onet

English sounds as IPA symbols

Speech organs

Paul Skandera / Peter Burleigh

Manual of English Phonetics and PhonologyTwelve Lessons with an IntegratedCourse in Phonetic Transcription

Gunter Narr Verlag Tiibingen

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Contents

note to students and instructors

What is linguisttcs? Prescriptivis and descriptiv ism I'arole vs. langue nd performance vs. conipeteiice'The four core areas of linguisticsOthcr branclies of linguistics2\Vbnt are phonetics nnd Phonology IPhonetics Phonologyhoie pronunciatton are e desciibing ?The notin of standard varicty6Received Pronunciation: An accentHow d0 e mrite down spob Qngnge(7Traditional spelling Pho nctlc ti anscriptionThe Intcriiational Ih netic Alphabet

9I'urel p/onetic[eaturesLoudness PitchToe of voiceDura tion and length10Air-stream inechanismVoicedness and voicelessness: The state of the gl ottis12l'boo/ogc //y releuan i features: D rincriue[eature s12lntensity of articulation I: Lenis and fortis lacc of articulation IManner of articulation I Exercises

LESSI N THREE. CONSONANTS1919

20

Maner f articu lat lon I IThe consonant tablc25The proble cascsOf semi-vowcls, contoids, and vocoi1s .25and more terminological confusion. .26Excrcises27The descriptinn of voi cls Maiicr of articu lation III The vowcl chart lThe cardinal vowels The E g/6 uomel ph nnemes Long vowels Short vowelsThe vowel chart II37lntensity of articulation 11: Lax and tense37Diphthongs and triphthongs38The shortening of vowcls, nasals, and the lateral4OEercises41The allo-/-eme relationshipAllophone s. phonemc43The two allophone critcria44Al lophones in tree variarion45Allophones in complementary distribution DevoicingFrontin g and retraction47To (or three) types of phonctic trnnscrtption49Phonetic transcr i J ti on proper49Phoncm ic transcription .49Broad phonctic transcription: An intcrmediate type50Unstressed - and n -sounds50 brlcf excrsion itO zziorp6 o,;bon o/ogy51The regular pl ural, thc possessi ve casc, and the third -person si6ularmorphemes52The rcgular past tense and past participle morp hemes52The pronunclatioia m the lettcr sequence liic li doesoccur in English, is termed prothesis, or, less ctm only, ['proB:sis, 'prosBasIs]) [from Greck prof 6cs, placing bcforc,POthC5 , Prosthese ). An intrusion in word - intcrnal position, as i please [p1i:z], is termed epenthesis (pronounccd |epe tl s]) [froii putting in; [enthese . Linguists thcrcforc sotnct i ics rcfer tt an inserted the schwa in p/ense as an epent hCtic vowel alt li1U l1 t $ FC 15 All even term available that can be used when vwcl is iiisc rtccl le tween two namely anaptyxis (pronounced [:enap'tikslS]) [from Grcck anupt yxisA[ityxe ). An intrusion in word -final position, as in ' cvcnt [mi.di aEngland [tu iqqland], is termed paragoge (pronounced [::'d]) [fr paragog, addition; pithe se|.Intrusive sounds are usually rccordcd only [1ineticihr intrusive is also recorded in broad ph nctic transcription.intrusive sounds described in this section, cnly the iutrusive iS r cvant to scription course integrated with this manual.

Exercises99X ERCISES

In this lesson, assiinilatioii was introduced as feature of connCCtd s CCh, 6nd you should try to include this feature in your transcr iptions. Remember that, if an assiiiiila- tion process resu lts in two identical sounds, the two sounds are tlSU 6lly pronounced as one, and are thcn transcr ibcd with lowered liorizontal sv'ng l'fl e, /_$, CO11kC t'fl them. You sh oiill use this swurig lirie accordingly in yoiit ltdllSCf l t $.Elision was also Introduced in this lesson. From now , elision will be marked inthe model solutions by cnclosiiig the elidcd sounds iii parenthcSCS. The Ofl ly cxccptica iS where schwa is e lidcd, and this is compensated foi bJ' syllabic consonant.In the solutions, we cciitiiiue ti annotate linking and intru s' , ll t CD l - notate syllabic consonants unless thcrc is special i eason for d Oi"6 . These features should, of course, still included in your transcriptions.

91 Transcribe the folluwing text into IPA symbolsEarly Thursda) rnoriiing just before eight oclock, the first ten groups arrived, rcady to start their new training regimc. Witliin four hurs few of the p rticipants were able to rcsist the temptation of sitting, even though the n1y spacc lclt ncl uttercd witlaequipmcnt was the freezin); cold stone floor.They were all complctely surprised to find that their inonths of preparation had

length of the hall was littcred with young studciits, puzzlcd, exhau sted, and depressed.

SAid their trainer. Tomorrow I anticipate more, and Il1 get them working non-stop, was her only idea of how to improve their awful jerformance.

4 43 words 9.2 Transcribe the spoken monologue the CD intu IPA symbolsTrack 13 and tracks 1420

ESSONArroPHONlC VARIATION, CONTD.

\Ve have w cl i v usse d all the phonetic and phonological phcnomena relevant to thc typC of transc riptioii you are asked to perform in the transcr iption course integrated with this niu l. bDf example, you should now be able to transcribc unstressed - and -5OUd , Clldings for the regul ar plural, the possessive case, thc third-pcrsn singu lar,th rpg nl ar past tcnse, and the regular past participle, rhe letter scqucncc < ng>, linking an rl intrusive - s nds, s llabic consonants, unprcdiclable stress in polysyllabiC words, strong ad weak forins of grammatical words, assimilation, a d elision. These are the clcmen ts of broad phonetic t ranscri ption. Evcrythi ng we shall discuss in r his and in the next lcsson is rclcv anr ly to jhonetic transcription in the narrower sense,l.e. ph cn mic transcription [roper. reca itulate bi i ctly, we learnt in Lcsson ive that an allophonc is one of two ormOe pronunciation v ariants of phoneme, and that the tv'o critcria for identifyi ng al/0 | tnes are the abscn ce of minimal pair and articulatory slmilarity. urthermorc, we'ruis hed between allophones in free variation, which can occur in the same llvi- Oll ment, ancl allophones i compl cmcntary distribution, which cannot occur i the same env ii-ociit. The allophones we have cncountcred so lar include various t- andr-sounds (iii Lcssons Three, Five, and Scven), devoiced, frontcd, and rctracted sou nds ill L Fivc), aspirated and unaspirated plosives (in Lessons Six and Ni nc), ancl syl- labic consonants (in Lesson Scven). As this list shows, all ophonic variation can be dc- } h Jerins of the ice la r phonemes ibi appear in differen t varian ts (such aSt-sounds and r- sou nds), and in terms of the processes rhat rcsult in these variants (such as cvoi c Ing and fronting). The next lesson will bc concerned with the fci rmcr. More S cifically, it will dcscribe the allophones of the /t/ and // phonemes (more systemati- C6[l y and comprehcns ix ely than was done in the earlier lessons) as well as those of the!/ hollk 9 . The prescnt lesson, the other hand, will shed more light the latter. In other wrds, it will contin uc with the description of the major processes resultin g in a1lnp[iones begun in Less Fivc.

