T he second half of the nineteenthcentury brought mass literacy to thepopulation of the greater part of

Western Europe. That process also started atthat time in the southeast part of the conti-nent. The first law on primary educationwas passed in Austria in 1774. Although thatlaw covered all countries in the thenHabsburg Empire, it did not induce parentsto enroll their children in schools. In fact,only one child in seven was attending schoolin Slovenia at the beginning of the 19th cen-tury, while around 30% of children inCroatia were attending school in the middleof the 19th century. The school systemunderwent major reform in the middle ofthe 19th century, when possibilities werecreated for education to encompass morechildren (such reform started in Hungary in1868; Slovenia in 1847; Croatia in 1845;

Serbia in 1844; Montengro in 1872; Bulgariain 1879; Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878;Greece in 1833).

Education became legally compulsory inthe second half of the 19th century in mostof those countries, but putting the law intopractice was quite a different matter. Parentshad various reasons for not sending theirchildren to school. In some cases they didnot have enough money, and they neededtheir children as workforce both in the vil-lages and in towns. Sometimes the schoolswere far from the places of habitation, andchildren were forced to walk a few kilome-ters there and back, often through woodsand fields, roads being few and far between.Furthermore, the actual school buildingswere humble structures with neither suffi-cient teachers nor classrooms for all pupils.Many of the children of poorer parents did

45

Children at School

Education in the countryside, Bosnia, 1960’s

not even have suitable clothes or footwear toset out to school. Given all these reasons,children were often enrolled in schools but,for the mentioned reasons, were compelledto leave before they had completed theireducation, as a result of which they gradual-ly forgot how to read and write.

Parents were so poor that few childrenactually attended school, despite the factthat it was compulsory. That was why therewas a high percentage of illiteracy amongthe population in virtually all countries ofSoutheast Europe at the end of the 19thcentury (Hungary – 47%, Croatia andSlavonia – 66.9%, Bulgaria – 76%, Romania –78%, Greece – 80%, Dalmatia – 82%, Serbia –86%, Albania – 90%, Bosnia and Herzegovina– 97%. The situation was similar inMontenegro and Macedonia). Things start-ed to get better at the beginning of the 20thcentury, and matters improved considerablywith literacy campaigns in SoutheastEurope after the Second World War, whenpeople were educated en masse in most ofSoutheast Europe, and eight-year primary

education became compulsory. The initialresults of this mass education were felt inmost countries in the middle of the 1950’s,when the number of illiterate personsdropped to below 20%.

But fewer parents were prepared to allowtheir children to continue on to secondaryand high schools. Saying this, however, wemust bear in mind that up until the SecondWorld War primary education in most coun-tries had lasted for four years, while the highschools had lasted for eight years. Thatmeant that those children that had attendedprimary school actually ended their educa-tion at the age of 12 and could, in fact, onlyread and write. And such a level was suffi-cient for jobs that did not require any con-

46

● 5.1. Find excerpts describing education inthe literature or memoirs of your country.5.2 How is that education described? Is itsimilar to what you have experienced?

QQ uu ee ss tt ii oo nn ss

Sunny School, Bosnia, 1960’s

siderable education, and poorer parents didnot consider it necessary to send their chil-dren on to further education. Universityeducation was even more rare and large-scale university education did not beginuntil after the Second World War, whenindustrial production created the need forexperts and highly skilled personnel.

