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How to Plan and Conduct How to Plan and Conduct

Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research

© Fraser Health Authority, 2007

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This publication is intended to provide general information only, and should not be relied on as providing specific healthcare, legal or other professional advice. The Fraser Health Authority, and every person involved in the creation of this publication, disclaims any warranty, express or implied, as to its accuracy, completeness or currency, and disclaims all liability in respect of any actions, including the results of any actions, taken or not taken in reliance on the information contained herein.

      Rosa Haywood (604-587-4436), Research Ethics

Coordinator, Research Ethics Board.

       Susan Chunick (604-587-4681), Director, Research

Administration and Development (RAD). 

Michael Wasdell (604-587-4637), Epidemiologist.

Grant Facilitator.

Who we are:Who we are:

     Camille Viray (604-587-4628), RAD Administrative

Assistant.

RESEARCH ETHICS BOARD

STATUS REPORT 01 December 2008Total Studies 528

(From 2005 September 01 to Date)

ACTIVE STUDIES =210 PENDING APPROVAL = 31

461

82

10

70

0 10

20

40

60

80

100

Sponsor FH Grants Non-FHGrants

Grant-Aid Unfunded FH Internal Other

Funding for ACTIVE StudiesType of Ethics Review for ACTIVE Studies

100

110Full Board

Expedited

Active Studies by Department AreaActive Studies by Department Area

Access & UtilizationAccess & Utilization 11 Environmental HealthEnvironmental Health 22 NeurologyNeurology 11 PhysiotherapyPhysiotherapy 44

Acute ProgramsAcute Programs 22 Family MedicineFamily Medicine 11 NursingNursing 55 PlanningPlanning 11

AdministrationAdministration 22 FinanceFinance 11 ObstetricsObstetrics 66 Professional PracticeProfessional Practice 33

Biomedical EngineeringBiomedical Engineering 11 Food & NutritionFood & Nutrition 22 Occupational TherapyOccupational Therapy 11 PsychiatryPsychiatry 1818

CardiologyCardiology 3131 Health ServicesHealth Services 44 OncologyOncology 88 Public Health PreventionPublic Health Prevention 11

Chronic CareChronic Care 11 Infection ControlInfection Control 11 Operating RoomOperating Room 11 Residency FacilityResidency Facility 22

Critical Care (ICU)Critical Care (ICU) 77 Internal MedicineInternal Medicine 11 OrthopaedicsOrthopaedics 1919 RespiratoryRespiratory 22

Decision Support ServicesDecision Support Services 11 Material ManagementMaterial Management 11 Palliative CarePalliative Care 33 Social WorkSocial Work 22

DentistryDentistry 11 MedicineMedicine 55 PathologyPathology 11 SurgerySurgery 22

Diversity ServicesDiversity Services 11 Mental HealthMental Health 88 PediatricsPediatrics 77 Workplace HealthWorkplace Health 99

Elder ResearchElder Research 22 Multiple SclerosisMultiple Sclerosis 1212 People ServicesPeople Services 11 Non FH ResearchNon FH Research 22

EmergencyEmergency 44 NephrologyNephrology 55 PharmacyPharmacy 1414

FH Health Research Intelligence FH Health Research Intelligence Unit Unit

How can we help?How can we help? Grant Facilitator-WriterGrant Facilitator-Writer Conducting a search for funding opportunitiesConducting a search for funding opportunities Automatic notification of new funding sources and deadlinesAutomatic notification of new funding sources and deadlines Identifying a research teamIdentifying a research team Preparing letters of intentPreparing letters of intent Identifying resources required for conducting researchIdentifying resources required for conducting research Formulating the research budgetFormulating the research budget Writing the grant application in collaboration with Writing the grant application in collaboration with

researchersresearchers Understanding FH and funding agency requirements Understanding FH and funding agency requirements

regarding preparation of specific documentsregarding preparation of specific documents

FH Health Research Intelligence FH Health Research Intelligence Unit Unit

How can we help?How can we help? EpidemiologistEpidemiologist Specifying the research goal, Specifying the research goal,

objectives and hypothesisobjectives and hypothesis Identifying outcomesIdentifying outcomes Specifying variables for Specifying variables for

analysisanalysis Identifying sources of dataIdentifying sources of data Developing data collection Developing data collection

tools for quantitative or tools for quantitative or qualitative studiesqualitative studies

Developing the analysis planDeveloping the analysis plan Analyzing quantitative dataAnalyzing quantitative data Understanding how to use Understanding how to use

statistical software, such as statistical software, such as SPSSSPSS

What is Qualitative

What is Qualitative Research?Research?