Aspiration\Vk k O\V lOm Lcssons Six and Nine that aspiration [from Latiri mpirarc , brcathe Ollt, 9g] is the audible puff of breath, or the bricf b -sound, stemining from t 6Udderi rcleasc of air in the articulation of pl osive. \Ve also know that aspiration can be indicated in phonetic traiisc ription proper by the diacritic [" ] after the symbol

for the plosive in question. We have seen that aspiration can make the wordin sequence like /6a:tstxf/ perceptible, hcl ping us rccoy n ise it as eith niii stxf] or thats tough [6mis th. And we have seen that spiration can fillWht rieeds to be added, here, is that it is mainly thc /or1ii plosives, /, t.>. that aspirated. The lenis plosives are usually unaspirated, or, at ost, scarcely aspirati;J. fortis plosives, then, are aspirated most typically in the following environments: when they are pronounced in isolation, which hardly cvcr happcns, of ourse, which sliows that the aspiration of /, l, k/ is intrinsic, .. it is part of the " ture of ths SOlJdS, if you will;

when they occur at the onset of stressed syllable immediately before st//[ stsf], and ii[ski:] (note that phonologica l ly, or phonotactically, other than/s/ can precede fortis plosive in syllable-i nitial cluster);when they occur at the onset of stressed syllable immediately beforeonefour frictionless continuants, /1, , , w/, in which case the aspiration usualJyi the devoicing or these continuants (because they arc articulated while folds are still apa), as in p fese ['!:], qtryat], tune [t]u:n], and l: except, again, when preceded by /s/, as in iJ/ee [spli:n] and sgigglemember that we have already encountered thc devoicing of the frictionless ants in LeSson Five, and that it is explained there why, in phonetic proper, tne is better transcribed as [t$u:n]).[ h-

,Despite the fact that /, t, k/ are intrinsically aspirated, they are usuallyscarcely aspirated, in most other environments, and the aspirationand fodny (thdei] must therefore be regarded as not quite typical. Note also, nection, that here it is an intrinsic feature which is indicated by diacritic diacritics usually indicate feares that are not intrinsic. There doescating the absence of aspiration, mely raised equal sign placed after symbol, as in [t'], but it is hardly ever used.As we know from Lesson Five, the lenis plosives, /b, d, g/, the lenis ffricate,and the lenis fricatives, lv, 6, z, 3/, are partly devoiced in word inirial of the voice onset time. The difference, therefore, betwcen the /b/ inin []// in sj_in [spin], for example, is barely noticeable: Besides the fact that both bilabial plosiVS, both have little or voicing, and both are unaspirated. have shown that most people acally hear (sbin] for spin bccause our plosives (which is the realm of auditory phonetics) sccms to be inuenced to gree by the presence or absence or aspiration. The differcncc that rcmains is,that the // is produced with more force, .. with fortis articulation, and the transcipt iO Of 5j7IJ iS thefore still (spin]. The differcnce bctwccn the /b/ in

sounds are bilabial plosives and hve little or voicing. Howcver, it is notfortis articulation, here, that enables us to recognise thc initial sound in as

AllophoniC variation, contd.

first and foremost rhe aspiration. \Ve can say, then, that the most Sinificant difference b tween an initial lis plosive and an imiial fortis plosive is the aspiration of the latter.But, if aspiration is so vital for distinguishing meaning, and consequently for differ- entiating words, as was clearly illustrated by fiin andpi, how can we avoid the conclu- sion that an aspirated forti5 plosive and an unaspirated fortis plosive are rwo separate phonemes in English, rather than two allophones of the same phoneme? After all, even the sequences t6nt / and thats tough could seen as kind of minimal pair (- cause thCY differ mainly in the presence or absence of aspiration of the Second /t/), andthe presence of minimal pairs is, as we learnt in Lesson Three, the sole criterion foridetifying phonemes. The answer is that the realisation of fortis plosive as either as- pirated or unaspirated is determined by the phonetic environment, .. it is rule-gov- erned. Aspirated fortls plosives and unaspirated fortis plosives are therefore allophones in complementary distribution.

If soud iS prOduced by obstructing an airstream simultaneously in two different places (.. with different speech organs), the twn overlapping articulations in these places are referred as coarticulation [from Latin onrf iciie, articulaie together), dOUe articulation. Most linguists, however, use these terms in narrower sense, to f tO thC Simultancous use of two places of obstruction only if the two overlapping artiCulations are equally important (.. if they contribute equally to the quality of the resultant sound). Coarticulation in this sense is found in some West African languages,fO example, but not usually in English. If, the other hand, one articulation is more

important than the other, the morethe quality of the resultant sound)

one (.. the one that contributes most ofcalled primary articulation, and the less

important one (.. the one that merely adds nuance to the quality of the rcsultant d) is usually called secondary articulation. In common linguisric parlance, then, t 14 Bti0W Andrimal5econdary artu:ula fion are complementary although, strictlyspeaking, courticlation s the more general, superordinate term.he havc already encountered one case of secondary articulation in this manual, namely in Lesson Three, when we classified the /w/ phoneme as velar even though it is labialised, which means rhat it is produced with rounded lips. The velum, rhen, is the place of the primary arriculation, and the lips are the place of the secondary articula-! h is iinusual, however, that an English phoneme has secondary articulation Wh it is ponounced in isolation. In other words, secondary articulations are not usu - ally intrinsic to English phonemes, and the /w/ phoneme must therefore be regarded as an exception. In English, secondary articulations are almost always brought about by l (llfluence of neighbouring sound, as will be seen in the next section.By the same token, it will be seen that secondary articulation is usually not only th CdUSe of allophonic variation, but also the ef:fect of assimfiation, .. the processWbeby one sound becomes more like another. In fact, secondary aniculation and11holc variarion are so closely interrelated with assimilation that the two sections S GOdary articulation in this lesson can be seen as continuation of the three sec-

]04kesson Ten

tions assiinilation in the previous lesson. l.ike assimilation, secondary art icu lation involvcs specch organ that is not normally used in the production of given sound, but still rcinai n s in position needed for the articul ation of preceding sound, or be- gins to move to position needed for the articulation of following sound. Like assimi lation, secondary articulation can consequently be catcgoriscd as either pr ogressive, .. infl uenccl b) preced ing sound, or regressive, .. influenced by f ollowing .sound, although the latter is much more common. And like assimilation, s?O ddf Y articuI a tion can be influeiced either by sound belon ging to neighbouring word, or by sound beloiiging to the same word, and in both cases it can usually bc considered an as- pect of connected speech because it makes the pronunciation easier, and is therefore strumental in maintai nin g an isoclironous rhythm. The differen C bctwerl secondary articu lation and assim ilation is t hreefold: 1"hc foriner is more associated with t lic pro- duction of spccch sounds whcrcas the latter is more associatcd with their quality. More importantl , the former (usually) affccts only the place of articu latlon wlicreas tlic lar ter can affect all the disti nctive features. And, consequently, thc former usually adds just nuancc to the quality of phoneme whcreas the latter can not only add iiuance, but also change the quality of phoneme altogether. \Ve can say, then, th4 t 4 Scconclary ariicu lation is almosr always effected h assimilation, b ut assiinilatio n only soinetimes cffccts sccondar)' articulatioii. The term assimilation therefore has widcr range of appl ications than the term iCnda rticulatton.In tlis manual, hoWCYe, WE have clioscn to restrict the term nsimt/ tion to - cess thit chnges the quality of phoneme altyethcr, .. one that resul ts iii con;l ete substtu tion of lioneincs, rathcr than using the term, l ik fllost li U i6 ts, also for r hat adds just nuance to the g ualitv of phonemc, .. one that r95Ul tS illerely in an alteratioii of ph ncines, or in al l ophoncs. This choice ) seem arbit rary, bur it was made for clarity of presentation, and thus, ultimately, for bettcr compreheiisi n. W must make perfectl y clear, however, that all the examples of secondary articulatiingiven below are also examples of assimilation.

