, agricultural land, surface water and groundwater, all linked
through hydrology. So by their nature they are an excellent setting for the
study of common property.
Many watershed resources are characterized by high exclusion cost
and subtractability, which are the two main attributes of common pool
resources. Even where a land in a watershed is held privately, collective
action among all watershed users is held essential for watershed management
due to hydrological linkages, which do not respect property bounderies2. The
fact that water flows downhill either on the surface or underground means
those natural resources decisions upstream can have strong implications for
resource use opportunities downstream. Benefits accrued upstream may
result in downstream costs, or costs incurred upstream may bring benefits
2 Ravnborg, H.M. and M. Del Pilar Guerrero 1999, “Collective action in watershed
management: Experiences from Andean Hillsides,” Agriculure and Human Values 16(3): 257-266.
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downstream. Watersheds are complex, multiple use commons, which are
characterized by the need to balance interests both within and across diverse
interest groups to generate agreement on regulations about resource access,
allocation and control3. This means that watershed development requires
mechanisms to promote collective action and share costs and benefits.
Typically laws are not specified or not enforceable in such matters and thus
do not offer much help.
Watershed, a natural entity in itself, combines forest management, land
use management and water management. It is a hydrologic and
physiographic unit that offers a very good base for planning and
implementing soil conservation. Water harvesting, afforestation and
environmental protection programmes. Watershed is defined as a natural
hydrological entity that covers a specific area expansion of land surface
within boundaries the entire rainfall-run off ultimately passes through a
specifically defined stream. From the scientific perspective, a watershed is
defined as the drainage areas of a stream. Water development and
management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users,
planners and policy makers at all levels. It means that the decision taken at
the lowest appropriate levels, with full public consultation and involvement
of users in the planning and implementation of water projects.
3 Steins, N. A. and V. M. Edwards 1999 a. “Platrorms for collective action in multiple-use
common-pool resources,” Agriculture and Human Values 16(3): 241-255
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Concept of watershed
The concept of Watershed Development in India has been proposed by
Shri (Late) Y.P. Bali in 1974. When the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of
India has proposed the programme of soil and water conservation adopting
watershed as a planning unit. Watershed is defined as an area enclosed in a
catchment boundary of a river basin. It is enclosed by two ridgelines and it
has a natural outlet. It is also defined as a land area from which the waters
drains to a given point. In other words, the word catchment and drainage
basin were considered as synonymous with watersheds. It can also be viewed
as an Ariel expansion of land from the runoff flows, through a drain, stream
of river.
Further, it is defined as a hydrological entry and an area above a given
drainage point where the total area contributes water flowing into a single
outlet. In other words, watershed is a resource region where the ecosystem is
closely interconnected around a basic resource- ‘water’. Thus, watershed is an
ecosystem or bio-geo-physical unit in which the interdependency of
renewable and non-renewable environment is closeted.
Further, it is also a resource region, soil topography and biomass in its
catchment. The resource usage by the social groups centered on different
locations such as upland and mid-reaches is interdependent because any
short term practices by upstream residents might result in soil erosion causing
flooding and siltation in lower valleys, leading to total disturbances in
production process at downstream areas. Hence, these externalities can be
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internalized by collective action and people’s participation is a must for the
sustainability of the watershed unit. Thus, within watershed physical and
biologic resources are linked by a complex of processes, changes in any of
them can cause serious effects on the other. Hence, systems approach has to
be adopted for an ideal management of the watershed unit for the
development of dry-land agriculture.
The normative watershed consists of agro-eco-systems under five
categories the first ridge portion is suitable for tall forest and silvi-pastoral
systems; the next portion would be below the first region and on the steep
slope and suitable for the silvi-horti-pastoral system; the third region is a
horti-pastoral region with some high value horticultural crops and good
fodder yielding varieties of grasses; the fourth region can be characterized as
the rain-fed region with residual moisture for the second crop; and the basin
of the watershed or the lower reaches are characterized by most fertile and
well drained soils. The private holdings are normally spread over all the five
regions indicated above. Hence watershed development programme involves
treatments on both public and private lands.
The idea of an integrated treatment of all lands on a watershed basis
was actually adopted and implemented in India as early as 1949 by the
Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC), set up on the lines of Tennessee Valley
Authority (TVA) of USA with suitable modifications to suit Indian conditions.
The DVC had set up an inter-disciplinary team, the first of its kind in India
with scientific manpower form various disciplines like soil sciences, agro
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engineering, forestry, social sciences, fisheries, grassland development and
animal sciences etc., But this remained an isolated experiment. However,
since early seventies, the idea of integrated treatment of watershed was
revived.
Need and Importance of Watershed Programme
The Watershed Programme is the basic need for integrated
development and management of the land and water resources which
provide life support for rural communities. Thus the prospects for agriculture
in the dry land areas are severely constrained by the specific feature of their
natural resource endowments and the changed context. In a situation of low
pressure on resources, viability was possible through traditional land
cultivation practices. Watershed Programme ensures supply of water to every
field, removes hunger and poverty from poor areas, provide green cover over
denuded areas, bring in more rains and improve the environment. Watershed
Programme is also described as a programme that holds the key to solve
problems of employment, economy, ecology, export and equity. The
watershed development programme holds significance for individual village
as well as national development. The attention has been focused on this
programme in order to provide impetus to development in the country.
