03. chapter - 3 safety psychology

8/19/2019 03. CHAPTER - 3 Safety Psychology

1/31


2/31

safety in industry should be properlyreco%nised.

+sycholo%ical safety measures putstress on information) instruction) trainingand su er$ision for safe performance,which is also a statutory need (Sec. A)under our -actories Act, /0!.

Human 1esource (+sycholo%y)2epartment of industry should or%anisesafety3trainin% pro%rammes for all typesof wor#ers.

( PSYCHOLOGY AND )TS*RANCHES

+sycholo%y is a study of humanbehaviour and includes all behaviouralaspects vi . mind, body intelli%ence,

attitude, aptitude, moral ability,performance, pro&ciency, s#ill, learnin%,trainin%, motivation, aspiration,satisfaction, li#in%3disli#in%, action3inaction, fati%ue, boredom, mentalbloc#in%, accident3proneness, e'ect of wor#in% environment, labour policy,mana%ement, a%e and se4, individualdi'erences, con5icts, personality andinterest, human error and accidents,worry, unrest, synchronisation of mental

and muscular faculties, mental andphysical reactions, sense of duty orresponsibility, motive or lac# of motive,humanitarian impulses, disposition etc.

Psychology is de&ned as study of human (also animal) behaviour with theaid of scienti&c methodolo%y. $t is an art

and science of $!' . $t collects facts of human behaviour by usin% scienti&cmethods vi . e4periment, observation,time3motion study, &eld study, case studyetc.

+sycholo%y is a branch of philosophyand is established as an independentscience. 6i#e other sciences, it also aimsto reduce all phenomena (mostly human)to cause and e'ect. $t accepts causationin behaviour as a fact. $t demandsanalysis of events, situation and paste4periences to correct the behaviour.

$t has two aspects, scienti&c andapplied. $n its scienti&c aspect itconsiders research and discovery of information related to human behaviour.When such information is applied topractical problems of human life, it is saidan applied or professional aspect of psycholo%y.

7ranches of psycholo%y are %iven in Table 8. .

Ta"le 3+1, *%a!ches of Psychology*%a!ch !o.! as A%ea of stu'y

9n%ineerin% psycholo%yorHuman factor psycholo%yorHuman 9n%ineerin%

Human behaviour as a function of self or personalfactors li#e physical traits, mental traits, ability of wor#, attitude, aptitude, morale, frustration etc.Human behaviour as a function of wor# situationor environmental factors li#e temperature,ventilation, li%ht, noise, vibration, er%onomics, obsituation, fencin%, %uardin%, house3#eepin%,trainin% etc.

: ;linical or counsellin%psycholo%y

Abnormal aspects of behaviour

8 9ducational psycholo%y +rocess of learnin% and education0 2evelopment psycholo%y 2evelopment in behaviour with %rowin% a%e< Social psycholo%y $n5uences of society (other people or %roups) on

an individual’s behaviour= 94perimental psycholo%y 94perimental method to study behaviour and to

discover principles that %overn behaviour+ersonality psycholo%y Human personality

! $ndustrial psycholo%yorApplied psycholo%y

Application of principles of psycholo%y in trade,business and industry

3 )ND/STR)AL PSYCHOLOGY

2


3/31

$ndustrial psycholo%y is concernedwith the study of human behaviour inthose aspects of life that are related tothe production, distribution and use of the%oods and services of our civilisation.

Application of the psycholo%y totrade, business or industrial &eld is called

industrial psycholo%y, and %enerallycovers the followin% areas %iven in Table8.:.Ta"le 3+( , Su" - "%a!ches a!' A%eas

of )!'ust%$alPsychology

Su"-"%a!ch

A%ea of A&&l$cat$o!

+ersonalpsycholo%y

Selection, trainin% andsupervision of people inindustrial> businesssettin%. $t also studiescommunication.

: ?ana%erialpsycholo%y

+roblems of mana%ementin industry

8 9n%ineerin%psycholo%yorHuman9n%ineerin%orHumanfactor9n%ineerin%or9r%onomics

9'ect of wor#in%condition, situation orenvironment and includesfactors li#e over crowdin%,li%ht, ventilation,temperature, sittin%arran%ement, desi%n of machine, tools, controls,%au%es, switches,e@uipment, wor# method,

ob situation so as to besafe and convenient to thewor#ers

0 ;onsumerpsycholo%y

1elationship betweenmanufacturer andconsumers of theirproducts or services

< r%anisationalpsycholo%y

Total (overall) functionin%of an or%anisation,factory, o ce,mana%ement etc.includin% topics li#emotivation, leadership,communication patterns,wor#3%roup dynamics,or%anisational structure,process etc.

Su"0ects of )!'ust%$al Psychology,

rdway Teed says, B9very ma ormana%ement problem is in partpsycholo%ical.C

Herbert ?oore describes in his boo#si4 industrial problems for psycholo%iststo solveD

. 9mployin% the wor#er.:. 9ducatin% and trainin% the wor#er.8. ;arin% for the health and safety of the

wor#er.0. Helpin% to provide for the economic

security o f the wor#er.


4/31

performance and relations with others tomaintain the safety.

Thus safety psycholo%y studies a&e%so! why he commits accidents, underwhat circumstances and what are othercontributin% factors a'ectin% hisbehaviour or ma#in% him accident prone

and how such behaviour can be correctedto rectify his unsafe actions to achievethe %oal of overall safety which includesthe techni@ues of accident prevention.

-he human being is at the centre of such study and therefore it is called thehuman engineering . The concept of safety as human en%ineerin% is itspsycholo%ical part. $t aims at therecti&cation of human errors, humanfactors and unsafe actions as the causesof accidents or unsafe environment. H.W.Heinrich says in his old boo# on $ndustrialAccident +revention that psycholo%y liesat the root of se@uence of accidentcauses. -or details see ne4t chapter.

2+( P%ese!t Psycholog$calSafety P%o"le s,

-ield of safety psycholo%y isapplicable to employer and employeeboth. Accidents are the results of faults of employer or employee. The mainresponsibility to provide and maintainsafe wor#in% conditions, safe environmentand protective e@uipment lies upon theemployer, however, the practical &eld of e'ort for prevention throu%h psycholo%yand use of protective e@uipment, isapplied lar%ely to the employees. Theemployees bein% more in number rendermore chances of human faults. Thereforeit is their %reat, individual and %roup or

collective responsibility to minimise theirhuman faults to prevent accidents and tomaintain safety.