Mai types of secondary articulalionWe shall now discuss the iain types of second ary articulation, namely l abialisation, retroflcxion, palatalisatici n, velar isati n, and nasalisati on. The last of thcsc, nasal isation, does not q u itc bel ong here, as we shall see l atcr. Bcfore you continuc readiiig, it may be advisable to rered t b sections Ofl the place of aric ulation in Lessons Two and Three.Labialisation is type of SeC0dary articu latioii wlicrcby sound, usually iisonant, is produced with an unusual degree of lip- rounding in additioii to the primary articula- tion. It is usuall / illfluenCcd by (the rounded lips of) neiglabouring /w/ / :, u:, , /. (Remember from Lesson Four that back vowels usually have lip rounding in English.) Labialisation can be indicated iii phonetic traiiscrip r ion proper by sinall ulikc sym- bol, which is citlicr placed under the symbol for the labialised sound, or raiscd and placed after it. Labialisation is usually regressive, .. ifluenced by followin g sound, as is illustrated by the labialised alveolar /s/ soon [su:n], the labialiscd postalveolar

Allc phonic vriation, cn n td.

// iv t de [I"u:d], the labia l ised palatoal v colar 7J/ in nc ({u.], and the labialised velar/k/ in ((nite [kwait]. But occas ion.t11y it is also proj;ressive, .. influenced by - ing sound, as is i l lu strated by the la lia l ise d alvcolar /t/ in bnot (bu: i). (Compare the quality of then l bi l isc Dtlnds with that of the purcly alveolar /s/ in snm c, postalveolar // in red, palar oalv colar /]/ in _h_crr, veI lYl in Canada, and alveolar /t/ in ttger, all of which c made without li -rounding.)Retrof lexion is : ty| e of scc D d ar y' articulation whercby soun1, more specilically VOWCI, is produced with cu rled - back tonyue tip approaching or touching t le hard palatc in addition to the articulation. llctrof lcxio is also ref f d tO as r-colouring ci rhot acisation [troiii Latin tacismus, Greek rhc tabism6s, inakinp an r-sound]. It is nly iniprtai t in rhotic accents, for examplc in most Amcrican acce iits, becausc it is influ enced by rctrof lcx allophonc of the / phoneme, which rarcl y occurs elsewherc. Furtherniorc, as we kow h-cm Lesso Six, iion-rhotic accents like RPhave lost the / phoneme alinost entircly. Retroflcxion can be inlicatcd in phonetic ttfi5Ciption proper by small, raiscd rlike svinbol, which is upside down and placcd after the syn b1 for the rctroflexed (or r-col rured or rhotacised) vowel, and the

tO Simplify consonant clustc rs, the u narticulated sound may still ext its infl uc iicc, andwords like 1ird and world may rhen be pronounced with rctrof lcx cd voccl nev rthe- lHSS, (Compare the quality of the ret roflexed /:/ with that of the noririal /:/ iii bird world in RP.)

Palatalisation is type of secondary articulation wliereby sound, usally conso- an , $ ) roduccd with the body of t we tongue comiiig ear or touching the hard pa latc in addltion to i I pri man rticul atio. In most cases, this inv olvcs shift of the place ofobstruction bac kwar1s. In the case m velars and the glottal, liowever, which are (nor-4lly) niadc in the back part of the mouth, it involves shift forward. la1atal isatioii is t )[l\1Ced by n eiglibouring palatal, //, or by f ront vowel, /:, i, , :/. It can be d1t6d in phonctic transcription proper in sevcral ways, most commonly by 'sed l i symh1 after the symbol for the ja latal iscd sound, or by an aposiro-

alisedsounds \vith that ot the purely alveolar /t/ in ttger velar /k/ in Canada.)Palatalised consonaii ts are sonietimes descri bed as soft, and oii palatal ised conso- nants as hi d". The use of these labels here is not rel ited to the use of the same la lels YOU d ? g tlic lenis anrl fortis articulation of consonants (as in so t s and bllt it must 1e cq ally d iscouragcd.Ve arisation is type of secondary articu lation whereby sound, almost always /1/, isproduced wit5 me hack of the tngue cominy ncar or touchin g the soft pa l atc, or ve1 i dditOn t the primar) articu lation. It is influenced by following consonant

Lesson Ten

(my consonant cxcept // in the same or in the next word) or pausc, which means that it is alway s regrcssivc. Velarisaticn can be ind icatcd in phonetic transcripticn proper by the dia critic ['] after the syinbol for the velarised Stl11d, as in [1' ], , lOly anij pribab1y still morc coimimonly, by tilde plaCd thtou h the ymbol, at [1]. The vela

rised alv'eo1ar /1/, then, is found in words likc /zep/

[hetp), mtlb [milk],

[kkuu::11]],, and

xn// [seil]. ( gal n, crnp:me the qualit) f one veI wisn /1/ with that of the purcly [- veo l ar / l / in leoptd, which is made with the back of the tongue inuch further forward.)Nasalisation is process wlicrcby sound, usually vowel, is produced with 1owerd velu m, which opcns the passage to the nasal cavity, so that air escapes not only through the mouth (as is usually r he case with vowels), but also r hroU 8h the nose. In English, nasal ised sounds differ from real" nasals, then, in that the latter involve coimi pl ete Iost re in the vocal tract, so that air cscapcs through the mouth. (Othcr langu ges have nasals where the escape of some air through the mouth is intriiisic.) Nasalisation is inucnccd by ncighbouri ng nasal, /m, , 9/, and can le intlicated i lt OCtic tran scription proper by tilde above r he syinbol for the iiasalised sound. It is oftcn regr - sivc, as is illustrated h the nasa lised /i:/ in 6camand the nasaliscd 1sJ i bang [bq]. But it can also be progi cssive, as is illustrated by th gnasalised /:e / in mn/ [mt], or rcgressive ancl pr gressivc a r the same time, as is illu $- trated by the nasalised / :/ in [m:i:n]. (As before, com[are the qualitv f these nas ali scd vowels with that cif the normal /i :/ in bee, / / in isb, and /d:/ in n@j9/ e, at[ f which ai made with the veltim raised and air escapin g only th r ugh the moih.)Nasalisation is often groujcd to);ether with the various types of secondary articulation for the sakc of coiiveniencc, but it is, strictly speaking, different process becausc it af - fects the manner of articulation, not the place.It has been shown here thar secondary articulations (including nasalisatioii) usually oc cur only in spccific environments. Conscquentl , the resultant pronunciation variant s also usual l/ OCCUr Oly li s BCi ll envi roiimcn ts, or we can say that the real isations of the underly ing honemcs are rulc-governed. The sounds discussed in this section, like virtually all the sounds discussed in rhis lessr n, are therefore allophones in compleinen-tary distr i lution.

EXERCISES/ have now covercd at l the features that we include in our broad phonetic tr6S rip tion, and the Exercises in this and the folloWi 8 lessons give further practice all these features. Your t ransc ri|t lous should not, however, include the narrower phonetic phcnomena discussed in these lessons.

0.1 Transcribe the following text into IPA symbolsThe storv startcd lii iic inon tl s after all the trou blc and Uiltcst ha1 faded aw av. Little

land dream position in i csjectablc company. There she had bcc givcn nuiiiber ofunderstud ies, iior pamts, acl tw r stari-ing roles. In short she hadnt wasted secondin makiny nanic fr hcrself.After [ g as witch iii Macbcth, aiicla asked fii- short break to rccov er from particularl iiastv bou t of in flucnza, she explains. I said goodbye to the thea tre wisliiiig that l could be back as soon as possille.All o1 suclden l was snappcd u[ from feeling terrib l ill to the w hirlwind of llollywood by film produced who had seen my final night in Macbeth.