Through the watershed development programme, we can achieve the
following:
� The problem of drinking water can be solved, and to some extent, the
problem of water for irrigation will also be solved.
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� Increase in agricultural production due to watershed development can
create employment within the village and make food available to
them.
� Migration to urban areas can be checked, which will also arrest the
problem of growing cities.
� Due to soil and water conservation, ecological balance can be restored.
� Heavy siltation in dams has given rise to many problems related to
electricity supply, urban water supply. Industries depend on this
water are also facing problems. Soil and water conservation can arrest
the flow of silt into the dams.
Watershed development is a programme that evolved over a period of 50
years and now identifies the integrated interaction between various Naural
Resources belonging to a watershed, which is a natural phenomenon. This
ensures least disturbances in the natural processes of protecting environment.
This increases productivity, health conditions, nutrition and so many other
things besides social development amongst the people living within the
watershed.
Having large tracts of rain-shadow zones, the state suffers drought and
has a long history of droughts. Early efforts were to provide drinking water
and hence the drilling technology was adopted by voluntary organizations.
Identifying the need, a suitable pump was evolved within Action for
Agricultural Renewal in Maharastra (AFARM) and large number of
installations of handpumps were executed. Unbalanced exploitation of
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groundwater enforced the change in attitude towards impounding larger
quantities of water. Thus the progress was from locating water well sites
scientifically, drilling and installation of hand-pumps, conjunctive use of
water to Water Cycle itself. However, such progress always fell short since
other natural resources harmoniously interaction with water.
The Watershed Development Programme evolved out of large number
of experiments carried by Member Organisations to eliminate drought. Today
the programme takes into account the soil, the rocks, the water, the
geography, the biomass living within and above the earth. Thus as many as
6000 impounding structures were constructed during the period of learning
along with bore-wells, lift irrigation schemes etc. today, Action for
Agricultural Renewal in Maharastra (AFARM) proposes participatory
watershed development where people are using their traditional knowledge,
available material, imagination and creativity to plan their watershed and
implement a programme.
Watershed Programme in India
Traditionally, India depends on agriculture and the Indian farmers
themselves maintained the watersheds like ponds, tanks and other irrigation
systems for centuries. As noted activities such as desiltation of water
channels and ponds, protection of vegetative and soil conservation activities
were effected collectively under the guidance of village councils. Increase in
population pressure and erosion of socio-religious and political institutions
degraded the land, water and vegetation.
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The importance of micro Watershed Programme was recognized and is
being practiced in the country since 1973 due to the recommendations of the
Task Force on Integrated Development of Drought Prone Areas. From 1979-
80, the Watershed Programme was transferred to the State Governments as
per the recommendations of the National Development Council. The farmers
and villagers themselves undertook the programme through direct
participation. Watershed Programme in India appears both fantastic and
frightening. After 73rd Constitutional Amendment, Watershed Programe has
been included in the schedule of subjects to be handled by the Panchayats.
This provides opportunities for combining development of grassroots
democracy and natural resources in a systematic manner. Watershed
Management would ensure supply of water to every field and restore
ecological balance.
The Watershed Management was started in India in 1962-63 with the
launching of the government scheme, “Soil conservation works in the
catchments of River Valley Projects.” The chief aim of it was the prevention of
siltation of reservoirs built with huge government funds. The National
Watershed Development Programme for Rain fed Agriculture (NWDPRA)
was started in 1995-96. Watershed community is now being encouraged to
participate in the government/ donor/Non-Governmental Organizations
(NGOs) projects and contribute labour or cash. Watershed Programme
technology should meet the watersheds of the community if the government
has to be accepted and replicated by the people. The priority of water should
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be in the following order – potable water, domestic use, animal drinking,
agriculture, horticulture etc.
The concept of watershed management is as old as the concept of crops
grown under irrigated conditions and this concept led to development of
tanks and reservoirs for increasing the production to meet the demand of ever
growing population-since ages. Different rulers in different regions realized
and executed works based on the availability of funds, needs of the people,
available natural resources in the area, etc., to meet population demands and
requirements of food needs. The beneficiaries were taxed and revenue was
collected from them. Sir Arthur Cotton submitted two reports during 1844
and 1845 to the then British Government after surveying entire area from Papi
Hiils to Sagaram in Godavari river area and this made the construction of a
storage type barrage at Dhawaleswaram in Godavari district of utilizing river
water for agricultural development in the area and planned for utilization of
run-off water to construct dams to Kalirune river water in Tanjavur district of
Tamil Nadu and to Tungabhadra river water near Bellary in addition to
planning Kurnool-Cuddapah (K.C.) Canal with a distance of 306 km for
effective utilization of run-off water for improving productivity and
production of agricultural crops through better utilization of natural
resources. The need to maintain better environment and preserve natural
resources like soil, water and vegetation was realized by early rulers and
managed through different kinds of village institution (eg. Village level
officials, Gram Panchayat, village rulers and administrators) in different
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regions. Punishments were awarded if attempts were made to damage
natural resources.