+resent psycholo%ical safetyproblems can be divided in two partsD9mployer’s problems and 9mployee’sproblems. Fltimately they createproblems for society and nation also.

2+(+1 E &loye% s P%o"le s,

9mployers’ e4pectation or fear fromthe employees not only in the way of

production tar%ets, but, in the form of attitudes, loyalties and co3operativee'orts, is as important to the psycholo%istas the employers want to #now about theresources, desires, motivation andcapacities of their employees.

Wor#ers’ disobedience, indiscipline,

sabota%e, mischief, non3usin% of safetye@uipment or appliances or dama%in%them, not participatin% in safe close downof the plant for the purpose of safety andnot even allowin% others to carry out suchsafety duty and practisin% stri#e or %oslow to the e4tent of endan%erin% safetyof self, others and surroundin% public arethe present psycholo%ical problemscreatin% worries for employers. Theye4pect help from the Government whichou%ht to be %iven, but, it must be notedthat the only e'ective #ey to correct orimprove human behaviour lies in the self '$sc$&l$!e or self3e'orts and outsiderscan contribute little if the wron% doer is&rmly determined not to improve himself.

The Government may help in the &eld of law and order but it can hardly improvethe human behaviour, which needsspecial e'orts.

There are some statutory provisionsin the -actories Act /0! to punish

wor#ers for their o'ences re%ardin%safety, but the Governments are reluctantto operate them a%ainst the wor#ers.9ven if they are operated, no wor#er will%ive evidence a%ainst a wor#er and otherwitness if come forward, they may beattac#ed by the mob3mentality. Thus inthe atmosphere of deliberate indisciplineor mischief in the &eld of safety, really, itis a challen%in% problem for psycholo%iststo solve in the interest of safety. Tradeunions should also contribute to solve thisproblem.

The wor#ers must understand thatsafety of them and others lie in theirhands. Safety is a sub ect of constructionand not destruction. $f safety is notmaintained, nobody will be happy andthey themselves may lose their limbs orlives. ;ompensation cannot brin% the lifebac#. Safety of anybody’s life is of primeimportance. *o human behaviour ismorally or le%ally permitted to endan%er

or ta#e away anybody’s life or to causedama%e to plant, machinery, production

4


5/31

or environment, as they all ultimatelyresult in the national loss. 6et us alwaysmaintain safety and solve our problems insafe atmosphere only. 6et us perform thissafety3duty &rst, en oy the ri%ht and letothers also should en oy their ri%hts. Thisis the only %ood motivatin% force to

mould the human behaviour to maintainsafety. 9mployers’ re%ular e'orts to %ivesuch type of H12 trainin% to theiremployees can be useful.

Apart from employer’s duty towardswor#ers, new le%islation durin% last tenyears has imposed duty towards thepublic also. Fnder the -actories Act,9nvironment (+rotection) Act, +ublic6iability $nsurance Act and ;hemicalAccidents (9++1) 1ules, the %eneral publicis to be informed about the ha ards andtheir role in control measures and anyciti en or member of a ;risis Group candemand such information fromemployers. This situation has createdworries for the employers and they seemto be reluctant in providin% suchinformation to public. $n case of a ma oraccident a'ectin% public, the +olice andother authorities may prosecute them. Asolution to this problem is the willin%compliance of law only.

2+(+( E &loyee s P%o"le s,

9mployees’ e4pectation from theemployer not only in the form of pay, butin the form of security, opportunity foradvancement and protection, is asimportant to the psycholo%ist as whatthey want for themselves in the form of self3e4pression, reco%nition andacceptable wor#in% conditions andenvironment.

$t is the fact with many small andmedium3scale factories that wor#ers’e4pectation, as stated above, is rarelyful&lled. The e4ploitation of poor,uneducated, unor%anised and mostlycontract wor#ers are still continued andthey have to wor# lon% wor#in% hoursunder bad and unsafe wor#in% conditionsand environment. ?ost of the educatedwor#ers do not %et satisfactory wa%esand are de3motivated. Trade unionism

may chan%e their attitudes. 9venstatutory re@uirements for health, safety

and welfare are not provided for. Theyhave no reco%nition, self3e4pression,protection, security or opportunity. Theywor# only because of their livelihood,economic need or helplessness.

The need and wor# of a Safety cerare still not recognised wholeheartedly by

the ma ority of the employers. Thissituation discoura%es and de3motivatesthe Safety cers. 2ue importance mustbe %iven to all safety employees and theirwor#.

$n spite of factory and safetyle%islation and inspectorate, the wor#in%conditions for wor#ers are found %enerallynot %ood. With few e4ceptions in some%ood factories, most of the places needimprovement for safe environment. Themachines are not %uarded, 5oor openin%snot covered, safe means of access notprovided, safety devices neither providednor wor#in%, occupational diseases %oundetected and unreported, dustin%,fumin%, %assin% and pollution constantlypollute the atmosphere, pressure vessels,liftin% machines and other dan%erousmachines and processes are not fully safeand they cause many accidents. Thesame is the case with many chemicalvessels, their &ttin% and maintenance.

Wor#ers also do not complain much, asthey see such situations since lon%, asre%ular a'airs, routine matters or haveless hope for improvement.

Who is to blame for this After allhuman bein%s are involved and theyblame each other. 9mployers say theyprovided the safety arran%ements but thewor#ers do not maintain them. Some saythey have no money to invest for costlysafety e@uipment and the Governmentshould %ive subsidy to them. Wor#ers sayopposite, that the safety devices are notprovided or not wor#in% since lon% andnobody hears their complaints. -actoryinspectors prosecute for many violationsbut mostly for other than safety. nly incase of accidents or special cases theyprosecute for safety. Their &ndin% is suchthat many employers do not provide ormaintain safety devices for manyreasons, and strict and repeated follow3upis not possible due to shorta%e of sta',

time and manifold wor#. +eople blame theinspectors also. This is the real picture

5


6/31


7/31

The psycholo%ical factors (a part of human factors) a'ectin% humanbehaviour or in5uencin% actions of peoplefor wor# performance are many. Thehuman attitudes and aptitudes,frustration and con5ict, morale, individualdi'erences, acclimatisation, s#ill and

trainin%, need and ob satisfaction,motivation and aspiration, participation,incentives and ob evaluation, fati%ue,boredom and monotony, accidentproneness, %roup dynamics, labour policyand turnover, personal selection andclassi&cation, problem wor#er etc. are themain psycholo%ical or personal factorsa'ectin% human behaviour. Somepsycholo%ical tests are also carried out tomeasure some of these factors.

