T he (mis)use of children for politicaland propaganda purposes is linkedmainly to the 20th century and

mass political parties and movements suchas communism and fascism.

Sports, culture and other organizationsfor children and young people became toolsin the hands of national political and reli-gious movements and leaders.

National propaganda, particularly priorto the Balkan wars, was also spread throughschools, textbooks, pupils’ organizations,choral societies, etc. Schoolchildren’s com-pulsory attendance at public events ofnational and political character was also aform of the involvement of children andyoung people in politics and the diffusion of

political propaganda. The dissemination ofbooks on national history, patriotic poetry,maps showing the territorial pretensions ofthe individual nations, and popular picturesof national heroes were methods used toraise the ”national awareness“ of theyounger part of the population both inthose countries that had gained independ-ence (Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, Romania,Bulgaria) and in those countries within theborders of Austria-Hungary and theOttoman Empire (Croatia, Slovenia,Hungary, Albania).

Nonetheless, the politization of childrenand young people and their (mis)use forpolitical purposes assumed particular sig-nificance after the First World War under

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Children and Politics

Romania: Taking the Pioneer’s oath – a compulsory ritual for inclusion in large–scale organisations in communist countries

the influence of authoritarian and totalitar-ian regimes. There occurred the creation ofnew and the revival of old national andnationalistic organizations devoted to the”development of patriotic sentiments“amongst young people. They did so byorganizing gatherings, militarization andindoctrination.

In Yugoslavia, the foundation of a chil-dren’s organization called the ”Associationof Pioneers of Yugoslavia“ (APY) was found-ed within the Communist-led Partizanmovement in 1942, that is during theSecond World War. It was modeled upon asimilar Soviet organization. In the post-warperiod, it encompassed children between theages of seven and fifteen. The APY organizedvarious (some overtly political) sports andculture activities, work campaigns, competi-tions, etc. All children’s organizations

(scouts, young mountaineers,ramblers, etc.) were part of theAPY. Children’s lives were organ-ized in a similar way in all com-munist countries in the Balkans.An important function of thepioneer organizations was ideo-logical and political education (inschools, summer camps, etc.).

The ”political education“ ofchildren even started in pre-school institutions. This wasachieved by teaching them to singsongs about the Communist

party and Tito, listen to stories and organiz-ing theatre performances about partisans.Children also became involved in large-scaleorganizations at a very early age. InHungary, for example, children between theages of six and eight became members of theKisdobos (Young Drummers) prior to mem-bership in the Pioneer organization. InRomania, children of six to eight became

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● 7.1. Compare the examples from thebook with examples of the use of childrenfor political ends in your own country inthe various periods of history.● 7.2. Why do totalitarian regimes need toinvolve children in their systems from earlychildhood?

QQ uu ee ss tt ii oo nn ss

The little eagles: children with wooden riflesare drilled in a village, Greece, 1944.

members of the Soimii patriei (Falcons of theHomeland), while those of between eightand fourteen were encompassed by theOrganizatia pionerilor (Pioneers’Organization). The Pioneer uniforms andsymbols (red kerchiefs, five-pointed stars,symbols, etc.) spoke clearly of the politicalideals the children were taught.

We can see an illustrative example of theway children were used for political andpropaganda purposes during the rule ofJosip Broz Tito in socialist Yugoslavia (1945-1981). His birthday was celebrated withgreat festivity and called ”Youth Day“.Schools organized the writing of birthdaycards, the sending of birthday presents, anddelegations of the most exemplary Pioneershad the honour of going to greet the head ofstate, etc. The central event was the sendingof ”Tito’s Batons“ from different parts ofthe country. The main ”federal“ Baton, hav-

ing been borne through all the Yugoslavrepublics, was presented to him at a hugerally of children and young people. JosipBroz Tito was represented as both the bestfriend and protector of all children, whowere taught details (both true and imagi-nary) of his biography throughout their pri-mary and secondary education. Particularaccent was placed on his hard childhood, onhis being an example of an upright, self-sac-rificing child, a model for all Yugoslav chil-dren.

Communist leaders in other Southeast

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Propaganda image in an almanac for pioneers, Romania, 1982.