Parents were even less willing to educategirls than boys. In large families (see thechapter entitled ”Children in the Family“),parents would decide to educate only themost capable male children, being forced todo so for material reasons. It was consideredsufficient for girls to learn to performhousehold duties that would ensure them agood marriage. Another reason for the

unwillingness to educate girls was that factthat women did not have the same workrights in most countries, and therefore itwas not ”worthwhile“ educating them.Those were the reasons why illiteracy was farmore widespread amongst girls than boys.Schools for girls were opened in almost allSoutheast European countries in the middleof the 19th century, but those schools weremost frequently private and not compulso-ry. Boys and girls attended separate schools,except in those cases where there were insuf-ficient schools or teachers. Most countriesdid not start paying major attention to theeducation of girls until the end of the 19thcentury. For example, a state school for girlswas established in Greece in 1889 on thebasis of a new law, although female educa-tion had been stipulated in the laws of 1834and 1877. Boys and girls became entitled toequal education in Slovenia after the reformof 1870, but the first higher school for girlsin Croatia was opened in 1868. Similar insti-tutions were later established in Karlovac,Varaždin, Požega, Osijek and Djakovo. Thefirst grammar school for girls was opened inZagreb in 1892, and it was the first schoolfor female secondary education in Austria-

47

● Prepare facts and figures about the his-tory of schooling in your country and showhow the rate of literacy has increased.Look for information about how the statehas created an educated elite by providingscholarships for students at home and inother countries.

RR ee cc oo mm mm ee nn dd aa tt ii oo nn

Up until the middle of the 19th century, church schools and monasteries were rare oases of literacyin the Balkans.

Hungary. Secondary education for girls(from the age of 12) was introduced inHungary in 1895, while equality of educa-tion for both sexes was stipulated in theBulgarian Trnovo Constitution of 1879. Thefirst Serbian private school for girls wasfounded in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1858,the first such Catholic school in 1878 and inthe first such Muslim school in 1897.Equality of education has existed inRomania since in the middle of the 19thcentury, but, like in other countries, it wasusually private and not compulsory. Thefirst primary school for girls in Serbia wasestablished in Paraćin in 1845, and the cur-ricula in schools for boys and girls had beenmade identical in the law dating back to1871. A higher school for girls was opened inBelgrade in 1863. Institutes for girls’ educa-tion were formed in Montenegro in 1869and in Albania in 1887. The doors of univer-sities were opened to women in most coun-tries at the end of the 19th century.

D.S.

Regulation of Orderand Discipline forHigh-schools and

Gymnasiums (1866)Art. 20 For every class the students will

bring the books, the notebooks, the papers,and all the other necessary materials for thelearning process; they will keep them tidy,unbroken, and in good condition. Otherunnecessary books will not only be tolerat-ed, but also confiscated.

During the classes, students will keepquiet and will listen very attentively theteacher’s explanations. Any noise, whisper-ing or other signs of disorder are severelyforbidden.

Art. 45 Above all, students have the dutyto respect and obey the teachers [Ö] whomthey will salute when met, and whom theywill follow the advice.

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A gymnazium, Croatia, beginning of 20th century

Art. 48 Modesty and restraint are thequalities that ennoble the youngsters, every-where and every time; therefore, both inpublic and in private places, the studentswill behave accordingly, without giving thereason to start a scandal that can bringabout punishments.

Art. 50 It is strictly forbidden for studentsto write or draw on the school walls, doorsor windows and furniture. The offenderswill be obliged to pay for the damage, and,according to the gravity of the case, they willbecome objects for other punishments. Inthe case when nobody will be found respon-sible for the damage, all the class will bepunished.

Art. 51 It is forbidden for students to wearextravagant clothes.

Art. 56 It is forbidden for students to visitpublic balls, cafes, [...] not even accompaniedby their parents. They are allowed to visitpublic gardens or promenades, only accom-panied by their parents.

Art. 57 Playing cards, billiard, or any

other gambling activities, which ”kidnaptime and money“, are strictly forbidden.

Art. 58 Going to the theatre is allowed tostudents, but only if accompanied by theirparents. Diligent students may go to thetheatre on some holidays with the princi-pal’s approval, but only escorted by a teacherfrom the school.

Art. 59 Smoking is strictly forbiddenboth in public places and at home, and with-out any exception inside school and its sur-roundings.

Art. 63 Without any exception, it is for-bidden for students to write articles fornewspapers and journals, either political orliterary ones.