When to Conduct Qualitative Research?

When to Conduct Qualitative Research?Qualitative versus Quantitative Research

Qualitative versus Quantitative Research

Qualitative Methods of Data Collection

Qualitative Methods of Data Collection

How to Write up Qualitative Research for Publication?

How to Write up Qualitative Research for Publication?

Qualitative Data Analysis and Coding

Qualitative Data Analysis and Coding

Workshop OutlineWorkshop Outline

What is qualitative research?What is qualitative research?““The goal of qualitative research is the development of The goal of qualitative research is the development of concepts which help us to understand social phenomena concepts which help us to understand social phenomena in natural (rather than experimental) settings, giving due in natural (rather than experimental) settings, giving due emphasis to the meanings, experiences, and views of all emphasis to the meanings, experiences, and views of all the participants.”the participants.”

Pope & Mays. Pope & Mays. BMJ 1995; BMJ 1995; 311: 42-45..

Qualitative researchQualitative research focuses on the ‘why’ and ‘how’ focuses on the ‘why’ and ‘how’ which is sometimes missing in which is sometimes missing in quantitative quantitative research.research.

Qualitative “vs.” Quantitative?Qualitative “vs.” Quantitative?

QuantitativeQuantitative

Explanation, Explanation, predictionprediction

Test theoriesTest theories Known variablesKnown variables Larger sampleLarger sample Standardized Standardized

instrumentsinstruments DeductiveDeductive

QualitativeQualitative

Explanation, Explanation, descriptiondescription

Build theoriesBuild theories Unknown variablesUnknown variables Smaller sampleSmaller sample Observations, Observations,

interviewsinterviews InductiveInductive

• Guba and Lincoln (1981)Guba and Lincoln (1981)• Four criteria for judging the soundness of Four criteria for judging the soundness of qualitative research qualitative research

Traditional Criteria for Judging Quantitative Research

Alternative Criteria for Judging Qualitative Research

Internal validity Credibility

External validity Transferability

Reliability Dependability

ObjectivityConfirmability (Can findings be

confirmed by others?)

Validity: Qualitative ResearchValidity: Qualitative Research

http://www.childcareresearch.org/discover/datamethods/downloads/QualitativeResAssessTool.pdfhttp://www.childcareresearch.org/discover/datamethods/downloads/QualitativeResAssessTool.pdf

Guba, E.G., and Lincoln, Y. S. (1981) Effective evaluation: Improving the usefulness ofGuba, E.G., and Lincoln, Y. S. (1981) Effective evaluation: Improving the usefulness ofevaluation results through responsive and naturalistic approaches. San Francisco, CA:evaluation results through responsive and naturalistic approaches. San Francisco, CA:Jossey-Bass.Jossey-Bass.

When to Conduct Qualitative When to Conduct Qualitative Research?Research?

When to Conduct Qualitative When to Conduct Qualitative Research?Research?

When you want to explore topics in more When you want to explore topics in more breadth and depthbreadth and depth than quantitative research than quantitative research Your research goal is to Your research goal is to exploreexplore a topic or an a topic or an

idea idea You want to You want to gain insightgain insight into a target audience’s into a target audience’s

lifestyle, culture, motivations, behaviours etc. lifestyle, culture, motivations, behaviours etc. You want to understand the reasons You want to understand the reasons behindbehind the the

results of quantitative research results of quantitative research You want to You want to get inputget input from key informants from key informants or othersor others

Many typesMany types Focus:Focus:

EthnographyEthnography Case studiesCase studies PhenomenologyPhenomenology Narrative ResearchNarrative Research Grounded TheoryGrounded Theory

Qualitative Design TypesQualitative Design Types

Qualitative Design TypesQualitative Design Types

EthnographyEthnography

• Derived from anthropologyDerived from anthropology

• The study of cultural groups in a natural setting, over a The study of cultural groups in a natural setting, over a prolonged period of time. prolonged period of time. Emphasis in ethnography is on Emphasis in ethnography is on studying entire culture.studying entire culture.