● Look for photographs or other illustra-tions from the past that bear witness to theway children were used for political pur-poses, particularly in totalitarian systems.

RR ee cc oo mm mm ee nn dd aa tt ii oo nn

European countries were represented as”spiritual fathers“, ”teachers“ and ”protec-tors“ of all the children in their countries.Pictures of Ceausescu and his wife Helena,Bulgarian President Todor Zhivkov andAlbanian Enver Hoxha with children wereamong the favourite and most effectiveforms of propaganda.

M. R.

On the Way toSchool

We live at Semedela near Koper. Ourhouse is medium big and it faces Koper andthe sea. We leave for school at 7 a.m.; this isthe time, when the fishermen are comingback from the sea, after they have been fish-ing all night long. As we are walking alongthe street, busses, which bring workers to

Koper, pass us by. We try to compete withthe steamboat, which brings officials fromTriest. Before we go to school we stop at ashop where we pay 15 liras for the apples. Inthe port the fishermen are unloading fishand workers various machines, wood andother goods which came from Yugoslavia.We all like Yugoslavia.

Albin Zabric 3rd class, elementary school Koper,Slovenia, (Ciciban, number 8, year 1948/49, page. 159.)

Boundlless Lovefrom our

Childiren Hearts„Protected by the lightness of the home-

land, children are growing up to be brave,diligent and admirable. With boundlessgratitude, Romanian children are alwaysthinking about the founder of the today andtomorrow’s Romania, about their friendand teacher-comrade Nicolae Ceausescu.They are also thinking about comrade ElenaCeausescu, political and scientific personal-ity, whose carefulness and parental love arealways close to their hearts.

Spelling the name of the leader, Slovenia

Children’s Crusade

An entire population as yet unbornbut condemned to birth

lined up in rows, before birth fetus beside fetus. An entire population which doesn’t see, doesn’t hear, doesn’t under-stand but develops through the convulsed bodies through the blood of mothers Unasked.

By Ana Blandiana,(dissident poet) -poem wrote in 1984, with referenceto the regime’s brutal political demographic policies.

(in Gail Kligman, The Politics of Duplicity.Controlling Reproduction in Ceausescu ‘s Romania,

Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998, p.147)

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Having their parents as a goodexample of communists, pioneersand pupils, all children ofRomania are growing and achiev-ing their aspirations in a lumi-nous era, in the years of glory ofour country, when leader of theParty and the State is the mostloved son of our people, comradeNicolae Ceausescu.

His example of serving the goals of theParty from the early childhood, all his rest-less activity constitute a deep spring ofknowledge, a high revolutionary example ofabnegation, of selfcommitment and of thehope of do all possible things for theprogress and the happiness of our people.

The children of Socialist Romania arelearning now, in order to work tomorrow ina revolutionary and communist way.Striving to be successful in studying, in their

actions, in their practical training, in thePioneers’ Organization, children changeinto reality their oath to grow as reliablesons of the country, of the party, of the peo-ple. All their love and boundless gratitudefor the country, for the Party, for the people,for the brave communist leader representtheir high, fresh and honest esteem for thosewho are ensuring their happy childhood andtheir bright future.“

Almanac „Cutezatorii“ for Romanian pioneers, 1982edition, pp. 3-44.

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Honoring the Ceausescus’ presence,Bucurest, Romania.

...and the reality: orphanage ”Gradinari House“, Romania, 1990.

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JokeThe oath of the Fatherland’s Falcons: „I

swear to grow up big and strong - withouteating anything“

(in Gail Kligman, The Politics of Duplicity. ControllingReproduction in Ceausescu ‘s Romania, Berkeley:

University of California Press, 1998, p 133

Nicolae Ceausescuin 1985

„ The fetus is the socialist propriety of thewhole society. Giving birth is a patrioticduty. Those who refuse to have children aredeserters, escaping the law of natural conti-nuity.“

(in Adriana Baban and Henry P. David, „TheImpact of Body Politics on Women’s Bodies“ , in Margit

Feischmidt et al. (eds.), Women and Men in EastEuropean Transition, Editura pentru Studii Europene,

Cluj-Napoca, Romania, 1997, p. 158)Famous character from cartoons in communist times inRomania