After India’s Independence, the importance to execute authority at
village level has gradually declined in India due to changes in policies in the
democratic setup and liberalization of spirit of freedom. This led to more
damage to vegetation in rural areas leading to deterioration in environment
through soil degradation. Hence, Government of India and different
provincial Governments took up amelioration measures such as, afforestation
measures, soil conservation measure, run-off water utilization programmes,
etc. However, expected results did not forth come on constant and continuous
basis. Therefore, Government of India launched Watershed Development
Programmes (WDPs) in 1983-84 in a big way to conserve and utilize natural
resources for enhanced productivity and higher socio-economic status. Up-
scaling of watershed development programme was carried out by spending
about Rs.100,000 millions per annum since then till now. Though, it has been
carried out since 1983-84, the impact of watershed programme be evaluated
for evolving better strategies and policies to preserve, conserve and utilize
natural resources for betterment of ever growing population.
Watershed management is an integrated technological approach within
the natural boundaries of a drainage area for optimum development of land,
water and plant resources to meet the basic minimum need of the people in a
sustained manner. According to Social Conservation Society of India,
watershed management means harmonious development of land and water
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resources in the natural boundaries of a watershed so as to promote or
produce, one sustainable basis, abundance of plants and animals and their
products, and still deliver clean and controlled flow of water to down stream.
The development strategies in India have been stressing upon the
optimum utilization of natural resources such as land, water, vegetation etc.
Conservation, regeneration and protection of these natural resources are
essential for the overall development of the people. The failure to do so in the
past resulted in over exploitation of natural resources and caused problems
such as land degradation, denudation of vegetation, depletion of water
resources which in turn resulted in promoting drought, famine and
desertification. Watershed Programme has gained much importance
especially in drought prone areas. The ultimate objective of this programme is
to develop the natural resource base, sustain its productivity, improve the
standard of living of millions of poor farmers and landless labourers and
endeavour for restoration of ecological balance.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Over a period of time watershed projects have generated interesting
results in terms of impact. Some studies are available to understand the
process of watershed development, management and the impact thereof.
Gaps exist in the earlier studies and hence there is need for bridging these
gaps. The following are the important studies completed on watersheds are
reviewed in the following paragraphs in chronological order.
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C.W. Thornthwaite (1947), in his study on climate and moisture
conservation has developed a systematic water-balance approach to estimate
drought conditions. The author opined that drought can never be defined in
terms of rainfall shortage alone, since it does not take in to consideration.
According to this study mere failure of rainfall is not an indication of the
beginning of drought. Agricultural production is strongly geared to the
water-budget which is determined by water supply and demand.
Report of the Indian irrigation commission (1972), analysed and
proposed certain works of irrigation as a means to combat drought. In every
state and in every district, the commission identified the chronically drought
affected areas and suggested suitable crops and economic use of water
balancing as remedial measures.
The concept of Watershed Development in India has been proposed by
Sri (Late) Y.P. Bali in 1974. When the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of
India has proposed the programme of soil and water conservation adopting
watershed as planning unit. All India Soil and Land Use Survey, Government
of India arrived at a codification system upto watershed level using remote
sensing data. The Drought Prone Area Programme adopted watershed
approach in (1987) to focus on non-arable lands and minor drainage systems
for an inset soil and moisture conservation, agroforestry, pasture
development, horticulture and alternative land use practices. The Desert
Development Programme adopted the watershed approach in 1987 to focus
on reforestation to arrest the growth of hot as well as cold deserts. The
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development of wastelands on a watershed basis is adopted in 1989 by
National Waste Land Development Board (NWDB) which combines the
features of the above said programmes with additional dimensions of
improving arable lands through better crop management technologies.
The watershed management is required to control damaging run-off, to
utilize run-off water for useful purposes, to control erosion, to moderate
floods in the down stream area, to enhance ground water storage and
appropriately use land water, forest and fuel resources. The various soil
conservation methods to be adopted for the implementation of watershed
management programmes are stone bonding, contour trenching, staggered
trenches and bench terraces. Stream draining works, afforestation, contour
bonding, check dams, percolation ponds, silt detention tanks agronomy,
orchards, forestry, mixed farming, animal fisheries and poultry development.
Tejwani etal. (1960) described the measures to control gully erosion in the
ravine lands of Gujarat. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1960)
suggested the measures for soil erosion by wind agricultural lands. Ghumare
(1962) has carried out studies on behaviors of contour bunds. Das etal (1967)
has suggested the measures for soil and water management of the Niligiris.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1976) suggested the measures for
soil conservation and management in Developing Countries. Gupta and
Rames Babu (1977) has carried out studies on efficiency of contour farming,
channel terracing and graded furrows to control erosion in the watersheds.
Vijayalakshmi and Vital (1981) has described the importance of rainwater
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harvesting structures and recycling in semi-arid regions. Gajri (1981)
described the significant of rainwater harvesting structures and it’s recycling
for maximization of crops. Patnaik etal. (1982) has carried out studies on
water harvesting structures in farm ponds in deep black soil plaints. Dhruva
Narayan (1983) has suggested the measures for minimum erosion, maximum
benefits of soil conservation.
According to Sarin R and Ryab J.G. (1983) ‘study on watershed’ they
noted that total rainfall in 1980 was only 400 mm, which was below 43.00 per
cent. Though the onset of the monsoon was early, the rains receded early and
crops suffered due to late season and drought. An economic analysis
revealed that though this is comparatively low rainfall year profitability could
still be achieved using the improved technology compared to traditional
technology. The average net profit from the improved watershed plots were
more than triple than those from traditional fields. The improved system was
more superior to the traditional system in terms of yields and profits.