• Common data collection methods: Observation and Common data collection methods: Observation and interviews.interviews.

E.g. Observing children in a classroom over the school E.g. Observing children in a classroom over the school year.year.

Case studiesCase studies

• In-depth exploration of an area (i.e. Program, event, In-depth exploration of an area (i.e. Program, event, individual) using a variety of data collection methods.individual) using a variety of data collection methods.

E.g. Researching an individual with a particular health E.g. Researching an individual with a particular health condition.condition.

Qualitative Design TypesQualitative Design Types

Phenomenological researchPhenomenological research

• Identifying the essence of human experiences Identifying the essence of human experiences concerning a phenomenon, as described by participants concerning a phenomenon, as described by participants in a study. in a study.

• Involves studying a small number of subjects to develop Involves studying a small number of subjects to develop patterns and relationships of meaning and experiences.patterns and relationships of meaning and experiences.

E.g. Studying children at playtime, with imaginary toys E.g. Studying children at playtime, with imaginary toys in imaginary settings, game playing etc.in imaginary settings, game playing etc.

Qualitative Design TypesQualitative Design Types

Narrative researchNarrative researchStudy of the lives of individuals as told by the individuals. Study of the lives of individuals as told by the individuals. The researcher re-tells the information into a narrative The researcher re-tells the information into a narrative chronology, combining views from the participant’s and chronology, combining views from the participant’s and researcher’s life.researcher’s life.

E.g. AutobiographyE.g. Autobiography

Qualitative Design TypesQualitative Design Types

Grounded theoryGrounded theory

Researcher tries to derive a theory of a phenomena of Researcher tries to derive a theory of a phenomena of interest.interest.

Theory needs to be grounded or rooted in observationTheory needs to be grounded or rooted in observation

Analytic techniques:Analytic techniques:

CodingCoding- Open and selective coding of information- Open and selective coding of information

MemoingMemoing- Comments and thoughts of researcher are - Comments and thoughts of researcher are recordedrecorded

DiagramsDiagrams- Integrative diagrams used to bring concepts - Integrative diagrams used to bring concepts together and understand datatogether and understand data

Qualitative Design TypesQualitative Design Types

Group Exercise 1Group Exercise 1

1) 1) Qualitative versus quantitativeQualitative versus quantitative

Identify whether specific research questions would Identify whether specific research questions would best use a qualitative or quantitative approachbest use a qualitative or quantitative approach

• Group exercises taken from “An Introduction to Qualitative Research” by B. Hancock, 2002.Group exercises taken from “An Introduction to Qualitative Research” by B. Hancock, 2002.http://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA603_files/IntroQualitativeResearch.pdfhttp://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA603_files/IntroQualitativeResearch.pdf

SamplingSampling

Regardless of quantitative or qualitative, Regardless of quantitative or qualitative, important to consider sampling important to consider sampling

How will you choose those participants How will you choose those participants you wish to gather information from for a you wish to gather information from for a qualitative study?qualitative study?

ConvenienceConvenience PurposefulPurposeful TheoreticalTheoretical

SamplingSampling Convenience:Convenience: Selection of the most accessible subjects. Selection of the most accessible subjects.

Limitations-Possibility of poor quality data.Limitations-Possibility of poor quality data. Example: Investigator asks patients leaving hospital to talk about their Example: Investigator asks patients leaving hospital to talk about their

experience.experience. *Purposeful*Purposeful: Investigator actively selects the most Investigator actively selects the most

productive sample to answer the research question. productive sample to answer the research question. Intellectual strategy based on researcher’s knowledge, Intellectual strategy based on researcher’s knowledge, literature, evidence.literature, evidence.