1 Sl words

10.2 Transcribe the spoken dialogue the CD into IPA SymbolsTrack 21 ad trck.s 2227\ words

ESSONMORE ALLOPHONES

SU lt inat Jop hemes (such as devoici iig, aspi ration, and the varioUs types of scconilaryarticlation). In the prcscnt lesson, the othct hand, we shall lcscribe it in ternis of particu l:m phonemes that appear as dmfferen r allophones. The phonemes choscn here are /t/, //, and /1/ because they are among the Lngl ish sounds which are most v ariablc, ad COnsequeiitly most imporrant with respec t to the learning and teaching of Englishpronunciatin . ut this is cetai nly nct to mcaii that all other English sounds are iuch less variable ( niuch less i iiiprtant). Ctn the contrary, we know frim Lcsson Five that th flllet [ a|[nphncs of any given phoiieinc is, at lcast theoretically, virtual Jy infi- riit. Mai1) othe sou ncls, thcn, culd have been included in this lesson, and the dcscrip- tion '. . l/ and their most Iniportant allophones shoul1 thcrcforc be sccn as inerely excmplary of tlic variabilit of thc majoriy of English sounds.

l-sounds

been tlescriled in previous Lessons.

of the /t/ phoneme, the followl iig 8 have already

'\ hat could be ca1lcI neutral t z zs first described in Lessoii Thre as fortis alVdOl lOSi99 , 6nd we latcr learnt in Lesson Ten that it is aspirated. It is the sound we hear WO d-ii1t all)' in t tg,er [taiga], or when /t/ is pronounced in isolatioii. (Remember thar, as an exceprion, it is an intrinsic fcaturc here that is indicated by diacritic.)- The glottal stop was c1cscri1ed in Lcssons Two and Tli rec. lii some iii n -staudar1 British accents, most nta bly Cockn ey, it is often used as an allophonc of // when it occurs after vowcl either word-internal l y, espeeiall when followed by another* //, /1/, or w ord -fin ally, as in bu tter [?], bo [h?], bo/e [bn'?l ],

and

usc of glottal stop in these cnvironmcnts is rcfcrred to as glottal t, or T-glottallin g, or simply glottalling. Because of this particular

usc, the glottal stop iii gciicra l is widcl y stigmatised by speakers of RP even thoughOther uscs of the glottal stop (as linking sou nd, for example) are ccrtainly entirely 6CCeptablc. he alveolar , or alveolar tap, was also describcd in Lesson Three. In American EliSh, it is commonly used as an allopnone of /t/ when it occurs after vowel in 5 SSCd syllable and bcfore anotlicr vowel, as in /t cr [la:r), rig I' ol. and

Lessun Eleven

(:i aiJ (but t in ntoznic [a't"o:m i k], for example, because here the /t/ ccurs after vowel in an iin stressed syllac). Thus latter, rittng, ad 4/oi oftcn havc the same jronunciation in Amei ican English as /JJci [la:d1. riding [ idii)], and Ad m [dam]. nof her way of cl escribing this allophone, therefore, is to say that the /t/ has undergone proccss of voicin 6. and now resemblcs last /d/, Tle wo rd laiier, writing, and atom comid thcn be transcribed as [l:et r], ('mail ], and [tcm). The fronted t was described in clctail in Lesson ive, including the enviroiinents in which it occurs. It can be illustrated by the dental realisation of the normally alveo lar /1/ in eighth [ci) 8] and nor tbiu [t 8i]. Tlic ret racted t w as also described in dctail in Lesson Five, again including the envi- ronlnent in which it occurs. It can be illustrated by the pos r alveolar rcalisation ( the normally alveolar /t/ in tm [trall and /it right (fit it]. The u naspirated t vi5 desc ribccl in dctail in Lesson Tc. In that ICSSO, W / OOked atthe environmcnts iii which its oppsite, tl e aspirated t, typical l occurs, and we said that the unaspiratcd t occurs in most other environnents. I r can be illustrated by ite/t/ in stuff ( st t) and strtng [striiil (Remem ler that the abscncc of aspiration is notusually in1icated by diacritic cx'en though it ccnstitutes an tcratio to thc neutr a[ sou iid quality.) 3hc labilised t was also dcsc ribcd in Lesson Tcn, mc lud ing the cnvir1nimicnts inwhich it occurs. It can be illustrated by the /t/ in foot [bu:t] and tz'tce [twais]. And the palatalised t was dcscrilcd in Lesson Ten as well, again including the envi- ronmcn ts in which it ocCurs. It ca be illustrated by the /t/ in tea [ti:] and text [t ekst]."1 next four al1ophiies if /t/ have ot yet becn described in this manual. We encoun-tcr them here for the first time. The nasal ly released I is prodUCCd with the usual completc closure at tl c alveolar ridge, which is maintained throughout the duration of rhe sound, so that air es- throUgh the moutli, but with lowercd vclum, so that air escapes through ;] nose insted. This kind of rclease is called nasal relcase, or nasal plosion, anl it can be indicaicd in phonetic transcription proper by small, raiscd n-likC Svinbol afterthe iain s) m bcil, as in [tn l AS d i filease typically cccurs in thc producticiii f plosive when that plosive is followc ly nasal witla the same place of arti culati n n. This means that /t/ is usually nasal ly released when it is fo11wcd bJ //, as in [bst'r), enten [i:tn], and com [nnt" ti]. (Note that iiasal rclcase is of case of nasa lisation, process which was discussed in the previous lesson, because nasalisa- tion i nvolvcs the scape Of both through the mouth and through the nose.) Th laterally relea ed t is prduccd, initially, with the usual complete closU re at the alveolar riclge, bUt th SldcS Of the tongue are thcn lowered, so that air escapes aro uiid the Sidcs of thc ceiitral closure tlia r still remains. This kind of rclcase is called lateral release, or lateral [9lOSiOn, and it can be ind icated in phonetic transcriptio proper by small, raised / -likC S)'mh D l after the iain syinbol, dS i (t ]. lateral re lease typically occurs in the production of /t/ and /d/ thcn they are followed bJ' /1/,

foreaflophones

and lit_tle [1i'! l . Note, here, that the central closu rc, .. the coiitact bctween the ton );uc tip and the alveolar ridgc, is maintaincd through- out the duration of the /tl/ sequence. The inaudiy relcasetl t, or unrcleased t, is also produced with thc usual complete closure at the at velar ridyc, 1ut the complete closure is maintained thr ou yho ut the d11 JttO Df the /t/ and an imincdiatel \ following plosivc or /m/, so that the air uscd fo the rOd Uct ion of both sounds is releascd at the end cif th Second soUd. More general ly, we can say that an inau dible telease can occur in the sequence plosive$ US J O 1 J losivc plus / iri/. it can be indicated in phonetic transcription ropcr by small, raised risht angle, [ " l. fter the syinbol for thc first sou nd in the sequence (.. thc sound that is actual ly inautlibly rel cased). An inaudibly rcleased tC3n le ill ust ratecl h words like catfiu [ k t"kin], hatband ['hictb:nd l. d tmo -