Hanumappa (1985) has identified agro-climatic regions and suggested
strategies for planning watershed development. Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) (1985) has published a manual and watershed
development with special reference to soil and water conservation. Dhruva
Narayan (1985) has suggested measurers for soil and water conservation and
watershed development. Pacey and Cullis (1986) has given a good account of
rain water harvesting structures for the collection of rainfall and run-off in
rural areas. Subramaniam etal. (1987) has published a series of articles on soil
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survey and land use planning of watershed management. Bali (1987) has
proposed the steps for priority delineation surveys and priority identification
in watershed management. Krishna Swamy (1987) has suggested the
methods of soil survey and land use planning for watershed management and
studied the soil characteristics and land use planning of micro watershed in
Kundani lower Bhavani river valley project. Gautham (1987) described the
concept and delineation of watershed development. Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) (1988) has published a field manual of watershed
management and slope treatment measures and practices.
T.B. Singh, et al; (1988), attempted to analyse the constraints in growing
rabi crops in parunala watershed project in Madhya Pradesh and identified
the adoption gaps.
The Government of India in its report on Drought monitoring
programme (1989), studied the problem of drought form its national natural
resources management point of view. This study followed a scientific chart of
drought identification for its analysis.
All India Soil and Land use Survey (1990) has prepared an Atlas of
watersheds in India on 1:1 million scale. Dhruva Narayan etal. (1990)
described the watershed management practices. Dhruva Narayan Shastry
and Patnaik (1990) has proposed watershed management programmes. Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1990) has given guidelines for
watershed survey, planning and conservation. Jain (1990) has described the
importance of integrated land use and forest management in Asian and
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Pacific. Mishra (1990) has given basic concepts, objectives, problems and
prospects of watershed management. Singh etal. (1990) has proposed the
watershed management practices to be under taken for conservation of land
and water resources of Aravalli Foothills.
“Kshirsagar, K.G. and Ghodake, R.D. (1991)” in their study on
performance of watershed technology at International Crops Research
Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) centre for right agricultural years,
they noted that improved cropping systems yield increased from 3.9 to 4.4
tones per hectare against 0.5 to 0.7 tones with traditional Cropping systems.
On an average, the watershed technology gave about 3 tones per hectare of
cereal output and 1.2 tones of pulses. The average gross returns of the
improved options were 4 to 5.4 times higher than those of the traditional
systems. The additional gross benefits generated by the watershed based
technology were in the range of Rs. 3,300 to Rs. 5,400 per hector. This
amounts to marginal rates of returns of 160 to 300 per cent. In this study it
was found that the watershed technology promises to reduce risk as
compared to the existing cropping system of a single past-rainy season crop.
Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India (1991) has given
the guidelines for watershed development. Das Gupta (1992) has described
strategies for integrated watershed development. Kerr (1992) has described
the measures of watershed management from technology intervention to
social organization. Begachi and Philip (1993) had described the untapped
potential of watershed in India. Govardhan (1993) has published a book on
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remote sensing and water management in common areas. Mysore
Rehabilitation and Development Agency (MYRADA) (1993) has described the
experiences in the emergence and growth of people’s institutions for
sustained and equitable management of micro watersheds.
Asit. K. Biswas in his research work (1993) on “water for sustainable
development in twenty-first century: A global perspective” examined water
crisis in arid and semi-arid countries. Further he also analyzed issues of
water conservation and efficient use of water. In addition, he paid attention
to social and environmental considerations of water resource development
and management.
Anil (1994) has suggested a few measures for the development of
watershed in drought prone areas. National Institute for Agricultural
Management (MANAGE) (1994) has published a technical manual of
watershed management. Detey K.R., Gore V.N., and Joy K.J. (1994) in their
study “A holistic approach to soil and water conservation” viewed that the
success of watershed development depends upon the perspective for an
integrated development of land and water resources should go beyond
subsistence, so that biomass surplus over subsistence would provide the
inputs for a dispersed energy and industrial production system. The
emerging biomass processing techniques have the potential to generate non-
farm income and meet the needs of accelerated infrastructure development
not only of rural area but small towns and urban as well. The local groups
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should be informed of the prospects for raising productivity and creating
opportunities for livelihood.
Swaran Latha Arya, R.C. Kaushal and S.S. Grewal (1994), concluded in
their study that agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry and horticultural
components of the project proved to be economically Justifiable and there was
a decline in the area under wastelands and an increase in the area under
irrigated agriculture, forestry and horticulture.
A study by Rao. N.V.N and Ram Reddy. R (1995) on Minor irrigation
and tribal development found that the incomes of the tribal farmers have
increased substantially after the construction of new irrigation tanks. But the
yield rates were not found to be so high due to their inability to use High
Yielding Varity Seeds (HYVS), fertilizers and pesticides.
In the study of K.P. Singh (1995) the dry land farming system is very
risky and farmers depend on locally available inputs and used to row a
number of crops, which can better withstand the drought situation. With a
lack of suitable security for obtaining loan is difficult and the repaying
capacity of the dry land farmers are very low because they often face the
problem of drought and low yield. K.P. Singh opined that dry land
agriculture is risky because of low rainfall and these areas are constrained by
limiting soil moisture capacity and heavy erosion of topsoil, so he suggested
that, watershed programme is more suitable for the dry land forming.
Purendare and Srivastava (1995) described the challenges in watershed
management.