Example: Example: Theoretical:Theoretical: Sampling is theory-based. Building theories, Sampling is theory-based. Building theories,

elaborating on theories by selecting participants that will elaborating on theories by selecting participants that will add to study (Commonly used-Grounded theory)add to study (Commonly used-Grounded theory)

Example:Example:

Reality: Combination of sampling methods typically used in order Reality: Combination of sampling methods typically used in order to best fit the research goal.to best fit the research goal. See handoutSee handout

Types of Qualitative MethodsTypes of Qualitative Methods

Wide range of qualitative methodologies:Wide range of qualitative methodologies: Interviews:Interviews:

structured, semi-structured, in-depth.structured, semi-structured, in-depth. Focus groups.Focus groups. Qualitative questionnaire.Qualitative questionnaire. Observation.Observation. Analysis of written documents (content Analysis of written documents (content

analysis).analysis). Conversation or discourse analysis.Conversation or discourse analysis.

Focus: 3 MethodsFocus: 3 Methods

Focus GroupsFocus Groups

InterviewsInterviews

Qualitative QuestionnairesQualitative Questionnaires

Types of Qualitative MethodsTypes of Qualitative Methods

Focus GroupsFocus Groups Group recruited to discuss particular topicGroup recruited to discuss particular topic ONEONE focus group is focus group is ONEONE unit of analysis unit of analysis Each focus group should take 1-2 hoursEach focus group should take 1-2 hours Ideal size: 6 – 12 people (plus a moderator/note Ideal size: 6 – 12 people (plus a moderator/note

taker)taker) Several groups are necessary for validitySeveral groups are necessary for validity Homogeneity and anonymity are important factors Homogeneity and anonymity are important factors

to considerto consider People may open up with others who are People may open up with others who are perceived to think along perceived to think along similarsimilar lines and lines and whom they may whom they may never seenever see again again

Advantages/Disadvantages of Advantages/Disadvantages of Focus GroupsFocus Groups

Advantages:Advantages: Socially oriented research procedureSocially oriented research procedure Format allows the moderator to probeFormat allows the moderator to probe Discussions have high face validityDiscussions have high face validity Can be relatively low costCan be relatively low cost Can provide speedy resultsCan provide speedy results Enable researchers to increase the sample Enable researchers to increase the sample

size of qualitative studiessize of qualitative studies

Adapted from: Krueger, R. A. (1994). Adapted from: Krueger, R. A. (1994). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research.Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Disadvantages:Disadvantages: Researcher has less control in the group interview Researcher has less control in the group interview

than in an individual interview.than in an individual interview. Data are more difficult to analyze.Data are more difficult to analyze. Technique requires Technique requires carefully trained moderators.carefully trained moderators. Groups can vary considerably.Groups can vary considerably. Groups are difficult to assemble.Groups are difficult to assemble. Discussion must be conducted in an environment Discussion must be conducted in an environment

conducive to conversation.conducive to conversation.Adapted from: Krueger, R. A. (1994). Adapted from: Krueger, R. A. (1994). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research.Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Thousand Oaks, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.CA: Sage Publications.

Advantages/Disadvantages of Advantages/Disadvantages of Focus GroupsFocus Groups

When/When Not to Use Focus When/When Not to Use Focus GroupsGroups

Consider the use of a focus group when:Consider the use of a focus group when:

Insight is needed in exploratory or preliminary studies.Insight is needed in exploratory or preliminary studies. There is a communication or understanding gap between There is a communication or understanding gap between

groups or categories of people.groups or categories of people. The purpose is to uncover factors relating to complex The purpose is to uncover factors relating to complex

behavior or motivation.behavior or motivation. The researcher desires ideas to emerge from the group.The researcher desires ideas to emerge from the group. The researcher needs additional information to prepare for a The researcher needs additional information to prepare for a

large-scale study.large-scale study. The client/intended audience place high value on capturing The client/intended audience place high value on capturing

the open-ended comments of the target audience.the open-ended comments of the target audience.

Adapted from: Krueger, R. A. (1994). Adapted from: Krueger, R. A. (1994). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research.Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Sage Publications.

When/When Not to Use Focus When/When Not to Use Focus GroupsGroups

Do NOTDo NOT use focus groups when: use focus groups when:

The environment is emotionally charged and more The environment is emotionally charged and more information of any type is likely to intensify the information of any type is likely to intensify the conflict.conflict.