H.W. Heinrich’s study of accidentanalysis emphasised that !!" of theaccidents were due to unsafe act of thepeople,, and above factors were the mainsub3causes or reasons for such unsafeacts, and therefore the study andapplication of remedial measures fromthis psycholo%ical point of view canprevent !!" of the accidents which is the%reat service of psycholo%y to theindustrial safety. *o o cer wor#in% forsafety should i%nore this fact. He should

pay proper attention to correct the humanbehaviour of self and the wor#ers due tothese factors by %ivin% constant trainin%to them. These factors are e4plainedbelowD

9+1 Att$tu'es,

*orman ?aier states that an attitudeis a #ind of mental set, posture or bent. $trepresents a predisposition towardopinions. Suppose a wor#er is as#ed whathe thin#s about a %uard on his machine ortemperature, or li%htin% in his wor#room,his reply is nothin% but his opinion. Theattitude is more %eneral and in5uenceshis opinion. Inowled%e of attitudes of wor#ers helps the mana%ement to predicttheir opinions.

An attitude is a frame of reference,which a'ects our opinion of the ob ectivefact. A chan%e in attitudes may radicallychan%e opinions. Attitudes determineopinions and pre udices. ;onservation and

radicalism are two e4treme #inds of attitudes. +eople with these di'erin%attitudes have diver%ent opinions aboutthe same facts. 2isa%reements aboutfacts are also possible. ur variouspre udices o'er many illustrations of attitudes that determine the meanin%s,

which facts may assume.Attitudes reconcile contradictions.With the proper attitude as a bac#%round,intelli%ent people can reconcile others’contradiction. A clever and e4periencedSafety cer or supervisor will reconcilecontradictory opinions of wor#ers andmana%ement about the e cacy of aparticular safety device or a protectivee@uipment, if he has #nowled%e of theirattitudes. Such #nowled%e of attitudeshelps him to &nd out the real cause of anaccident.

ur loyalties and our pre udices arefre@uently in3%roup and out3%roupattitudes, respectively, and they providesources of error in arrivin% at ob ectivelysound conclusion. An attitude Jwe areri%ht and others wron%’ has caused manyaccidents, and pose hindrances in solvin%problems.

Attitudes are usually associated withli#es and disli#es and conse@uently have

an emotional content. ur moods aretemporary predisposition toward havin%certain emotional reactions. ur moodsin5uence our attitudes. $n one mood, asupervisor will 5y into a ra%e at awor#er’s mista#e, while in a di'erentmood he may pass it o' a somethin% thatcould happen to anyone. ?ood andattitude are di cult to di'erentiate. Amood is temporary and depends uponone’s physiolo%ical condition such as poorhealth, loss of sleep, hun%er etc.9motional upsets in5uence one’sphysiolo%ical condition and producemoods, which predispose him to ma#eunpleasant reactions.

The reason and ar%ument may ormay not in5uence attitude. Generally, aman defends his opinion and shows noreadiness to chan%e it even thou%h his allpoints are answered. +eople prefer theirwishes and desires and are not ready tobe convinced by lo%ic.

+ersonality di'erences determine thetype of attitude. Some people are inclined

7


8/31

toward radicalism, others towardconservatism, and still others avoide4tremes. 6i#ewise, di'erences in socialdependability, decisiveness, emotionality,se4, intelli%ence and e4perience etc.in5uence attitudes on speci&c topics.

Earious methods are used for

measurin% attitudes, and e4perimental&ndin%s are recorded.$ndustry cannot a'ord to ma#e radical

chan%es, which will bac#&re. Fse of attitude scales (devised by Thurston),opinion polls, su%%estion bo4es, interviewmethod, safety committee etc. areindustrial practices to #now employeeattitudes, %rievances, su%%estions,personnel counsellors etc. and thus toma#e it possible to prevent open violenceor mass wor# stoppa%es.

9+( A&t$tu'es,

Aptitude means inclination or &tness.Aptitudes are human characteristics orabilities related to the capacity todevelop pro&ciency on speci&c obs.

These aptitudes can be %rouped into &veclassesD

. ?ental abilities.:. ?echanical and related abilities.8. +sychomotor abilities.0. Eisual s#ills and


9/31

(a) Adaptive response i.e. reduction of need is acceptable and attainablesubstitute %oal.

(b) ?aladaptive response i.e. the personmay continue tryin% to reach theunattainable %oal or he may %ive uptryin% to reach any %oal whatsoever.

Such maladaptive response mayresult in a%%ression as proposed by2ullard in /8/. 7ut recent revisionsin this theory su%%est that frustrationdoes not necessarily result ina%%ression but may result inwithdrawal response, attac#response, limitation response andsubstitution response.

As propounded by Scott ( /==) in hisactivation theory, human or%anism needsstimulation and variety in wor#.9nvironment without this motivation willsu'er and frustration may result. ;han%eor variety in ob and stimulation mayreduce frustration.

$n industry there are many instancescreatin% frustration. *ot providin% properwor#in% conditions, tools, e@uipment and++9 despite of demand, not providin%necessary %uards and safety devices onmachines and not %ivin% promotion,

increment, reco%nition and status as perre@uirement can cause frustration. Allsuch dissatisfyin% factors should bedetected in time and appropriateremedial measures includin%mana%ement functions should beadopted. Some situations leadin% tofrustration and techni@ues of identi&cation and mana%ement are %ivenin Table 8.8.

9+2 Co!:$ct,

;on5ict means violent collision, astru%%le or contest, a mental stru%%le etc.$n industries con5icts of both the types 3physical and mental 3 occur.

;on5ict reduces productivity. ;on5ictmay arise due to attitude, ealousy, badbehaviour, wor#in% condition >

environment, power mon%erin%, labourrelation, favouritism etc. To reduce con5icts, provide all

necessary and better tools, e@uipment,%uards, safety devices, safety clothin%,protective e@uipment and welfarefacilities for safe, healthy and satisfactoryenvironment.

;on5ict may occur between employerand contract wor#ers if the later are notconsidered at par with the companyemployees in respect of providin% safetye@uipment, trainin% and other facilities.

Therefore facilities of safety, health,welfare and wor#in% hours should bee@ually %iven to them.