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The study of T.K. Sarma (1996) on watershed a strategy of
development stressed for community participation with flexibility in project
design reveals that flexibility has to be used to take care of all the persons
living within watershed are benefited, especially the land less labourers, and
groups such as cattle herders, etc., It needs innovation and lot of skills to
organize communities on desired lines. Thus even activities which otherwise
do not qualify to be financed by the project fund, may also be included and
financed by other source of funds. Mahajan (1996) has described the needs
analysis and communication of Jhabua watershed. Rajora Rajesh (1996) has
carried out studies on integrated watershed development of Jhabua
watershed. Tideman (1996) has proposed the guidelines for watershed
management for India conditions.
Rajasekaran, N. (1997) in his paper analyses the need for and
significance of sustainable development programmes of India’s dry regions
and the role of participation in sustaining the development process. The data
shows how to reduce the farm income inequalities and improved
environments have resulted in such areas. Discussions emphasize the point
that socially acceptable living can only be attained by resorting to watershed
development programmes. The empirical results indicate that training contact
farmers from both genders can lead to the formation of groups, possibly
headed by charismatic leaders, to achieve wholesome participation. Local
resource users should be involved in the formulation, implementation,
maintenance and evaluation strategies. As the benefits of the programme are
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not tangible in the short run, participation can only be ensured through
decentralization of decision-making and raising levels of consciousness.
Shah, Amita (1997), Moisture-yield interaction and farmers’
perceptions: lessons from watershed projects in Gujarat. Recent watershed
projects in India have promoted vegetative barriers, which though
technologically sounder and environmentally conducive, might bring only
limited economic gains. The paper examines the yield impact of vegetative
bandings and farmers’ perceptions about moisture yield interactions in
Gujarat. The analysis is based on responses from a sample of 197 farmers from
two watersheds, Vatrak and Narmada, comprising both those who had, and
those who had not adopted the vegetative barrier. The analysis suggests that;
(1) traditional bandings are not only widely prevalent but also considered
very important for higher yields under ‘normal’ rainfall conditions: compared
to this, yield impact of vegetative barriers is low and uncertain; (2) given the
indigenous practice of soil-moisture conservation, fertilizer is the most
important factor for obtaining higher yields; and (3) a strategy to provide
stability in yield would require large scale investments in the form of water
harvesting structures and irrigation. What is needed is to improve net returns,
hence farmers’ paying capacity rather than large-scale subsidies spread over a
large number of watershed projects in the dry-land regions.
Agarwal Anil and Narain, Sunita. (1997) Dying Wisdom: rise, fall and
potential of India’s traditional water harvesting systems. Looks at India’s
traditional water harvesting systems and the millennial tradition that expertly
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met people’s drinking water and irrigation needs. Looks into India’s 15
ecological zones and their localised water harvesting systems and argues for
revival of local water harvesting systems.
In his work “watershed development-planning and strategy”, Das.S.N.
(1998) describes that optimal use of soil and land resources to provide the
needs of ever-growing population in a fundamental issue for the international
community is finite and menace of land degradation due to water wind
erosion is real. In order to ensure sustainability in crop production, the
afforestated, causatives would need to overcome through a scientific data
based development on watershed basis. The paper describes the modalities of
generating a soil and land information system for the entire country.
Fernandez, A.P. (1998) in his study on Self-help groups in watershed
management examines Mysore Rehabilitation and Development Agencies
(MYRADA’s) involvement with watershed management in Gulbarga, India,
and the associated PIDOW-MYRADA project, which was a partnership
between Government, the Swiss Development Cooperation and Mysore
Rehabilitation and Development Agency (MYRADA). Its objective was to
enable the users involved to emerge as a fourth partner and progressively
control watershed resources. Mysore Rehabilitation and Development
Agencies (MYRADA’s) role was to ensure that process of planning and
implementation would help people acquire the skills, confidence and
organizational expertise to manage the resources within their watershed.
Initiative in Gulbarga spread rapidly to other Mysore Rehabilitation and
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Development Agency (MYRADA) watered projects. The paper discusses what
has been learned about the role of Self-Help Credit Management Groups
Pande, V. C et al. (1998) in his study on watershed management in
Semi-Arid Tropics of Gujarat points out that Integrated Watershed
Management programme not only strengthens the resource base but also
brings equity in distribution, sustaining the growth process. The vicious circle
of underdevelopment, which revolves around poor resource base, in the
Semi-Arid Tropics (SAT) can be broken through an integrated watershed
development approach.
Datta SK.; Virgo, K. J. (1998) Towards sustainable watershed
development through people’s participation: Lessons from the lesser
Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh, India. The paper reviews experiences of the Doon
Valley Integrated Watershed Management Project in Uttar Pradesh, India,
with emphasis on the evolution of a participatory ‘process orientated’
approach aimed at developing community capabilities to sustain the
increased natural resource production systems introduced by Project
activities. The focus is on promoting convergent planning and strengthening
the skills and institutional capacities of the rural communities, as well as of
the government agency responsible for implementation. Conclusions are that
human resource development should precede external technical watershed
management activities and under the participatory approach, external
implementers need to be encouraged to merge their technical skills with the
indigenous skills of villagers in order to achieve a convergent approach.
25
The initial focus of watershed management project should be on
communities and the adjacent areas under their influence, rather than on the
physical aspects of watersheds. Women proved to be most receptive and
capable of forming cohesive group to manage natural resources. The project
produced initial improvements in living conditions and in local involvement
by people in managing natural resources. This was supplemented by
physical soil and water conservation measures and community-managed
grass and fodder tree plantations. Reduction in pressure on intervening forest
areas is expected to favour natural eco-regeneration. Increased
environmental awareness and involvement of the villagers in expected to
facilitate protection of afforestation programme beyond the village limits.