The researcher has lost control over critical aspects of The researcher has lost control over critical aspects of the study.the study.

Statistical projections (of numerical data) are needed.Statistical projections (of numerical data) are needed. Other methodologies can produce better quality Other methodologies can produce better quality

information or more economical information of the information or more economical information of the same quality.same quality.

The researcher cannot ensure the confidentiality of The researcher cannot ensure the confidentiality of sensitive information.sensitive information.

Adapted from: Krueger, R. A. (1994). Adapted from: Krueger, R. A. (1994). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research.research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Focus Group Question DesignFocus Group Question Design

Using the overall purpose, develop specific Using the overall purpose, develop specific questions questions

Points to keep in mind when considering Points to keep in mind when considering questions:questions:

• • Should be “open-ended” to provide wide variety and Should be “open-ended” to provide wide variety and depth of responses. Simple “yes/no” questions provide depth of responses. Simple “yes/no” questions provide very specific informationvery specific information

• • Should be clearly stated so participants are not confusedShould be clearly stated so participants are not confused• • Should be neutral to avoid influencing the responses of Should be neutral to avoid influencing the responses of

participantsparticipants• • Should be ordered from easy, general questions to more Should be ordered from easy, general questions to more

difficultdifficult

Focus Group MethodologyFocus Group Methodology After questions are developed, the methodology After questions are developed, the methodology

for the focus group is designed. for the focus group is designed.

Methodology:Methodology: this is the step where the this is the step where the procedures for conducting the focus group are procedures for conducting the focus group are developed: developed:

How many peopleHow many people How many sessions will be held How many sessions will be held How participants will be recruitedHow participants will be recruited How they will be contacted.How they will be contacted.

How many people per group?How many people per group?

It is important to have a sufficient number of people to It is important to have a sufficient number of people to generate ideas and create discussions. It is equally generate ideas and create discussions. It is equally important not to have too large a group. important not to have too large a group.

Too large a group can prevent participants from being Too large a group can prevent participants from being involved in discussions.involved in discussions.

Ideal size: 6 – 12 people (plus a moderator/note taker)Ideal size: 6 – 12 people (plus a moderator/note taker)

Focus Group MethodologyFocus Group Methodology

What to Look for in a FacilitatorWhat to Look for in a Facilitator Good understanding of topic area and goal of Good understanding of topic area and goal of

projectproject Does not make participants uncomfortable Does not make participants uncomfortable

(objective)(objective) (E.g. Manager asking about employee satisfaction).(E.g. Manager asking about employee satisfaction).

Can make each participant feel safe enough to Can make each participant feel safe enough to express themselvesexpress themselves

Can take charge and lead group if it gets off Can take charge and lead group if it gets off track track (E.g. keep single participant from dominating (E.g. keep single participant from dominating

discussion)discussion)

WHOWHO:: identify a target group that can provide identify a target group that can provide the most useful data the most useful data

WHENWHEN:: determine when to conduct the focus determine when to conduct the focus group (the information to be collected group (the information to be collected determines the timeframe for the conduct of the determines the timeframe for the conduct of the focus group)focus group)

LOGISTICSLOGISTICS:: coordinating rooms, dates, and coordinating rooms, dates, and times, as well as contacting the participants so times, as well as contacting the participants so that they can block out their calendars. that they can block out their calendars.

FOCUS GROUP REQUIREMENTSFOCUS GROUP REQUIREMENTS Participants must feel confident and trust what they say Participants must feel confident and trust what they say

will be treated with the same confidentiality as responses will be treated with the same confidentiality as responses on a survey questionnaire. on a survey questionnaire.

Only the facilitator will have access to the participants’ Only the facilitator will have access to the participants’ names. names.

Only the facilitator will have access to the participants’ Only the facilitator will have access to the participants’ comments. comments.

No observers are allowed in a focus group. No observers are allowed in a focus group. Ground rulesGround rules should be posted and discussed with should be posted and discussed with

participants, including: participants, including:

• Participate fully Participate fully • Respect comments of all participants Respect comments of all participants • What is said here, stays here What is said here, stays here

Group Exercise 2Group Exercise 2 2.) Focus Group Exercise2.) Focus Group Exercise

Imagine that you want to undertake a research project about Imagine that you want to undertake a research project about a particular patient or client group you deal with as part of a particular patient or client group you deal with as part of your work. It may be a group defined by age or clinical your work. It may be a group defined by age or clinical problem. You want to collect information using focus groups problem. You want to collect information using focus groups composed of members of your own professional group. composed of members of your own professional group.