Similarly safety committee meetin%should not become a platform forcon5icts. Safety is not a matter of disputeor con5ict. 2i'erence of opinion on anymatters of safety should be settled byconsultin% e4perienced safety mana%er orconsultant.

Some situations leadin% to con5ictand techni@ues of identi&cation andmana%ement are %iven in Table 8.0.

Ta"le 3+3, F%ust%at$!g S$tuat$o!s a!'Re e'$al

easu%es

S$tuat$o!

)'e!t$;cat$o! a!age e!t

$ncreasin%accidentsto anindividual

:

8

0

<

;hec# obor m>ccondition;hec#surroundin%space, li%htetc.Study typeof tool,[email protected] wor#methodStudy his

behaviour

:8

0<

1emove thedefect$mprovethemFseer%onomicdesi%n,standardtool,e@uipmentetc.;orrect it9mploypsycholo%ist

and ta#e his

9


10/31


11/31


12/31

Ta"le 3+4, D$st$!ct$o! "et.ee!Fat$gue <

*o%e'oFat$gue *o%e'o

+hysiolo%icaldepletion

?ental dullness

: 2ecreased capacityfor wor# 2ecreasedinterest in wor#8 ;onscious inability -eelin% of

incapacity0 1esult of too much

wor# challen%es1esult of absenceof wor#challen%es

< Spirit is willin% butthe 5esh is wea#

-lesh is willin%but the spirit iswea#

= 2esire for rest 2esire for chan%eSomewhatmeasurable

2i cult tomeasure

1epetition and monotony contributeto boredom.

o!oto!y is also a mentalphenomenon a'ectin% wor#. ?onotonye'ects are more durin% the middle of thewor# period and disappear in anticipationof the end of the period. The e4tent of monotony depends upon repetitive natureof the tas# and de%ree of attention

re@uired.?ethods to eliminate boredom andmonotony from industry are M

. 94chan%in% obs.:. 1elatin% the ob to the lar%er picture.8. The use of sub3%oals.0. The use of pacin% methods and

automatic wor# habits. The P%o"le E &loyee,

Some people thin# that Jevery humanbein% is problematic, as every child in ahome is a problem child, every employeeis a problem employee.’ 9very addition of personality to an industry means increasein number of problems. 9motional and

rational forces of wor#ers create tense

situations. This problem needspsycholo%ical study and solution.

Why an employee becomes aproblem employee The contributin%factors are dissatisfaction of any typeNforeman, supervisor and bosses of undesirable types, environmental factors

and the employee himself.2issatisfaction may be due to manyreasons 3 lac# of ob security, irre%ularpayment, less pay, breach of seniorityrules, wron% wor#s of superior, inactiveshop committee, many promises withoutful&lment, unwanted wor# chan%es, socialunbalance etc. These should be removed.

2efects in foreman, supervisor andbosses are 3 $ncapable to mana%e othersand to %et co3operation from them, self3centred person, e%oistic person,emotionally immature person, picayanishperson (always fault &ndin% and%rumblin%), absorbin% interest, improperre%ard for authority etc.

The environmental factors are partlydue to the nature and attitude of co3wor#ers and partly due to the physicalconditions.

?alad usted employees are 3 Fne@ualor superior to their tas#, persons withpronounced self3assertive tendencies,

emotionally distin%uished or immaturepersons, lac#in% in s#ill, ability and#nowled%e and lac#in% in ob wisdom vi .,insubordination, unreliability,absenteeism, la iness, trouble ma#in%,drin#in%, violation of rules, carelessness,&%htin%, misconduct, dishonesty, loa&n%or sleepin%, dissatis&ed, habitual loiterer,shopper, slow, a%itator etc.

-isher and Hanna have dividedproblem people in three %roupsD

. The insane.:. 2isturbed by psychoneuroses such as

paranoid personalities, inade@uatepersonalities and emotionally unstable.

8. ?ilder forms of emotional turmoil. This%roup includes mostly the problememployees such as dissatis&ed withtheir obs, restless, absentminded,pessimistic, distractible, worryin%unduly over minor details and unableto form decisions.

To discover problem employee,various e@uipment, tests, @uestionnaires

12


13/31

and controlled interviews are su%%ested.$t is advisable (particularly in the interestof safety) to discover such employeesbefore their recruitment. Subse@uent&ndin% will create problem, as it may bedi cult to remove them because of le%al,union and other reasons. Subse@uent

remedy is to care and train them.

> )ND)5)D/AL D)FFERENCES

$t is a matter of common e4periencethat people di'er from one another. Theirphysical appearance and traits such ashei%ht, stren%th, intelli%ence, ability of wor#, memory, speed of reactin% a si%nal,honesty or emotional stability and mentaltraits, personality traits, sensory

capacities, muscular co3ordination etc.are some of the factors of individualdi'erences.

>+1 Class$;cat$o! of D$6e%e!ces,

Loseph Ti n and 9rnest ?c;ormic#have classi&ed individual di'erences inwor# performance due to followin%variablesD

(A) )!'$#$'ual 5a%$a"les (Human-actors)D Aptitudes, personalitycharacteristics, physicalcharacteristics, interest andmotivation, a%e and other personalvariables.

(B) S$tuat$o!al 5a%$a"les (9nvironmental-actors) D subdivided as M

. Wor#place variablesD +hysicalenvironment, wor#space andarran%ement, desi%n andcondition of wor# e@uipment andmethods of wor#.

:. r%anisational and socialvariablesD ;haracter of theor%anisation, type of trainin% andsupervision, type of incentivesand social environment.

+sycholo%ists have tried to determinethe ultimate cause of individualdi'erences amon% people. They haveshown two %eneral cate%ories of heredityand environment. Generally the people

are in5uenced by the combined e'ect.Heredity has more e'ect on hei%ht,wei%ht, stren%th and appearance.9nvironmental factors have dominante'ect on personality traits and interests.

>+( C%$te%$a of ?o"Pe%fo% a!ce,

Any investi%ation of human behaviourinvolves the use of some appropriatedependent variable, usually referred to asa criterion. 7asically they are classi&ed asof performance nature, sub ective nature,physiolo%ical nature and accidents.

2ue to individual di'erences, there isa di'erence in performin% ob also.

Some criteria of ob performance areD

Ouantity of wor#, @uality of wor#, learnin%time or its e@uivalent, trainin% cost,tenure on the ob, absenteeism,promotions, ob sample and ratin%s. Suchcriteria are used to determine wa%e&4ation, @uality control pro%rammes,employees’ selection and theirpromotions etc.