According to P.L.Sanjeeva Reddy and K.Prasada Rao (1999), watershed
development programmes are being implemented in India for over two
decades. An integrated approach to the programme as a strategy was
initiated during the period 1973 and 1975. By the Ninth Five-Year Plan a
number of agencies have been involved in initiating and implementing the
programme in almost all the agro-climatic zone in the country. Furthermore
the programme has been receiving high priority from the Union Government,
the state governments, multi-lateral and bilateral agencies and the Non-
Governmental Organizations (NGO’s). Thus, watershed approach has been
identified as a manor route and a promising area for development of
agriculture. Over the last two decades of experience in implementation of this
programme several areas of successes and shortcomings have been identified.
26
However, for sustainable development of agriculture, the authors believe that
unifying the multiplicity of watershed programmes within the framework of
an overreaching national initiative is desirable in national interest.
O.N.Srivastave (1999) “Study on Participatory Planning and
Management of Watershed Projects-Some Considerations”, in India because
of the irrigational use and over exploitation all types of lands (175 million
hectares) in general and agriculture (62 million hectares) and forest (23 million
hectares) lands in particular are suffering degradation. The Government from
time to time has introduced special schemes to conserve and check further
degradation of these lands as well as for restoration of environment and
ecology.
The individuals and other agencies including foreign donors has also
joined development in sustained basis is mostly watershed and the strategy
adopted is people’s participation. The dichotomy in working, decision
making and financial pattern not only confuse the beneficiaries on several
occasions but also creates embarrassing situations to the field workers and
other officials. It was also observed that in the government approach, the
emphasis was laid on the technical aspects while the element of sustainability
and people’s participation was neglected.
Besides, the people are of the impression that the government as in
past will come again and again to help rural people in conservation and
development of natural resources and improvement of socio-economic
conditions. In the case of other organizations and institutions the effective
27
people’s participation was observed with less emphasis on technical aspects.
The large number of experiments with varying financial and institutional
arrangements came to a common conclusion that there is a need for active
people’s participation for successful implementation of watershed project on
sustained basis.
H.P.Singh and P.K.Mishra (1999) “Study on Resource Management in
Watersheds with a Farming Systems Perspective in Semi-Arid India”,
according to an official estimate the population of India would cross 100
billion by the end of this century. By the year 2020 the food demand would
reach to 250 million tons. Hence, the dependence on agriculture in the country
would continue to increase posing a threat particularly to the limited land and
water resources more so in the dry-land areas of semi-arid region.
Besides, there would be manifold increase in the need for fuel, fodder,
fiber etc. All these commodities must from the limited land mass. Soil and
rainwater management constitutes the key to agricultural development on
watershed basis. Appropriate strategy for watershed development with a
Farming Systems (FS) perspective therefore needs to be put in place for the
desired output. Conservation of soil and water not only controls land
degradation but also can lead to sustained productivity. Watershed with a
distinct hydrological boundary is ideal for taking up the hardware and
software conservation measures.
Hinchcliffe, Fiona et al, eds. (1999) Fertile Ground; the impacts of
Participatory Watershed Management. Presents the findings of in-depth
28
research into the impacts of participatory watershed management in a range
of agro-ecological and socio-economic settings in Africa, Asia, Australia and
Latin America. The twenty-three case studies in this publication present a
picture of the problems, achievements and challenges faced by conservation
professionals and farmers around the world. They provide evidence of the
importance of local people’s involvement in natural resource planning and
management. The collection provides and analysis of the biophysical, socio-
economic and institutional impacts of development and management
practices and points to practical and realistic ways forward for both
governments and external support agencies.
Farrington, et al. (1999), observe that successful projects have in fact
reduced rain water run-off, recharged ground and surface water aquifers,
improved drinking water supply, increased the irrigated area, changed
cropping pattern, cropping intensity and agricultural productivity, increased
availability of fuel and fodder, improved soil fertility and changed
composition of livestock. The impact of these projects on poverty alleviation
and the long-term sustainability were however less clear.
Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India (2001) has given
new guidelines for the watershed development in India. In this paper on
“Watershed Management in India’ S.L. Seth (2000) stated that watershed
management would remove hunger and poverty from poor areas and
watershed management would restore ecological balance, provide green
cover over denuded areas, bring in more rains and improve environment. If
29
watershed management has to become a people’s movement, technologies
would have to be simple, low cost and should be based on vegetative
measures which are self regenerative.
Y.V.R.Reddy, G.Sartry, B.Hemalatha, Om Prakash and
Y.S.Ramakrishna (2004) have conducted a survey on 37 watershed locations
under different agro-eco regions in India during 2001. Data were collected
from primary stakeholders pertaining to physical (ground water, soil erosion,
runoff reduction, etc.) biological (afforestation, cropping intensity,
productivity levels of dry land crops) and socio-economic parameters
(additional benefit-cost ratio, additional annuity values, etc. and additional
employment and reduction in out-migration of labour, participation of
farmers in watershed programmes) in watershed programme areas compared
to non-watershed areas. The analysis indicated that there was an increase in
all factors in watershed areas villages compared to non-watershed area
villages. However, there is no significant difference among the project
implementing agencies viz., National Watershed Development Programme
for Rural Rain-fed Agriculture (Ministry of Agriculture), Ministry of Rural
Development, with regard to reduction in soil erosion, etc. It is also
recommended that Non-Governmental Organizations may be encouraged to
take up watershed programme works on their own funds only.