Consider the following questions:Consider the following questions: 1. What is the geographical spread of your potential participants? 1. What is the geographical spread of your potential participants? 2. Are there any specific inclusion criteria for selecting participants? 2. Are there any specific inclusion criteria for selecting participants? 3. Where or how could you obtain a list of potential participants? 3. Where or how could you obtain a list of potential participants? 4. Are there any pre existing groups and what are the advantages and 4. Are there any pre existing groups and what are the advantages and

disadvantages of using members?disadvantages of using members? Group exercises taken from “An Introduction to Qualitative Research” by B. Hancock, 2002.Group exercises taken from “An Introduction to Qualitative Research” by B. Hancock, 2002. http://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA603_files/IntroQualitativeResearch.pdfhttp://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA603_files/IntroQualitativeResearch.pdf

Interviews and SurveysInterviews and Surveys

• Survey and question development is a full Survey and question development is a full workshop all on it’s own- January 26, 2009 (9 workshop all on it’s own- January 26, 2009 (9 am-12 pm RCH)am-12 pm RCH)

Five methods:Five methods:1.1. Face-to-face interviewsFace-to-face interviews

2.2. Exit surveyExit survey

3.3. Telephone surveyTelephone survey

4.4. Mail/self-administered surveyMail/self-administered survey

5.5. Web-based survey Web-based survey

Method of Method of data data collectioncollection

CostCost TimeTime Response Response raterate

LengthLength ComplexComplex

FACE TO FACE TO FACEFACE

HIGHHIGH MEDIUMMEDIUM HIGHHIGH LONGLONG HIGHHIGH

EXITEXIT** MEDIUMMEDIUM FAST-FAST-SLOWSLOW

MEDIUMMEDIUM SHORTSHORT LOWLOW

TELEPHONETELEPHONE MEDIUMMEDIUM FASTFAST MEDIUM-MEDIUM-HIGHHIGH

MEDIUMMEDIUM MEDIUMMEDIUM

MAILMAIL** LOWLOW SLOWSLOW VERY VERY LOWLOW

MEDIUMMEDIUM LOWLOW

WEB-BASEDWEB-BASED LOWLOW FASTFAST LOW-LOW-MEDIUMMEDIUM

SHORT-SHORT-MEDIUMMEDIUM

MEDIUMMEDIUM

* Can be anonymous* Can be anonymous

Data Collection MethodsData Collection Methods

InterviewsInterviews

Informal-Informal- Researcher is required to recollect Researcher is required to recollect discussiondiscussion

Unstructured-Unstructured- Researcher allows interview to Researcher allows interview to proceed at respondent’s pace and subjects to proceed at respondent’s pace and subjects to vary by interviewee (to an extent)vary by interviewee (to an extent)

Semi-structured-Semi-structured- Researcher uses an interview Researcher uses an interview guide, but respondent is given freedom to guide, but respondent is given freedom to respond respond

Structured- Structured- Researcher uses identical situation Researcher uses identical situation and adheres to interview scheduleand adheres to interview schedule

Questionnaire/Survey Design Questionnaire/Survey Design ProcessProcess

1) Define objectives and requirements1) Define objectives and requirements Keep “need to know” questions, be cautious about Keep “need to know” questions, be cautious about

“like to know”“like to know”2) Consult with experts familiar with, or are part of 2) Consult with experts familiar with, or are part of

interest group during developmentinterest group during development3) Draft questions while thinking about data collection 3) Draft questions while thinking about data collection

method and burden on respondentmethod and burden on respondent4) Review/revise the questionnaire4) Review/revise the questionnaire5) Pre-test or pilot the questionnaire5) Pre-test or pilot the questionnaire

Tip: Focus groups can be used to develop content of Tip: Focus groups can be used to develop content of surveysurvey

Keys points to rememberKeys points to remember

Write in everyday termsWrite in everyday terms Follow basic writing principles (direct/to Follow basic writing principles (direct/to

the point, no spelling errors, grammar etc).the point, no spelling errors, grammar etc). Use consistent wordingUse consistent wording Be clear about directions (what you would Be clear about directions (what you would

like the respondent to do).like the respondent to do).