What a man can do and what heactually does are not necessarily thesame. The term ability refers to aperson’s potential of performance,whereas the term erformance refers towhat a person actually does under %ivenconditions. How a man performs on a obdepends both upon his ability and hiswillin%ness or motivation. We maye4press this relationship by the formula.

+erformance P Ability 4 ?otivation.

Accordin% to this formula,performance has a value of ero if either

ability or motivation is absent, andincreases as either factor rises in value. This formula measures an individualdi'erence in wor# performance.

>+3 D$6e%e!ces a6ect$!gSafety &e%fo% a!ce,

Human factors contributin% toaccidents are stated in part


14/31


15/31

(e4perienced) ones. Hi%her a%e addsmore e4perience, wisdom, maturity andstability and therefore a%ed employeescause less accident than youn% ones.

@3 Phys$cal S$tuat$o!al Facto%s, Theyare physical wor#load and stress, wor#in%

hours, wor# desi%n, tool and e@uipmentdesi%n, ha ardous nature and pollution of chemicals i.e. splashes, spilla%e, %ases,dusts, fumes, vapours etc. directlyconnected with the wor#, nature of oband er%onomic factors.

$f above situations are inconvenientor in urious to health or pollutin%atmosphere, they may lead to accidents,dan%ers or ris#s.

2aily e'ects of chemicals on wor#ers’health, thou%h it is not termed as anreportable accident (because notresultin% in absenteeism), is worse thanan accident and certainly needs safetymeasures.

Aw#ward position or situation of seat,operatin% valves, %au%es, platforms,tools, e@uipment etc. cause unnecessarystrain on wor#er’s body and may causeaccidents. Therefore they should beredesi%ned to suit the wor#ers(er%onomics) to avoid such accidents.

6on% wor#in% hours, wor# without restintervals, e4cessive wei%ht, %lare ore4cessive li%ht from weldin%, dust%eneratin% process etc. result in accident.

They should be re%ulated as per the-actories Act.

@2 E!#$%o! e!tal Facto%s, They aretemperature, ventilation, li%ht, noise,vibration, humidity, thermal or nuclearradiation, poor house#eepin% etc. andacts of God.

$t is also e4perienced that too hot ortoo cold temperature, hi%h wind velocity,hi%h noise, vibration, dar#ness, humidity,radiation etc., cause accidents, and %oodli%ht, colour, music, temperature,ventilation and %ood house#eepin% tendto reduce them.

Psycholog$cal Tests, Eariouspsycholo%ical tests have been developedand applied to detect above mentioned

factors and their correction.

?ental ability test, mechanical abilityand related test, psychomotor test, visiontest, special aptitude test, personalityand interest test, achievement test, meritratin%, measurement of trainin%, attitudescales, intelli%ence or $O test, de4terityand manipulative test, trade test and

computer based assessment methodsetc., are described in many boo#s of industrial psycholo%y. ld boo# of Loseph

Ti n K 9rnest ?c;ormic# and new boo#of 6ewis Ai#en are worth mentionin% forsuch psycholo%ical testin% andassessment.

To control e'ects of individualdi'erences, some control techni@ues areas underD

Ge!e%al Tech!$ ues of Acc$'e!tCo!t%ol D

@1 Pe%so!!el Select$o!, $nsist forade@uate sensory motor abilities,appropriate muscular perceptual speed orri%ht perceptual style, free from accidentproneness, disease and habit of into4ication, appropriate a%e, se4,e4perience, wor# habits and %ood safetyrecord.

@( Safety )!fo% at$o! a!' T%a$!$!g,Give su cient information and trainin% onwor# and safety related matters.Supervisors’ trainin% is more essential.

@3 Co!t%ol of E!#$%o! e!tal Facto%s,Ieep %ood house#eepin%, li%htin%,ventilation and temperature. Avoidovercrowdin%, faulty arran%ement of materials, machines etc. +rovidesu cient means of access, ri%ht tools ande@uipment. +revent lea#a%e, pollution,noise, vibration etc., by %ood en%ineerin%controls.

@2 e'$cal Chec8-u&s, +re3employment and then periodical medicalchec#3ups of wor#ers are necessary todetect occupational diseases (ThirdSchedule of the -actories Act, /0!) ordisorder if any and to ta#e medicalmeasures or chan%e of wor#place etc.

15


16/31

@4 Safe .o%8loa'= 7o%8$!g hou%s=Rest $!te%#als etc+, 94cessive wor#load,wor#in% hours, overtime wor# or wor# onholidays should be avoided or minimised.Su cient rest intervals should be %iven.Statutory provisions shall be followed.

This will prevent physical and mental

fati%ue, frustration, con5ict etc.@9 ot$#at$o!, ?otivate people forsafety by e'ective and re%ularpro%rammes. See +art ! for details.

@> E%go!o $c Des$g!, $nsist for man3machine matchin% i.e. desi%nin%machines, tools, e@uipment, controls andsituations most convenient to people atwor#. This can reduce accidents.

See ;hapter3:0 for details.

@ E &loyee s Pa%t$c$&at$o!, $nvolvewor#ers in safety mana%ement by safetycommittee, safety campai%ns, safetysurveys and various types of safetypro%rammes.

See ;hapter3= for details.

@ Safety Ha"$ts, bserve wor#methods of employees by safety mindedsupervision and cultivate and improve

safe habits to do all wor# in a safe andri%ht way. $nsist for safety wor# permit forall ha ardous obs.

@1 Case-stu'y A&&%oach, Allaccidents must be properly investi%ated,causes of accidents must be studiedthorou%hly and remedial measures mustbe applied as early as possible.

Such accident case studies must bee4plained to supervisors and wor#ers.

See ;hapter38Q for such case studies.

@11 S&ec$al E6o%ts, $ntroducechan%e in ob if monotony is observed.?a#e the ob meanin%ful to developinterest in it. Ta#e wor#ers in con&denceto ful&l %oals. +rovide welfare andrecreational facilities. Give responsibilityand reduce interruption of wor#. Fsecolour and music where appropriate.;onsult psycholo%ist for specialpsycholo%ical measures to increasewor#er’s interest and e ciency bychan%e in their behaviour. This is the

bene&t of psycholo%y. ?any studies haveindicated that when defects wereremedied by sychothera y and>or by theuse of appropriate medicines and othercorrective measures, accident rate dodecrease.

