Motivation at Work

Week 4 – 19/03/2008

Motivation

The force which drives behaviour (pp.48)

• DIRECTION - i.e. what a person is trying to do

• EFFORT - how hard a person is trying

• PERSISTENCE - i.e. how long a person continues trying

Theories of motivation

Content theories (pp.49)• Two-factor theory ( Hersberg): intrinsic and extrinsic •Types of needs: classification of needs: deficiency versus growth• Hierarchy of needs (e.g. Maslow): ordering of need by relative priority

Process theories• Expectancy theory (Vroom; Porter & Lawler): : a rational estimate of the likely result of their behaviour• Goal theory ( Locke) • Equity theory ( Adams)

Content Theories 1.Hierarchy of Needs Theory Abraham Maslow (pp.56)

There is a hierarchy of 5 needs---physiological, safety,social,esteem,& self-actualization---and as each need is sequentially satisfied,the next need becomes dominant

review:1.intuitively logical,ease of understanding, receiving wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers. 2.little empirical support

1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, warmth, sleep, etc.

2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc.

3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc.

4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc.

5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Content Theories2. ERG theory (Alderfer, pp.58)

There are three groups of core needs: existence,relatedness and growth

Difference:(1) more than one need may be operative at the same time,(2) if the gratification of a higher level needs is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower level need increases

Maslow: a rigid step like progression. ERG:contains a frustration-regression dimension

Several studies have supported the ERG theory:natives of Spain & Japan place social needs before their physiological requirements

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Content Theory3.McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory

Acquired needs theory.Developed by David McClelland.Three needs — achievement, affiliation, and

power — are acquired over time, as a result of experiences.

Managers should learn to identify these needs and then create work environments that are responsive to them.

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Content Theory3.McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory

Need for achievement.The desire to do something better or more

efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.

High need for achievement people:Prefer individual responsibilities.Prefer challenging goals.Prefer performance feedback.

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Content Theory3.McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory

Need for affiliation.The desire to establish and maintain friendly and

warm relations with others.

High need for affiliation people:

Are drawn to interpersonal relationships.

Seek opportunities for communication.

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Content Theory3.McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory

Need for power.The desire to control others, to influence their

behavior, or to be responsible for others.High need for for power people:

Seek influence over others.Like attention.Like recognition.

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Content Theory3.McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory

Research evidence on acquired needs theory.Identification of the need profiles that are

required for success in different types of jobs.People can be trained to develop the need for

achievement, particularly in developing nations.

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Content Theories4. Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Developed by Frederick Herzberg.Also known as Two Factor theory.

Portrays two different factors — hygiene factors and motivator factors — as the primary causes o

f job dissatisfaction and job satisfaction.

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Content Theories4. Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Hygiene factors. (Mostly Extrinsic)

Sources of job dissatisfaction.

Associated with the job context or work setting.

Improving hygiene factors prevent people from

being dissatisfied but do not contribute to

satisfaction.

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Content Theories4. Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Motivator factors. (Mostly Intrinsic)Sources of job satisfaction.Associated with the job content.Building motivator factors into the job enables

people to be satisfied.Absence of motivator factors in the job results in

low satisfaction, low motivation, and low performance.

Content Theories4. Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Not specific about what behaviours and rewards satisfy which needs.

Neglect the impact of the social context on people’s interpretation of their needs.

People do not necessarily strive to move up the hierarchy - at least, not through their work.

How to define needs?

Problems with Content Theories

Process Theories

1. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (1964) pp.51

Motivation ( M)=Expectation (E) x Valence

Where: Expectancy - If I tried would I be able to perform the action?

Valence - How much do I value those outcomes?

Process Theories2. Goal-setting Theory (Locke,pp.51) A goal is a target level of performance

If a goal is: difficult

specific

And if a person: accepts the goal

feels committed to it

gets feedback on their progress

Then their performance improves because:

their behaviour is focused

they try hard

they keep trying

they develop strategies

SLIDE 9.19

Some “live issues” in Goal-Setting

• How to enhance goal commitment (participative?)

• Who defines “challenging”?

• Conflict between goals

Individual v. group

Competing personal goals

• Goals set Vs dynamic environment

Process theories3.Equity theory (Adams, 1963, pp.65)

Individuals compare their job inputs & outcomes with those of others & then respond so as to eliminate any inequities

Minor qualifications:

1. people have a great deal more tolerance of overpayment inequities than of underpayment inequities.

2. not all people are equity sensitive,such as benevolent types

Process theory3.Equity theory

Motivation and Job Design Hackman and Oldham (1980, pp.73)

Motivation through design of work.

Five “Core Job Dimensions”

1. Skill Variety

2. Task Identity

3. Task Significance

4. Autonomy

5. Feedback

So…what do all these theories add up to?

1. Successful work performance can arise from many different needs/motives.

2. People need to believe they can perform effectively if they try.

3. The rewards for good performance should actually be desired by the people concerned.

4. What constitutes good performance should be clearly defined.

5. People need feedback on their performance.

6. People’s values and identity matter.