The glottalised t is produced with tightly closed glcttis (in effcct, res ulting iii si- multa neous glottal stp), so that mcire air can be puslied up frm the lungs. Thc 6 ttis re ains closcd t hroughout the duration of the /t/, thus trapping bod of air btWC it ad the usual cl surc adc for the / t / higher up in the vocal tracr, at the alveolar ridyc. (\Ve ld say that the air is rrapped betwcen lower, glottal closure and an u) per, alveolar cls ure.) This ai r is then compressed b ' sliarp upward movemcnt of the lary nx (w|iicli ntains the glottis), and rcleased, by opcning the upper closurc, through the m ou rh. Thcrcaf rer, the glor t is opcns, so that new air can be pu$ hed up from the lungs for the production of the nex sound. Not just /t/ can undcrgo such process of glottalisation, but also the other twO fOtiS lVC6, / /and /k/. (Note that the term glottali sa l ion i s used here in rather specific sense. It isO$tCD llsd iorc l rtadly to rcfer to all kiiids of activity in the glottis during sound fDd UCtion.) Ci lottal iscd lortis plosives diffcr from all other EngliSh sounds de scfibeil in this manual in that ilicy are not made with lung air. l other words, they fl O1 produced by an egmessive pulmonic air-strea m mechanism. The air-strcamused here is an egressive glot talic air-stream, and sound produced by such anfiif-S t eam is referred to as glottalic sound, or as an ejective. (Note that glottal ic sounds can only be allophones in English whereas in many American liidian and African languagcs, such as ucchua, Amharic, and l-Iausa, they can a l s c be ph lfi.) glottalic sciu iid (such as the glottalised t) can be indicated in pho6tic transcriptio n propci by sinall, raised glottal stp syinbol after the iain sy intol , as in [t'], or by normal -sized glottal stop symlol before the iain sy mbol, as in [?t](or, in some pu blications, by apostrphe, but this is not rccoinmendcil because an apostroph c is also used to indicatc palatalisation). Glottal ic sunds, or rather g ottaliC fortis pl osives, ty pica l ly occur after vowel and befo re cosona , as in dk*tu t [di'pu: i 'matit], foot6 n// ['fiit'b:1], and qite good [kwait' qcid], or beforc pause, usually at tlic end of words, as in znni [m:et'] and [wit'). 1"his ki n d f glottalisati on is referrcd to as glottal reinforcemcnt, or sometimes as glottalling (but thc lttcr term is more commo my used as synonym for glottal replacement).Gl ttJliSed fortis plosives, or glottalic fortis plosives, are common in everyday spokcn

1J 2

kessori E lcven

E 8 is h. Withou t them, the language would proha y soii ncl jedantic or st i ltcd, can lc illustrated by the pronunciation [di'po:t" mant] for depnrimcu t. If the glct i li sation, or the glottal reinforccment, is overdone, hO/flvcr, it sounds rathcr clipped,as thtiugh the speaker wanted to pronounce something very prccisely, or to spit out the sound at thc ciid of word, which is soinctimes done for humorous effect.All the allophones of /t/ listed above usually occur in clearly defined environmenrs, .. the choice between them is largel y rulc-governed, and thev arc therefore commonly - garded as cntextual varia nts, or allophones in complcinentary d iS tibl tlO. But, as was poin tcd iut in Lesson ive, speakers of standard ritish accent whi nor

inally realisc the /t/ in

tter

aass pli tta1

stop may occasionall) realise it as an

unaspirated i tc sound more fof fllal. Similarl .Peakers of llP, who normall v i ealise the/t/ in bn t r cr as an unaspirated t, may occasic nall realise it as glottal stp to siund more colloqu ial. And an single spcakcr may at various times and for various reasons(or for rcason at :i1l) realise th /t/ in cnt as neutra , an unaSpiratfl t, or gl ottalised t. These cxaimr plcs show that the choice bctwccn several of rhc al1phone s of/t/ ma Y also depend such facti rs as language varicty, social class, com mu n icativ sit- atio, or siimiply in chance. In such cases, the allophones of /t/ IlSt b t4f.dd as free variaiits, or allophones in free variatin.

r-sounds\1t/c said in Lcsson Thi dc that Other consonant phoneme of English is as varial lc in its actual pro nu nc iatioii as the // phoneme. This statemcnt secms tt cntrad ic t what we said in LcSson Five and at thc bcginning of the prescnt lesson, namely that the m- bcr of allophones of " htncmc is virtuall infinite, and it must the refore be furthcr qualificd: The / / the most variable consonant phoneme of Lnglish in t|;gsense that several cf its allophones are, from phonetic point of vicw, significan r ly dif - fercn t from one anther, and it is only frci m phonological point of vicw that the can be rega rdccJ as aJlophn cs of the saie phoneme. This is underl ineJ by the fact that theiajor l4Ciation vari ants of // can be reprcscnted in phonctic transc ri[tion proper by separate symbols, rather than being iid icatcd merely by d iac ritics. CIf the 9 allophones of // listcd below, 5 (Including what could be called neutral ) are such major pronunciation variants. The remaining 4 are varianf s of the neutral . hc follo w - ing 7 have already lcen clcsc rilccl in prcvious Lessons. The neutral (neutral in RP, that is) was first described in Lesson Three as teris posta lvel ar [ f oX lfll6 t $D 1lCtionlcss continuant), and we latcr learnt in Lcsso Scvcn th Jt it iS fl O -Sy ll6biC. l t is the sound we hcar word -initiallv in red, or when// is pronou n CCd i isolation, and it can be representcd in phonetic transcripticn proper by an - like syinbol t u rn ed upsidc down and reverscd, [], as in [red]. The retrof lex was also described in I csson Three. More specifically, it is lenis retroflex approximan r, and it can be rcpresentcd in phonetic transcription proper by the sym lol []. It t vpicl ly occurs in rhotic accents, for example in most Ameri - can accents, after vowel filtd lefore an alveolar consonant, as in bird ( '[d ) and

Aorealophone s

as [ , or bunched ,

Anicrican al1J ho c of //, refcrrcd to is percc( tu ally alinost indistingu isliab le from

, l4 tlt has d ifferent articulation.) 1'D$$d I, tri llctl , was described in Lcssoii Three as well. More specificall , it alveolar rol l , nr tri l l, ancl i re( tesented in phonetic trascriptii properby rhe same syinbol used for the unclcrl i iay phoneme, []. It does nt occur in RI'bUt 't is typic1 of Scottish and Irish accents, and it is sometinies used in stylised

Austria. The rollcd'3 3Ol1t 6li ii cs called li n gu a l roll, or l ingual trill [from Latinopposed to the vular rll, uvular trill, whiCh will 1c describedtranscriptio proper by th t s vnibl [t). ( Nl otc that this is the same sound t l at wasin tlic varietics of Gcriiian s[okcn iii the not-r h of Germatiy, iii avaria, anil in

described in the previous section as an allop done of the /t/ phoneme in ierica liSh ) It i 5 iin ilar tci the rolled , Li it involves l y one flap of the ton yuc tip against t lic a l veol r ridgc, rather than x' ibratioii. I t ciccurs in RP and in severl

['i 9'mer i l::n]. Dccau se the f l appcd rcscnics last /d/, it is soetimcs (f acc-tiosly) plt aS dd by writers who want to represent spoken language as close l y as