>+2 Acc$'e!t P%o!e!ess, This debatable belief is discussed

below.

Co!ce&t of Acc$'e!t-&%o!e!ess

Acc$'e!t &%o!e!ess can be de&nedas a hi%her than avera%e susceptibility toaccident, which arises from psycholo%icalfactors and tends to be permanent, if notcured timely.

ld theory of accident proneness oraccident3susceptibility is derived frommany accident case studies and Personal%actors for its causation. A%e, se4 ande4perience, emotional stability, physicalcondition, use of alcohol and attitudetoward or%anisation are main factors.

ther factors such as hei%ht, wei%ht, eyesi%ht, marital status, number of dependants, distance and method of travel to wor#, medical history,intelli%ence, motivation, tal#ativeness,neurotics, e4troversion, smo#in%,loneliness, less interest, domestic stress,temperament etc., may also provide%round for accident proneness.

Greenwood and Woods presented thispremise in / / in their paper on$ndustrial fati%ue. $t was also supportedby some old psycholo%ical studies, buttheir Jso called statistical proofs’ arecriticised as deceptive based oninade@uate samples or the result of hi%hly

sub ective dia%nosis. The later studies donot accept this concept of Jaccidentproneness or accident repeater’ andsu%%est to throwin% it.

Accordin% to this old concept, somepeople are so constituted that their verynature (above mentioned personalfactors) causes them to brin% aboutaccidents and so to in ure themselves andothers. Such individuals are #nown asaccident3prone or accident3susceptiblepersons. +eople di'er in de%ree to whichthey are accident3prone in the same way

16


17/31

that they di'er with respect to theirtraits. Accident3prone persons are notnecessarily accident repeaters. They mayor may not repeat the accident dependin%upon their learnin%, e4perience, trainin%and improvement in health, habits,environment and other personal factors.

Accident3prone people do not mean a&4ed %roup responsible for all accidentsevery time. Accident proneness is avariable @ualitative factor and any mancan be accident3prone at any timedependin% upon personal factordeveloped in him.

)s $t yth o% Real$ty

#.A. ra>e!s study in /0Q onaccident proneness concluded that theperson who reacts @uic#er than he canperceive is more li#ely to have accidentsthan is the person who can perceive@uic#er than he can react. -armers K;hambers and Spero' and Ierr alsoconducted tests but for di'erent obs.

$t should be emphasised that thepersonal variables that contribute toaccident proneness on one ob may beuni@ue to that ob only. -actor(s) for wor#situation may di'er and it can be

identi&ed by speci&c statistical analysisfor that situation.?any people do not cause any

accident for years to%ether. $t is a smallpercenta%e of accident3prone wor#erswho are responsible for personally causedaccidents. This does not mean others donot cause accidents. +roof of this fact is%iven in a number of studies by Slocomb,Greenwood and Woods, Iarl ?arbem,7ristol, Snow, 7in%ham and 2e Silva.

Earious tests and clinical approachesare su%%ested for accident proneness.Such studies have recorded manycontributin% factors to accidentproneness. $n addition to personal factorsmentioned above, other factors are3inability to concentrate, incapacity todistribute attention, slow reaction time,absentminded3ness, fati%ue, reducedener%y, inade@uate control of re5e4es,poor ud%ement, poor sensory3motor co3ordination, e4cessive perversion,

oscillation of attention, hurry, worry, fear,nervousness, impulsiveness, e4citement,

visual #eenness, thou%htlessness,overcon&dence or any combination of these traits.

7ased on above facts and &ndin%s, itcan be said that accident3proneness is areality to some e?tent and not a meremyth. $f we call it a myth then what

should we call the reality of all aboveactual human causes and accidentsactually happened (and happenin%) dueto them And accident causin% by thesame persons under the same wor#in%conditions where others do not cause anyaccident Accident proneness is a name%iven to a psycholo%ical and scienti&cstudy of human behaviour in accident3causation.

Eiteles mentioned Jcircumstances’responsible for more accidents to somepersons. Such circumstances could beworry, an%er, fear, %uilt feelin% or otheremotional disturbances.

Hale and Hale pointed out that therecannot be any stable personality trait li#eJaccident proneness’. Some studiesrevealed that Jmembers of a study %roupwho sustained a lar%e number of accidents in one period, were notnecessarily same who sustained manyaccidents in a subse@uent period.

7ut it is also a fact that there arepersons who have more accidents thanother persons in similar situations.However the repeaters are involved inonly


18/31


19/31

ur present problem is not of lac# of #nowled%e of safety. The real problem isof implementation of that #nowled%e, atthe shop 5oor level. This is because of thelac# of self3motivation, lac# of communication and motivation. +eopleshould be made participative by invitin%

them to say their opinion, reaction orviews and %uided to act for implementin%the safety. 2irect communication is moreuseful than indirect communication. Thuscommunication and motivation helps inimplementin% the safety laws.

-ormula of +erformance P Ability ?otivation, e4plains basic need of motivation to increase or improve thewor# performance of individual or %roup.

Total loss control can be achieved bymotivation of employers, employees,trade unions and the Government. 6ossesof time, money, property and productionbecause of accidents, con5icts etc., mustbe reduced and that is possible bymotivation at all fronts.

+( Natu%e of ot$#at$o!,

?otivation is one of the factors thatstimulates or in5uences ob performance.A 6atin word Jmover’ means to move. Amotive is what moves a person or impelsa person. ?otivation is concerned withJWhy’ and JHow’ of behaviour.

+.T. oun% de&ned motivation as Btheprocess of arousin% action, sustainin% theactivity in pro%ress and re%ularisin% thepattern of activity.C

Steers K +orter and Greenber% K7aron identi&ed 8 ma or components of motivationD

. -orce or drive to lead to somebehaviour.

:. -unction to %uide behaviour in desireddirection and

8. ?aintainin% or sustainin% behaviouronce it has occurred.

erbert Moore says JTo motivate is tocause a release of ener%y in relation to adesired %oal. 9'ective motivation isdetermined by three factorsD the %oal thatis to be realised, the ener%y that is to bereleased and the tools that are to be usedto direct and control that ener%y. Thewhole problem of motivation is the

problem of the development of attitudes,loyalties and capacities for ma#in%sacri&ces toward an entity that is of %reater conse@uence to the individualwor#er than his ob or his personalwelfare.’