Art. 119 The holidays for high-schoolsand gymnasiums are the following:

Summer holiday, beginning July, 1st,until the end of August;

Christmas holiday, 8 days, until January,2nd ;

Easter holidays, 15 days;Every Sunday during the year;

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A primer, The People’s Republic of Macedonia, 1945.

Religious (Orthodox Christian) holidays:The Birth of Maria, September, 8th;Ascension of the Holly Cross, September,14th; Saint Dimitrie, October, 26th; SaintMihail and Gavril, November, 8th; Maria’sEntering the Church, November, 21st; SaintNicolae, December, 6th; The Jesus Baptize,January, 6th; Saint Ioan, January, 7th; SaintsThree Earaches Vasile cel Mare, GregorieTologul and Ioan Crisostom, January, 30th;The Welcoming of Jesus, February, 2nd;Good-Announcement, March, 25th; SaintGheorghe, April, 23rd; The Jesus Ascension,40 days after the Easter, Saint EmperorsConstantin and Elena, May, 21st; The BirthOf Ioan the Baptizer, June, 24th .

Except for these holidays, there will bedays off on national holidays.

(Source: Ioan M. Bujoreanu, Colectiune de legiuirileRomaniaei vechi si noi cate s-au promulgat pana la fineleanului 1870, Bucuresti, Noua Tipografie a Laboratorilor

Romani, Romania, 1873, pp.1858-1864)

Regulation of Orderand Discipline forPrimary Schools

(1870)Art.1 For urban primary schools the

school year begins at August, 15th, and endsin June; for rural primary schools the schoolyear begins at September, 1st, and ends inJune.

Art.4 Boys and girls younger than 7 yearsold will not be admitted. For the mixed ruralschools, where girls are studying togetherwith boys, girls older than 12 years old willnot be admitted.

Art.9 Except for the prescribed holidays,schools for boys will have Thursday after-noon a day off, while for the schools forgirls, the day off will be on Saturday after-noon.

Art.13 Unjustified and late arriving atschool, after the beginning of the classes,

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On the way to school, Bosnia 1930

will bring a punishment for the pupil tostand up for a quarter of an hour, and in thecase of repeated occurrence, the punishmentwill be doubled and hardened.

Art.14 At the fixed moment for the begin-ning of the classes, the bell will ring, andpupils, entering their respective classrooms,will sit down at their assigned places, andthey will not be able to change it without thepermission of the school teacher.

Art.16 At the moment when the schoolteacher enters the classroom, all the pupilshave to stand up; the same applies whenanother important person enters the room.

Art.18 After calling the roll, the schoolteacher will inspect the class in order tonotice if the pupils are well dressed andclean, and if the books and all the othermaterials are in good condition. Those chil-dren who are not fulfilling the requirementswill be criticized or kept standing.

Art.19 During the class, pupils have tokeep quiet and to pay attention at theteacher’s explanations. For every noise, whis-per or disorder, pupils will be kept standing.

Art.28 In order to help the teacher’s workand to maintain the discipline in the over-crowded classes, a monitor will be designat-ed for a certain number of children. Themonitors will be chosen from the older anddiligent pupils.

Art.29 The monitor’s duties are the fol-lowing:

to check pupils’ homework, and to markthe knowledge or non-knowledge on a pieceof paper, which later will be handed to theteacher;

to watch for the order and discipline inthe classroom, and to note the ones who areresponsible for the lack of discipline.

Art.36 Learning, behavior and practicalwork for girls will be graded with marksranging from 1 to 10.

Art.40 Pupils who will forget their dutiesand will ignore the rules for order and disci-pline will be punished.

However, it is forbidden to apply degrad-ing punishments such as kneeling, pullingthe hair, slapping on the face, or beating withthe rod, and other punishments like these.