The devoiced s described in Lesson Five. It is vari ant of the neutral , nd does D , tll CC$D rd , havc scparate svmbol, but can bc indicated by the d iacritic [,] added ei tci the syinbol [] or to rhe sv bol [i], d epending the dcgree of accu - racy of the transcriptiin. lowcver, the devoiced is longcr an approx at, l i le, lecause the gap between the tongue tip and the rear of the alveola r LCCOftl narrower, and the air now produces audible fricti n when forcinglt way through. The devoiced can therefore specificall he described as

devoice1

OStalvcolar fricativc. We sid iv Lesson ' rhat it typi c all ccurs at tcr

ant to iiidicate the asjiratin of the preced ing plosive, [t" Ja i].The / li3biC was described in detail in Lesson Sevcn, incl uding the cnvironnie n ts\ hi?h lt ccurs. It is lenis postal veolar apprximant, like the neutral , of w hichis variant , and it ca be indicated by the diact itic ( ] added either to the sy nib1

from Lesson Scvcn that the syllabic is very common iii iaii yrhotic 4CC ti ts, but rarc in non- rhotic accents, such as RP.The labiallsed was described in Lesson Ten, again inclucl ing the environ en ts in

which it ccurs

It is alo . lenis postalvcolar approximat (postalveol ar becausc the

4Lessun Eleven

rear of the alveolar ridge is still the place of the primary articulatioll), like the neuti at , of which it is variant. It can be indicatcd by the diacritic [] added cither to thc syinbol [] or to the syinbol [i], depending the d ree of aCCUr6C Of the tran scription. If the labialisation is cvcrdoiae, .. if the lip-rou fldi t1 iS tOo strong, the labial i sed begins to resemble /w/, Such souid is frequcntl y used to satirise the (affectcd) specch of the upper classes, and it is soimi eti nies (lacetiously) spelt as ' by writers who want represent it as closely as possibl c in traditic al orthography, as in /m ax[ll so )'. I ronically, this is also the sund naost English child reii make unril they have lcarnt to articulate // properly, and if adults make it, t issomctimes regarded as language disorder.The next two allophones of // have not yet been described in this manual. We cncoun ter thcn here for the first tine. The fricative is the second fricative among the r-sounds. It differs from the devoiced only in that it has retaincd the iiitrinsic voicedncss of //, and it can there- fore more specifically be described as voiccd postal veolar fricativc. It is anothcr variant of the neutral , and can be indicated by the diacritic [,] adcl cd to the symb1 [u] (not usually to []). The fricative only occurs af rer /d/, as iii drcad [died], drea [dj i:m], and dric [dja i v]. The uvular is roduccd by movin g the back of the t ngue against the Uvula. It is less technically also re[erred to as back , - informally as burr. It is n or variant of thc neutral , but comes itself in two distinct variants. One variant is the uvular roll, or uvular tril l. U iilike the lingual roll, which is produccd by vibration of the tongue tip aga inst the alvcolar ridgc, the uvular roll is produced by vibration of theback of the tongue ayainst the uvu l a. It is common sound in Gcrman (cxccpt in the variet ies spoken in the north of Geriiiany, in Bavaria, and iii Austria), and presti gious allophonc of // in FfflCh, which is why it is informally also referred to as the Parisian . It can be rcprcsentcd in phonctic transcription proper by an i8-like S fllbol, [RJ. The other varia u t is the uvular fricative. It is the thiril fricatix'e a iriigthe r scun 6s m English, and the fric ti ii here is Jroduced by air forcing its way throu gh narrow gap between the back of the to nguc and tcriscd uvula. It can be representcd in phonetic transcription proper by an fi like syinbol turncd upsidc down, []. Both variants of the uvular are very rarc in English. They at stiginatiscd by spea kcrs of RI', and in the past were even regarclcd as language d isor dcrs. They are typical only t some accents of north-east England antl soutlie5 Scotla iid.An y r- so nd is tcclinically termed rhotic. Most of the i rhotics listccl hC Usually occur in clearly dcfined cnvi r onments, .. the choice be rwecn them is largely ru le govcrned, and they are th rcforc COmmonly regarded as contextual variants, or allo- phones in conpl ementary d istributici n. Thcrc are of course many more rhotics in Eng lish. For example, we might add, ]St for the sake of cii riosity, the bilabial roll we pro duce ti signa l that we are frcczing, of tO imitatc car engine, as b . ThiS sound is transcribed as [].

More allophones

Thfl fifst lStance of variatinn rcgar ing ?-sou nds zas cncountered in Lesson Four,when we said ihit tl e 1urtin of /lJ is usuial ly shtrtencd when followed by /, t, k, U, f,

I- sOnds cannot d lffcrcntiate words, and are phoneticall y similar, which means that th tist be rcgaded as allo}liones. They are nor usually countcd among the ost im - portant allophones of /1/, but they rcinind us oce again that the n umbcr if allophones Of iveii phoneme is virtually infinitc. The most imporrant allophones of /1/ are the listC1 b9low, it t3f w lic h (w i t}i t rie posxihle exception ) have already been describedin previous lessons." Utal I (ncutral iii UP) was first dcscribecl in Lesson Three as leis alveolar lateral (or latcr;j] aJproxi niant), and we later lcarnt in l.esson Seveii that it is -syllabic. It is th k Sciund we hear word -iniiially in lcopui d (l epad], or when /1/ is pronounCed in i sol itinn, and it is represcntcd in phonetic transcripuon propcr by thf synibr l used for the undcrlyin y phneie. 3hc neutral l is sometimcs dc- Sftibed as palatalised hecaiu.ee it is oltcn produced not mcrel) with thC tiJi rif thealveolar ridgc, bu t also sin ul taneously with tlic xvhtilc front of tongue coining iiear or touching the hard palate (but 'ith thc back of the toyue bld 1DW$. Such palatalised l i s impressi inisticall j' called cle r l. ThC raisin g of thek t of the tongue gives the clear l slight front-vowel quality, akin to zn i-sound. I RP, the ncutral l or clear l typica1ly occurs only beforc vowCl ri r before // (iii the same or in the next word) i,(that vowel r // follows immeiliatclY', .. without even lhfi 6lightst pausc in between (iii all other cnvii onnients, it vields to thc v lirisCd l, hi h W) l1 be ll3rcd below). urthcr examples of the ncutral I or cl car I can bc heard

It/. in many accents of l reland (csjecia11 ) in the south) and Wales, it occurs in ilf - vironmen ts whereas it virtually never occurs in many northern English, southcrn ScottiSh, id America n accents. It also occurs in all cnvirori inents in most G eriaiiaccents (including the most prestiyicus accent of Stanl ard Gerinan) altliougli /1/ in th6 cccnts of thc orth o1 Gertnany in pariiclar is of ren even friiit, t r more-colou ed, than the Lngltsh clear l. In several -s tan dard accents of Gcrnian, /1/ fllCh more from, or i-coloured, that /- sou nds arc frequcntly substitutcd with

t'OS[ ) speli as ois and Gof in an attcmpt to capturc the accent as accuratcly aspossiblc. Th dfiV 0lCCd Iwas described in Lesson Five, including the cnvironmciits in which OCC IS. It iS an alveolar lateral, lik the ncutral I or clcar l, and was illustrated in H f 'V0 by the devoiced realisation of the normlly voiced /1/ in pfrtse [) i:z.]. must add here, howcver, that /1/ can be devoiced not only after fortis plosive instrcsid 8yllablc s, but also aftcr /f/ and especially after initial /s/, as in 7 [f]aI], sleep