?otivation runs top to bottom,

therefore the top mana%ement andsupervisors should be motivated &rst.?otivation should be self %enerated,otherwise it should be supplied orinduced.

*1- ?aier e4plains motivatin% as away of brin%in% to e4pression an ability,which a person already possesses. Hedescribes two aspectsD sub ective andob ective. The sub ective side is acondition in the individual, which is calleda need , a dri$e or a desire . The ob ectiveside is an ob ect outside the individual,which may be called the incenti$e orgoal . When an incentive satis&es theneed (as food satis&es hun%er or moneysatis&es economic need), the situation iscalled motivatin%. The types of needs andincentives vary from time to time andfrom person to person. $t is an industrialproblem to &nd out needs and theirappropriate incentives. This is e4plainedbelow.

+3 Theo%$es of ot$#at$o!,

Some psycholo%ical theories areavailable to motivate people to improvetheir performance. These theories arebased on varieties of needs and theirsatisfaction (incentives or rewards).

+3+1 Ha.tho%!e Stu'$es@*eha#$ou%al A&&%oach ,

$n an old study conducted at theHawthorne wor#s of the Western 9lectric;ompany, ;hica%o for < years,be%innin% in /:0, concluded that theattitudes of employees could besi%ni&cantly chan%ed by the developmentof a co3operative atmosphere betweenwor#ers and supervisors.

;han%e in temperature, humidity,li%htin%, rest pauses and len%th of wor#day have little e'ect if theemployees are well motivated with

19


20/31

friendly, social and co3operative relations. Thus motivation has more e'ect than theimprovement in wor#in% conditions. $f a%ood con&dence is %enerated in people,they can wor# hard for their company.

Success of Lapanese mana%ementseems relied on this theory. ?otivated

soldiers have won many battles withinferior weapons and bein% less innumber. See part !.:.0 of ;hapter3=.

n power3press machines, wor#ersmostly in ure their &n%ers and %etdemoralised if the fre@uency rate is notreduced. Here a supervisor can play animportant role by standin% near thewor#er, e4plainin% and trainin% him forpre3start safety devices, %uardin% onmachine and safe wor# method, thus%ivin% special attention, co3operation andbuildin% con&dence in the wor#er to wor#accident3free.

$f wor#ers receive personal touch i.e.special attention for their safety, healthand welfare by upper mana%ement, they%et motivated to %ive more productioneven if wor#in% conditions li#e li%ht,space, layout etc. are not fullyfavourable. This is the abstract of thisoldest study.

+3+( aslo. s a!' cG%ego% sH$e%a%chy Theo%y of Hu a! Nee's, @Nee'Sat$sfact$o! fo% SafePe%fo% a!ce

A. . Maslo classi&ed the humanneeds and determined priorities for them.

These needs should be satis&ed in thefollowin%order D

. Physiological needs D 7asic orsurvival needs of food, water, airand rest.

:. Safety needs D +rotection a%ainstdan%er, threat and deprivation,body and position or status.1eduction of physical andpsycholo%ical ha ards.

8. Social or A@liation needs D 6ove,a'ection, friendship, acceptance,association and belon%in%ness.

0. Ego or Esteem needs D Two types 3(a) 1elatin% to one’s self3esteem

i.e. needs for self3con&dence,achievement, competence and#nowled%e (b) 1elatin% to one’sreputation i.e. needs for status,reco%nition, appreciation andrespect of one’s fellows.

respirator>hand %loves>aprons etc.,to chemical wor#ers and to provide earplu%s to weavers wor#in% on hi%h3noiselooms, ful&l safety needs of the wor#ersand motivate them for safety. Then afterthey need love and a'ection. The steps of this theory can be shown as underD

Human needs 2etectionSatisfaction $ncentive or 1eward-eedbac# for improved performance1ethin#in% of type of satisfaction orincentive, if necessary.

Hierarchy of human needs in thistheory can be shown as underD

Self-ful;l e!t!ee' 4Ego o% Estee !ee'

2Soc$al o% A l$at$o! !ee'3Safety a!' Secu%$ty !ee'(Phys$olog$cal !ee'1

F$gu%e 3+1+ H$e%a%chy of Hu a!

Nee's

-irst need should be satis&ed &rst,then second, then third etc. $f person isalready satis&ed with the &rst need of food, water, rest etc., be%innin% should bemade with the second need and so on.

Maslo !s theory was criticised by W.7ridewell, 6uthans, Hall K *ali%am( /=!), Walba K 7ridewell and surveys in

20

Motivation


21/31

Lapan and 9uropean countries raisin%more @uestions a%ainst such needs andtheir satisfaction.

However it should be noted that?aslow’s research wor# is some


22/31

:. Allowin% employees to both start andcomplete a pro ect or tas#.

8. 2iversi&cation of duties so that noone has all of a borin% tas# (thereshould be interestin% parts in all obs).

0. 2ele%ation3decision ma#in% down thehierarchy as much as possible and


23/31

(feed bac# loop) whether or not he shallbe motivated enou%h to perform a%ain.

+3+9 5%oo s 5ala!ce o%EB&ecta!cy Theo%y,

$t is also #nown as Jinstrumentalitytheory or process theory’. Historically it%oes bac# to Tolman ( /8:), 6ewin ( /8!)and +ea# ( /


24/31

%ood house#eepin% and a &4ed tar%et and%uidelines motivate wor#ers to attainthem. Goals should not be too easy or toodi cult. ?oderately di cult %oals pose achallen%e to an individual and impose thecommitment. Steady K Iay’s study( /=0) showed that %oals, which were

perceived as di cult but attainable, ledto increased performance than %oals,which were easy or impossible to achieve.

Wor#ers should be involved in %oalsettin% process instead assi%nin% %oals byothers. Wor#ers’ understandin% andappreciatin% of %oals are necessary.6atham and Saari’s study ( / /) showedthat it becomes easy to achieve di cult%oals throu%h supervisory support.;hho#ar and Wallin’s study ( /!0) toimprove safety performance showed thatJfeedbac# to wor#ers how to reach the%oal’ found useful and percenta%e of wor#ers wor#in% with safety precautionwas raised from =


25/31

company employees and %etdemotivated. The mana%ement shouldtreat them e@ual and should providee@ual facilities, e@uipment etc.