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Village school, Galičnik, now in FY Republic of Macedonia, 1920

Upon the gravity of the case, the punish-ments to be administered to pupils of bothgenders are:

Particular admonishment or blame infront of the class;

Standing up in an isolated place, in frontof the other pupils for quarter of an hour upto one hour an a half;

Banning of going home for lunch;Low grades for behavior in the school reg-

ister;Arresting the child up to three hours, not

during the classes, nor during the night. Inthe arrest place the child will be obliged tocopy or memorize a passage from a book.

Informing the parents, in order for themto take adequate measures for mending thechild’s ways.

Temporary casting out from school, whenthe child did not improve his/her behaviorafter 3-4 periods of arrest and after inform-ing the parents. This measure will apply forminimum one and maximum three weeks,according to the gravity of the case.

Permanent casting out from the school,after all the measures mentioned above didnot lead to an improvement in the child’sbehavior, and when his/her presence in theclass will constitute a scandal and a way of

corruption for the other pupils; or afterhe/she repeated the same grade for threeyears, without proving any little evidence ofdiligence and progress.

Art.42 There are two types of rewards-daily and monthly. The rewards for praise-worthy children are the following:

The place of honor in the classroom;Praising them in front of the other chil-

dren;The appointment as monitors as long as

he/she deserves it.Art. 86 For each grade, the prizes are the

following:1st Prize with coronet granted to only

one pupil;2nd Prize granted to three pupils who

have the best grades after the one who getsthe 1st prize;

3rd Prize granted to 5 pupils who havethe best grades after those who get the 2ndprize.

( Source: Ioan M. Bujoreanu, Colectiune de legiuirileRomaniaei vechi si noi cate s-au promulgat pana la fineleanului 1870, Bucuresti, Noua Tipografie a Laboratorilor

Romani, Romania, 1873, pp. 1875-1880)

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Corporal punishment was common in schools.

White Days-BlackDays

”At our school, one could not talk aboutdiscipline. The pupils were standing upstraight in front of our teacher. However, forthe behavior outside the school, that is insociety, Constantin Spanesteanu set upjudging courts formed by diligent pupilswith good behavior. We were not allowed tosteal, to swear, to beat each other, or to usebad words. For each offence there was a cer-tain punishment and every case was judgedby children’s court. Only the severer punish-ments were to be known by the teacher. Ifthe teacher administered a punishment foran offense related to learning, it was easierto bear it by the guilty one, and his/herfriends could have pitied him/her. However,a punishment given by the children’s court,that is by the class representatives, was thebiggest shame ever.“

Nichifor Crainic, Romania

Recollections fromChildhood

(19th century)”...And the first schoolgirl was

Smarandita, the daughter of the villagepriest, a frolicsome girl, very smart and verydiligent, that she outran almost all the boysnot only in learning, but also in naughti-ness.[...] One day, we found ourselves inschool, watching the priest who was bring-ing a new, long chair. After asking ourteacher about our behavior, the priestreflected for a while, and then he gave aname to the new chair ” Calul Balan“(”White Horse“), and left it in the classroom.

Some other day, the priest came again toschool [...], and brought a gift for the newschool, a ”nice“ little scourge, and the priestgave it a name ” Sfantul Nicolae“(”SaintNicolas“), the same as the name of ourchurch from Humulesti village. The teachersmiled, but we, the pupils, remained with

53

Playground in school for girls in Zagreb, Croatiam beginning of 20th century

our eyes wide open. And the priest said thatfrom now on the rule will be the following:every Saturday the teacher should test thegirls and boys upon the learning materialcovered the entire week, and for each mis-take, a sign shall be made on the paper; andin the very end for each mistake... one whip-ping with Saint Nicolas will be administeredto the pupils. That was the moment whenthe priest’s daughter, in her naughty way,bursts into laugh: Poor girl!

„Come here and ride the White Horse,you, young lady!’ said the priest [...]

And when we all saw this, we remainedastounded. And, today and tomorrow, com-ing from the Church with holy bread andgiving it to everybody, the priest succeededto discipline us, and everything worked verywell.“

Ion Creanga , Romania

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Christmas in nursery school, Zagreb, Croatia, beginning of 20th century