Lessun L leven

(as opposed to vclariseil /) because phonol ogically, or phonotac t re ally, the two consonant cluster /, t, k, t/ or /s/ plus /1/ at the onset cf syllallc can only be fol lowed by the vowel that forms the syllable centre, and such cluster at the coda is s1mply not possible.- Thc fronted /, or, more specificall), the derrtal I, us tlot llttltiot46ddiscussion of froting a cl lentalistion in Lessoii Fivc becauscthan the cxaniplcs givcn there, but it surcly dcservcs icnioii h . The ftor iri ally alvcolar /1/ be rcalised deiital alloph oii c (.. t can be aiti t lated with th tongue tip and rims touching the teeth) if it is followed by the dental //, s 6 / [he)9]. Tl e place m the primary articulation, thcn, is the teeth, and the /-sound is therefore not an alveolar any more, but lenis dental later al. Because it is always t1 lowed by nsonant, the dentil l i s always velari scd, i., the ve[ii is the place of the secon dary artic u latio , and the woi-d t c/h is thus traisc rifcd accura;p]y as [he)b].- Thc syllabic fwas il escribcd in detail in Lesson Seven, me luding the environmen ts in which it occurs. It is lenis alvcolar l atcral, like the ncutral / or clear /, and it wa il- lustrated in Lesson Seven by such wor1s as table [teib! .]1[pi z ], and s6occ/ [jxvl]. V/liar should be adtl ed here is that the syllabic / is typically vclarised becau se it usually occurs at the end of root, and is therefore oftcn lollowccl by suflix cons ist - I ng of or beginning with consonant, or by (sliglat) pausc. The w rds tablc rops- /, an1 n o n are thus transc ribed m rc accu ratcly as [teIb1], [prapuz]], and|jxy( ]. Tle vel afisd / was cl escribed in Lesson Tcn, aga in including the envir onmen ts in which it occurs (for the sake o1 simplification, we can say that it occurs in all the - vironmen rs in which thc ncutal / hear / cannot). It was illustrated in l.esson Tcn by the words / [hClp], m/l [milk], coo[ [ku:1], and ini/ [seil], and in the presenisection h health (heI8 ), table ( ieihl), pra posa[ [prpizt ], and sborc/ [Jai . Fu rthcr examples, irivolvin g influc nce of IolltJW COflS Dfldll t l t$3 X1 \ Oc], are

vclariscdlenis alveolar lateral (alveolar because the alvcolar ridge is still tI e place n the primary articulation). specifically, it is produced with the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar rid 8 , d d simultaneously with the back of rh tongri c comin g or touching the velum (and pissihly also with roii llddd lips).

sli ght bick vowel quality, aki n to -sound. /\ sound iS often dSC ibed as dai- k vowcl probabl because -sounds occur in ses'erl sad words, lik and gloom. The velarised / iS therefore also imprcssionisri cally called dark f. In many northern English, soutlicrn Scottish, and American accents, it occurs in all envl ron nien ts wheraS it virtually never occurs in many accents of Ircland (espe- cially in thC soUth) d l. In scveral -standard accents (particu larl in Cockncy) and in most Australian accents, the tip of thc tonge does not quite touchthe alvcol ar ridgc, which frcquently results in the substitutio of -sound for [ dark /, for example in words like /b and peop/c, which are thcn transcribed as [mik] and ['pi:po].

Ivlore allphones

All the allophones of /1/ listed here usually occur in clearl) dclinetl cnv ironic nts in RP,.. thevarianisof thcneutral (or cleir) / intl the vel arised ( dark) /, the other hand, occur in // environ- t ) accents, and in these accents rhe two allophones are therefore not inMhC We say that all tlic alloph oncs of /1/ listcd hcrc are allophones in coinplemen sive. the tontrary, we hve secn thar the devoiced / is usually neutral (or clear ) /,that the ronted (or dciit l ) / is always vclarised (or dark) l, anl that the s) llabic / is1 / \Vhat we mean, then, is that the allophoncs of /l/th iS mutual exclusivity. These pairs can be listed as follows:

Cutral (or clear) /devoiced /

s.vel rised (or dark) lvs.voiced /

fronted (or dcntal) /vs.a[veo[r l ( neutral /) v'S.-syllabic /\ Ofd , thC utral (mr clear) /, in RP, occurs in all the environments in which

''d / cannot, the frn ted $ ilentaJ) / occurs in all the enx'ironmcnis in which thet14l, alvcolar / c.not, and the syllalic / occurs in all thc environmcnts in which the -syllab ic / cannot. Such pairs can of course also be postu lated for the allophones Of /t/ and //, and the concept of Cri mpl ementary distribution has to be undcrstood in this sense.Finally, e knw [rm Lesson Six, h cm the section uiicturc, that allophones inItl6y be the most rcliable boundary signa ls, .. they often Of10 word ends, and the next worI begins. This can also be the allophones of /1/. For example, the difference betweenes /hi:t aiz/, RP, lics mainly in the allcphonic realisarion ofi the prescce or absence of an ever so sliglt paus between the

phonemes may the /1/ is vela-( dark) /, which typically occurs before even the sliglest pause, thus signallingthat WOd boundary between /1/ and / is very likely.

JJ 8

EXERCISES

Lesson Eleve n

11.1 Transcribe the following text into IPA symbolsWe need more oranges and apples before wc can collect the soft fruit like strawberries and peaches, he blloWed down the phone.Despite this rather unpleasant instruction coming up from the kitchen Carla and Sammy were in good mood. They had both risen early, gone jogging and had healthy breakfast. They were determined not to let Marcos foul mood upset thei afternoon.Being identical twins has certain advantages, thought Carla: She had pretend ed to be her sister and vice versa many occasions.

Now they planned to get their revenge the angry cook. Sammy

camefully

wrapped four raw eggs in spotted handkerchief and placed two more under her bosssshoes, which StOOd in th corner. The trap was sct.123 words

11.2 Transcribe the spoken dialogue the CD into IPA symbols Track 28 and tracks 2933

.ESSONINTONATION

lit thls final lcsson, we shall examlne intonation, feature of suprasegmental phonology,or prosod ./ have alread) come acrcss orher pronunciation features rha cannot be seg t b9ausc thcv exterid ovcr units that are lnger than ju st one sounl. We dis-CIISSd Stss, Iir | le, in Lessons Seven and Eiglit, and rhythm in Lesson Nine. Here, e shall begin our discussion by asking thc question of what intonation is. \Ve shall tlren briefly lok at the cncept of pitch, which, as we know fIDm LeSson Two, is closely Cldtd tO i 1tnation. We shall |roceed to identify thc tone unit as rhe stretch of spcech* whlC h intonation ac ts. We shaJ l categorise sevcral intonation patterns, look at the structurc Of rhe tonc unit, aid, finallj', discuss some of the functions intonation fulf l ls.Intonation is fund:iiciia1 property of spoken language. Because of its complex t , however, our discussioi can only be considered basic introduction to this ficld, Whi?h necessari lv omits or abbreviates some aspects that more cornprc hensivc look would discuss at yreater lcngth.

What is intonation?Lingus t ha\ found man y different ways to charactcrise itonatio, WhiCh i5 alsoCJlled pitch Contour or pitch vement, in gcneral, hiwever, they agree the fol-

All languges have intonati . Itonation is incipall the varia tion of pirch, but also prominence, over strctchof speech,tollation has four fu nc ti ons. Th structural function signals the grammatical or Sttltal role of an utterance, detcrmining, for example, whether it is qucstion, Qllest, or an instru ction. The accentu at function aflecrs the promineiiC Of sy ll6 L/, Jlld thus plays rol in focusing stres$ particular words in connected specch.convcys the speakers )ersonal orieiitations toward s whatclues about how the speakers feel whether they are uniiiter t'd, eXcited, or ironic, for example. And the discourse function marks the turn taking processes in an exchange between speak crs. Th0 St Of intonation patterns, or contours, is limitcd and can be fu detern incd,U1 ll11(UiS ts are not in full agreement about the actual numiier of differcnt con

120

Lesson Twelve

In orde analysc intonatio , continuous spccch can be b ri ken down into smallerunits, but there are different conventions about hOw tO detcrmine thcsc ii iiits.