Su a%y, +sycholo%ical principlesdiscussed in all above theories su%%est

various means and ways for mana%ement(includin% supervisors and safety o cers)to motivate people for safety and toidentify situations leadin% to con5ict,frustration, non3co3operation etc., andtechni@ues to remove them. -or furthertechni@ues see ;hapter3= on Safety?ana%ement.

+2 etho's of ot$#at$o!@)!ce!t$#es o% Re.a%'s ,

While discussin% nature of motivation, we have seen that there arehuman needs, drives or desires(e4plained by various theories) whichshould be satis&ed by necessaryincenti$es or re ards for the purpose of motivation. Earious methods are availableto apply these incentive schemes. Someare %iven belowD

@A o!ey as a! $!ce!t$#e D ?oney,in itself has no incentive value. 7ut it canbe used to obtain the desired incentives,because of its e4chan%e power or value.?oney can satisfy ( ) 7asic necessities of life (food, shelter, clothes and the li#e) (:)*ecessities for health and education(doctors, choice of foods and so on) (8)6u4uries (mostly ac@uired needs) (0)Social position and (


26/31

money will remain a powerful incentiveforever.

See +art .8.< K .8.= of ;hapter3=for safety competitions and incentiveschemes. See part !. . Role of Safety

a!age e!t $! ot$#at$o!,

1ole of ?ana%ement, Supervisors andSafety 2epartment in motivation is mostimportant. They should adopt followin%measuresD

. 7y Jinduction trainin%’ new wor#ers(includin% contract wor#ers) should be%iven necessary safety instruction

and trainin% re%ardin% ha ards andcontrol measures in industry. Thisbasic #nowled%e will build con&dence.

:. Schedule for above trainin% should beproperly desi%ned to include ha ardsof raw materials and processes, safeoperatin% procedures, safety tools ande@uipment to be used, safety wor#permit systems, interpretation of ?S2S, labels, si%ns K si%nals, rules of transportation, loadin% and unloadin%and role of the wor#ers in &re &%htin%and operation of n3site 9mer%ency+lan.

8. ;ompany’s Safety K Health policy,9nvironment policy and Ouality policyshould be e4plained with theirob ectives and bene&ts.

r%ani ational interests should bee4plained. This will brin%belon%in%ness and to%etherness.

0. Wor#ers should be encoura%ed toparticipate in safety committee,

safety su%%estions and all safetypro%rammes.


27/31


28/31

Thus by such systemic plannin%,behavioural psycholo%y is used topromote safety at wor#. 77S approachproceeds as underD

. bservin% unsafe behaviours or actsof the wor#ers in the or%anisation and

collectin% their data.:. 2e&nin% a set of model behaviours toreduce the unsafe acts.

8. To %ive short duration trainin% towor#ers re%ardin% their unsafe acts,mana%ement observations ande4plainin% safe (model) behaviours.

0. bservin% new (improved) behavioursand recordin% their consistency andfre@uency.


29/31

F$gu%e 3+( Hu a! "o'y &a%ts a%e !ota#a$la"le $! the a%8et

The employer loses the bene&t of ane4perienced (trained) person, has to paycompensation in court and incur othere4penditure. Time is lost in investi%atin%

the accident and repairin% the machine if dama%ed. +roduction is interrupted andno such s#illed wor#er can be prepared ina short time.

$f the deceased is a social wor#er,society and nation both lose his services.$n totality everybody is losin% and nobodyis %ainin% by accident. Therefore friendsU2o determine from today to stop accidentby all means.

@( Acc$'e!t causes o%e Ha% tothe 7o%8e%,

-irst victim of any accident is wor#erhimself, because he is nearer to the placeof accident. Who is e4posed to %as orlea#a%e Wor#er only. Who hurt by fallin%,slippin% or stri#in% Wor#er only. Who hurtby a fallin% body Wor#er only.

+ayin% &ne or compensation in courtmay relieve an employer, but can anin ured wor#er be relieved from pain andsu'erin% *o. ;an his family %et hissupport if he is died *o.

Thus it is the wor#er only who losesmore by accident. Therefore we have tothin# of our safety &rst.

@3 Fool$sh!ess,

To provide %uard after cuttin% of &n%ers, to cause &re and then toe4tin%uish, to dischar%e %ases and then

to search mas#, to invite emer%ency andthen to rush for control measures... $s itnot foolishness

Therefore, awa#e, arise and removeall unsafe wor#in% conditions &rst.

@2 7o%se tha! a! Acc$'e!t,

9very year some : la#hs people die inaccidents in our country. ?any more arein ured. 7ut the most serious matter isthat by inhalin% polluted air, we arecallin% death %radually near and near.

$s it not surprisin% that this conditionof wor#in% in polluted air is not calledJaccident’ because immediateabsenteeism of 0! hours is not noticedthereby

$t is always advisable to consider thiscondition worse than an accident and try

to remove it.@4 F$#e yea%s 'e'ucte' f%o l$feK,

Whatsoever pay3rise and facilities wemay obtain, but, if we will continue toinhale polluted air, at the time of retirement, with %ratuity, we will certainly%et a certi&cate from the nature 3 C%i$e

years ha$e been deducted from your life! .2o you wish this

$f not, awa#e and build a wall beforethe water comes. 2o whatever you cando to &%ht pollution.

@9 Noth$!g $s costl$e% tha!L$fe,

9verybody loves own life becauseeverythin% can be e4perienced till the lifeis live. -uture after life is un#nown. Allfruits of this world can be en oyed onlyuntil the eyes are open and live.

Therefore nothin% is costlier than life. Then why should we lose it by our ownmista#e Therefore &rmly determine notto commit any mista#e to cause anaccident to oneself or others.@> Safety ust "e ou% 7ay of L$fe,

Safety motivation must last lifetime. Temporary determination due to anyemotional setbac# or funeral asceticism(smashan $airagya ) will not last lon%.Safety attitude must become a habit or

part of life. Whenever we see andwherever we see, we must see throu%hthe safety3eyes. ur thin#in%, observin%,wor#in% or supervisin% at the wor#place,home or anywhere else, must be withsafety3eye, safety3outloo# and safebehaviour in all respects. Safety cannotbe con&ned with any wor#place or anytime limit. $t has to be with us till we liveand en oy. Therefore it must be our way of life.@ Safety !ee's act$#ePa%t$c$&at$o!,

29


30/31


31/31

any safety activity. Ftili e it forsafety.

0. B9very ma or mana%ement problemis in part psycholo%icalC 3 rdway

Tead.

03. chapter - 3 safety psychology

Documents