Government of India, Indian Council of Agricultural Research and
Non-Governmental Organizations has succeeded in achieving the results in
watershed development programme. Logic regression equations were fitted
30
to different factors in relation to additional income per hectare, but distance to
market was found to be significant but other factors were no significant.
Finally it is recommended that water harvesting structure may be constructed
at suitable places and it’s essential to establish vegetation for optimal success
for the programme.
In the seminar report on “Water Resource Management in India”
Satyasundaram (2005) explained the role of water management in
development in India. He stated that ground water has played a prominent
role as a primary source of domestic water supplies in rural and urban areas.
Hence, there is a great need for farmer’s participation in irrigation
management and urbanization.
Ramappa et. Al (2008) made a micro-level study on Watershed
Development and its impact in Anantapur district. The authors revealed that
watershed development works alone cannot improve the position of farmers.
They suggested that the efforts must be made to divert water from surplus
basins to drought-prone areas and rain fall must be augmented either by
cloud seeding or by some other method. So that the productivity levels of
different crops grown in drought-prone areas can be enhanced.
A brief review of the above studies touched the aspects of cropping
intensity, cropping pattern, watershed based technology, impact on
agriculture and allied activities, and rural labour markets etc. moreover, the
above studies could not touch the important issues relating to the impact of
watershed programmes on cropping pattern of scheduled caste, scheduled
31
tribes, backward caste land use, change in income, change in employment and
overall impact of watershed programme on the living conditions of farmers in
drought prone district like Kurnool.
Importance of the Present Study
Since the Watershed Programme completed one decade of
implementation, it becomes pertinent to examine its impact on the community
and household level in terms of achievement of its objectives. Not many
studies have been conducted in this sphere, which points to the need for more
number of micro-level studies. The present study is a modest attempt in this
direction.
The above review of literature shows that there is a gap in examining
the various aspects of Watershed Programmes in a drought prone district like
Kurnool. Kurnool is a hot arid district falling under rain-shadow tone. The
district is covered under the Drought Prone Area Programme for three
decades from 1975-2005. The geographical position of the peninsula renders
it the driest part of the sate and hence agricultural conditions are more often
precarious in Kurnool district. Monsoons also evade the district due to its
disadvantageous location. Being far from East Coast, it does not enjoy the full
benefits of North East Monsoon and being cut off by the high Western Ghats,
the South West Monsoons are also prevented from penetrating and quenching
the thirst of these parched soils. It is therefore seen that the district is
deprived of both the monsoons and subjected to droughts due to bad seasons.
32
In view of the above, it is essential to study the impact of Watershed
Development Programme on the Living Conditions of Farmers in Kurnool
district. There are several watershed based programme like the DPAP,
National Watershed Development Programme, Employment Assurance
Scheme, Integrated Wasteland Development Programme, Hariyali, etc.
However, there is no coordination between these programmes; the present
study aims to study the coordination between the different agencies involved
in Watershed Programmes in Kurnool District.
OBJECTIVES
� To understand the impact of watershed programme in a drought prone
district like Kurnnol District.
� To examine the socio-economic conditions of the Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes, Backward Castes and Other Castes farming community
in the watershed areas of Kurnool District.
� To assess the impact of watershed programme on Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes, Backward Castes and Other Castes in terms of their
cropping pattern, land use etc., in the selected mandals of Kurnool
District.
� To analyse the income and employment generation of farmers belonging
to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Backward Castes and Other
farming community through watershed programme.
� To identify the problems and to suggest suitable measures for the overall
development of the farming community in kurool district.
33
HYPOTHESIS
� The cropping pattern has been changed.
� Through the watershed programme the socio-economic conditions of the
farmers have been improved.
� Watershed programme has helped to improve employment among the
farmers.
� The size of land use is increased
METHODOLOGY
The present study is based on the data from both primary and
secondary sources. The primary data has been collected from the selected
farmers and the farmers who were provided facility of water under
watershed programme during the years 2005-2010. A well structured
questionnaire has been prepared and administered to the farmers of
watershed programme, personal visits were made to the selected mandals to
make on the spot study of various socio-economic conditions of the farmers.
The secondary data has been collected from Annual Reports, Action
Plans, Reports of various studies and Government publications. The basic
literature relating to rural poverty, status of farmers and various aspects of
rural development programmes and strategies were collected from various
books and journals. Data also collected from various offices like,
Commissionerate Rural Development (CRD) Hyderabad, District Rural
Development Agency Kurnool, Drought Prone Area Programme Kurnool and
District Water Management Agency (DWMA) Kurnool, Mandal level Project
34
Implementation Officers, Village level Watershed Secretaries, Legislatives,
State Government and Research Institutions.
The study is based on “With” and “Without” approach. To assess the
impact of watershed programme on the living conditions of farmers, the
farmers enjoying the benefit from watershed were selected. To arrive at the
conclusion the information regarding the income and employment generated
with the implementation of watershed programme and without the
implementation of the watershed programme was collected through primary
data and compared to get the correct picture.
SAMPLING DESIGN
For the present study, a three-stage sampling method was applied in
selecting the sample farmers. All the mandals in the district are classified into
three categories (a) Developed (b) Medium Developed (c) Less Developed.