PitchIntonation, as was ind icated above, is mainly shaJcd by the variation, or modu lat ion, f the pitch of the voice. Promincncc also plays role, es|ecially in marking the wo d that carries the iain sentence stress. C ur discussion, hnwever, will be focused pitch, rather than m icnc .We already know from Lesson fwo that pitch is related to the req iiency of th v i bration of the vocal folds: The faster the vocal folds vibratc, the highcr the pitch. Thu s pitch is another way of referring to the fundamental frequency (F ) 1the voice. T]iis frequcncy is also dctcr mined by rhc physical size, and consequently by th SCJ, f spcaker: In pencral , male speaker usually has lower pitch, at arou nd 120 helt Z, than lema I speaker, whi has an averagc pitch at around 2 10 hcrtz. \Ve also know froiti Les- son Two that [ itch is not distinctive feature in English, so the absolii te d ifferen ce ie twecn the fu ndamental frcquencies of indiv idual speakers, or of men and women, is not significan t in terms of segmental phonology.Nonetheless, all speakems can use intonation to achieve the fu nctions mentioiied ii the previous section, regardless of the absolute value of their own fundanaental frc quency. Thus an individual speaker can control the pitch nf his or her \ cicc, and in sp doing may transmit inforniatioii of one sort or another. Although tw spcakei s have the same fundamcntal frequen cy, it is the distinctive ntrasts in speakers pitch level and the relative movements rhat are imporiant t r D Sider, rather than the absolute(requenc . In other words, the imJortant question to ask when analysiiig itCi na s whcther change in pitch carrics linguistlc, or communicative, significance.

The tone unit

\Vc can normally break connected specch down into utterances, .. units that beginnd end with clear pausc. \ hile utterances may consist of only one syll4bl , SUch as ycs or , they are normally much longer, as iii The other da, hilc I was in ton, I met Chris, who I had t s ecn for c o[le o[eebs. Within an utterance, we can someii!!aneouS use of two places of obstructi , cspec iall \ when the6e two places of obstruction are equally imporiant. Also called doublc articula tion.in syllabic that follows the centre, and is produced with at . coda is, ttherefore, alwa) s formed by or more

1* COtrasi to performancc, which

is thc actual language u se of an ind ividual

speakcr. /\ tcrm prposed by the

American 1ingust Noam Cliomsky. See also

complementaidistribution

systeniatic rela ri onship between two or more l In-

guistic unirs

allophones or allomorjlis), where one unit can only occur ini / hiCh One of the other units can. The units are mutually -

Ol SOUnd produced by an obstruction of an air-stream either in the the vocal tract. All consonants gcnerally have two thi 8 i -' Phoncticallv, they are ftlade with an obstruction of air, and honologic ally, 6 t the margins Of sylla es. ontrasts with vowel. tfl t wordSee lei l word.COtXtu al varia nt IitlUiS tic unit in complementary clistribution with other units. Classification of the manner of articulation of specch sounds.Dtinu ants llt6dc withut complete clos ure of the speech organs. All specchP froiii Plosives and affricatcs are continuants.contoid honetic class 0/ Oll ttdS that are produced with an bstruct to of air.

All consonan ts exceptocoid.

thftiCtionless continuan ts are cori toids. Contrasts with

lateral produced with the tip of the tongue touclii ny

the alvc1ar ridge, and silmiultaneously with the back of the tongue coming car or The datk / tccurs in all the environments in which the ncutral is transcribed as [1]. See also re/nrisntion.

Appendix II

dental manner of articul at ion. Ieiital, or intctilrntal , sounds are inadc with the tongue tip and ris b cween the u ppcr and lnvvcr tcth or a ga i nst the uppc tcc h. The two dciitals in English, // and /6/, are oftcn popularly called tceaitch be cause of their spclling.dentalisa tionOccurs when fronting results in dCtal sound, arti culated wit tongue tip and riins touchinp the tccth. Dental artic ulamion can lc in1icatcd in the IPA 1y the d ritic [,]under rlie relevant symlol.descriptive linguistics The objective and SystematiC tUl of language. Descrije linguists observe and anal ysc l an guagc as it is used natura lly in any yiv9 spcech community t discover the rules and regularities of the undc rl i rlg language sys- tem. Contrasts with prescriptive linguistics.devoicing Occurs when an i n t rinsicall y voiccd than usual with voice at all.diac ritic Mark added indicate slight alterations to the us u at value of phonetic syinbol.dialectologyThe study and dcscripiion of regional ariatin withiii langg ,diphthong vowel sequence starting with nio phthong, whose qualityhethrog)j glid l d. djp};-thong is convciitionally analysed as one vowel lonemc. The transcribe as /ei / is d iphthon);.discour x e fnction of intonationThe role of processes in an exChanpe between speakers,disiimilation The process whereby one sound becomes less like sound OF sound in close mity, often to achieve grcatcr easc tion, and also greatcr c1ri ty. The opposite of assimilation.distincti ve featureThe three features of intensity, place, and minncr of articu lationdctcrmlnC the consonant sounds of language.distributionThe range of env ironments in which 6 lif1Ui5tic unit can occur.dorsal/\ type of lftiUlation that involves the body Of the tongue. Palatal and velarsounds are dorsal.double articulationSee coarticit /nrio.duration The absolute or actu at time taken in rhe arti culatio of purely phonetic leaturc sincc it pl ays rol c in determini n ; the phonoJogtcai unction of sound in the langu aye system. uration is (togctlier wlth l Ud b9$ , pitC h, and sound quality).egresiive glottalic air-stream One of the four air-strcam mechanisms. Air is pushed up from the pace between the vocal fold . sound produCd in this way is called ejective or glottalic.

Glossary of linguistic terms

egressive pulnionic i r-st re One of the four air-stream mechanisms. The iajor- ity of sounI s used in human languages are produd Uith l that is pushed U from the lu iigs through the windpipe, or trachea, leaving | lDdthf OU h th mouth and sometiincs through the nose. Vinuall y all 6li hUndare pro- duced by an cgrcss iv pu lnionic air-stream mecham.ejective sou nd produced by air being pushed up from the space between the vocalfolds, .. by an cgrcssivc glotta lic air-stream. Also called glottalic.elisionThe omission of one or more sounds in connected speech. The opposite of

empty wordSee grommttct / word.epenthesisI nscrtion of sound in word -interiial position. An itl ff td +Dwel likh schwa please {psli:z] is an epenthctic v owcl. See also anapt)ixtS.epiglottal of articulation. An epiglotral sound is made by the eJiglottis against the lower pharynx. Such soufls do not cxistlallAn intonation contour that falls.falling diphthong d lJilitliong in which rlic first element is longer and louder thanthe second. English diphthongs are usuall)' falling diphthongs.fallriseAn intonation contour that first falls, then riscs.fixed stressIn inanv l anp6 , word stress is fairly prCdiCt . These lanpu agcs are said to have fixed stress, to be fixed stress languagcs. manner of articul ation. flaJ, or tap, involvcs single llap by one articulator against anothcr. Thcrc are flappcd phoncmes iii Engll$h, but thec are some pro- nunciation variants produced in this way. The sound we tran$C ribe is [] is (lap.fttotThe listance begi nning with (and including) strong stress and ending right be- fore (and excluding) the next strong stress.fore-and-aft clippingThe oinission of whole syllables or entire parts of word fO the begiiining and end of word.fore-clippingThe omission o1 whole syllables or entire parts of word5 frO th -ginniiig of word.,lOUR wordSne gra matical ord.fortisAn ite nsi ty of articula rion. Fortis cinsonants are made with trnger breatli lorce, or liig]icr tension, than lenis consonants.free stressIn some languagcs, w rd stress is difficult to predict; it is i-v 1e-governC donly to very limited extent. 1hese laiiguagcs said to have free stress, less com -