From each category one mandal was chosen. These mandals are categorized
based on Economic Indicators (Per capita Income, Percentage of Gross
Irrigated Land), Human Development Indicators (Female Literacy, Proportion
Population of Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribes, Infant Mortality Rates) and
Infrastructure Development Indicators (Total Road Length per 100 kms,
Number of Hospitals Beds per 10,000 populations). To get an objective
picture, the number of farmers covered in these mandals during 2005-2010
was selected. Lot of care was taken in selecting the watershed villages.
In the first stage, from each category, one mandal was selected. In the
second stage, three watershed villages from each mandal were selected where
35
watershed is contributing to agriculture, minor irrigation, animal husbandry
and industry, service and business. In the third stage all the farmers benefited
from watershed who are engaged in the above activities were selected.
Further, for the purpose of arriving at the effectiveness of the watershed
programme, information regarding the income and employment generated
with the watershed programme and without the implementation of the
watershed programme was collected and compared to find out whether the
farmers could improve their income and employment at the district level.
STUDY AREA
The study was undertaken in the Kurnool District of Andhra Pradesh
which is economically the most backward district of Andhra Pradesh. This
region is typically a dry track and has been declared as a famine district in
South India. Recurrent drought and famines have been stalking this district
of the past ten decades. The table 1.1 gives the details about the selected
watershed villages.
Table - 1.1 LIST OF THE SELECTED WATERSHED VILLAGES FROM THE
MANDALS
Name of the Mandal
Category of the Mandal
Name of the selected watershed villages
Bandi Atmakur Developed Ernapadu Watershed Kadamalakalva Watershed G.C.Palam Watershed
Krishnagiri Medium Developed Kambalapadu Watershed T.Gokulapadu Watershed Thogadachedu Watershed
Maddikera Less Developed Maddikara (East) Watershed Yedavali Watershed Maddikara (West) Watershed
36
The distribution of the selected farmers are presented table 1.2
Table – 1.2 DISTRIBUTION OF SELECTED FARMERS
Mandals Category-wise Caste-wise Total
SF MF MdF LF SCs STs BCs OCs
Bandi Atmakur(DM) 44 32 17 12 29 20 37 19 105 Krishnagiri (MdM) 31 36 25 13 33 4 47 21 105 Maddikera (LdM) 32 34 26 13 32 5 50 18 105
Grand Total 315
DM-Developed Mandal, MdM-Medium Developed Mandal, LdM-Less Developed Mandal, SF-Small Farmers, MF-Marginal Farmers, MdF-Medium Farmers, LR-Large Farmers ST-Scheduled Tribe, SC-Scheduled Caste, BC-Backward Caste, OC-Other Caste.
SURVEY
The selected watershed villages were surveyed twice. First, a census
survey was conducted covering all the farmers belonging to Small Farmers,
Marginal Farmers, Medium Farmers and Large Farmers who benefited under
watershed programme.
Secondly, a households survey was conducted to find out the extent of
income and employment generated under watershed programme. This
survey was also conducted to know the inherent problems in agriculture and
to estimate the number of farmers who could increase their income and
employment with a demarcating comparison between Small Farmers,
Marginal Farmers, Medium Farmers and Large Farmers of the watershed
programme.
TOOLS OF ANALYSIS
Based on the objectives of the study, appropriate statistical tool like,
Paired ‘t’ test were applied to know the effectiveness of the programme in the
district.
37
PAIRED ‘t’ test To compare the variation in the generation of income and employment
before the Watershed Programme and after the Watershed Programmme,
Paired ‘t’ test was applied with the following formula.
)1(
1
−=→×
−
= nt
n
s
dt where d = x – y
n
did
Σ= 2
2
)( dn
dis −
Σ=
LIMITATIONS
The present study is district-specific, target specific as well as time-
specific. The secondary data was collected and presented covering 13 years of
period only. The field data pertaining the farmers covered under watershed
programme during the period from 2005-2010 was collected and it forms the
basis for the study. The quality and reliability of the data was ensured by
repeated visits to the farmers and discussions held with the village elders,
banks and the officials. The element of bias and subjectivity was consciously
kept under check to make the study as objective as possible. The conclusions
arrived at and the inferences drawn are applicable to the sample farmers in
the district during the period of operation of the programme. The tools and
techniques applied are the most commonly used statistical measures and the
data does not permit advanced analytical and econometric methods.
CHAPTERISATION
The study is designed in Eight Chapters. The first chapter deals with
the introduction, Review of Literature, Need and Importance of the Study,
38
Objectives, Hypothesis, Methodology, Limitations and chapter design of the
study. The Second chapter explains Watershed Development Programmes in
Andhra Pradesh. The third chapter analyses Watershed Development in
Kurnool District of Rayalaseema Region. The Fourth chapter evaluates the
Impact of Watershed Programme on the Living Conditions of the Farmers in
Developed Mandal (Bandi Atmakur mandal). The Fifth chapter explains the
Impact of Watershed Programme on the Living Conditions of the farmers in
Medium Developed mandal (Krishnagiri mandal). The Sixth chapter deals
with the Impact of Watershed Programme on the Living Conditions of the
farmers in Less Developed mandal (Madekera mandal). The Seventh chapter
is an Impact of Watershed Programme - A Comparative Analysis, Summary,
Conclusions and Suggestions.