Things to avoidThings to avoid

““And”-And”- potential double barrelled question potential double barrelled question ““If”-If”- potentially confusing potentially confusing

direction/questiondirection/question Asking Asking more than one questionmore than one question in a single in a single

question.question.

Final Task of Conducting a Focus Final Task of Conducting a Focus Group: Coding, Analysis and Group: Coding, Analysis and

ReportingReporting Communicate the findings clearly and accurately Communicate the findings clearly and accurately

so that they can be used for making decisions.so that they can be used for making decisions. The facilitator will compile and analyze the The facilitator will compile and analyze the

comments to determine trends and single comments to determine trends and single comments worthy of inclusion. comments worthy of inclusion.

Conclusions and recommendations will be Conclusions and recommendations will be based on this analysis.based on this analysis.

Open-ended Data codingOpen-ended Data coding It’s easy to code closed response or rating It’s easy to code closed response or rating

questions, but how do you code open-ended data?questions, but how do you code open-ended data? Objective:Objective: to create codes and classify responses to create codes and classify responses

into categories respondents would have chosen, had into categories respondents would have chosen, had they been offered categoriesthey been offered categories

Two phases: Two phases: 1) Scan responses1) Scan responses 2) Scan responses and then 2) Scan responses and then

codecode Themes will emergeThemes will emerge

Coding Focus Group DataCoding Focus Group Data

Thematic coding factors:Thematic coding factors:

1. 1. FrequencyFrequency- Number of times something is - Number of times something is mentionedmentioned

2. 2. SpecificitySpecificity- Details- Details

3. 3. EmotionEmotion- i.e. Enthusiasm, frustration in - i.e. Enthusiasm, frustration in responsesresponses

4. 4. Extensiveness- Extensiveness- How many different people said How many different people said somethingsomething

Emotion and ContextEmotion and Context It is important to take It is important to take emotion/contextemotion/context into into

account.account. For example: the phrase “He was alright".For example: the phrase “He was alright".**

Can be said in a variety of ways and mean something Can be said in a variety of ways and mean something different in every case. different in every case.

"He was ALRIGHT" (He was alright, I liked him) "He was ALRIGHT" (He was alright, I liked him) "HE was alright" (He was alright but I wasn't so keen on "HE was alright" (He was alright but I wasn't so keen on

the others) the others) "He WAS alright" "He WAS alright" (He used to be but he isn't now) (He used to be but he isn't now) "He was alright?" (Well you might think so but I don't)"He was alright?" (Well you might think so but I don't)

* Example from “An Introduction to Qualitative Research” by B. Hancock, 2002.* Example from “An Introduction to Qualitative Research” by B. Hancock, 2002.http://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA603_files/IntroQualitativeResearch.pdfhttp://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA603_files/IntroQualitativeResearch.pdf

Tapes are transcribed verbatimTapes are transcribed verbatim Text is sorted into themes by at least 2 Text is sorted into themes by at least 2

researchers to ensure validity using pile-sort researchers to ensure validity using pile-sort method or computerized versionmethod or computerized version CDC’s EasyText (free)CDC’s EasyText (free)

Themes are compared with note-taker’s notesThemes are compared with note-taker’s notes The complete focus group process usually takes The complete focus group process usually takes

about three to four monthsabout three to four months

Coding Focus Group DataCoding Focus Group Data

Group Exercise 3Group Exercise 3 3) Content Analysis exercise3) Content Analysis exercise

The following text is an excerpt from the transcript of an The following text is an excerpt from the transcript of an interview conducted by a community psychiatric nurse interview conducted by a community psychiatric nurse with a woman following discharge from hospital. The with a woman following discharge from hospital. The excerpt deals with the woman's recollection of being excerpt deals with the woman's recollection of being admitted and how she felt at that time. admitted and how she felt at that time.

Read the transcript carefully and complete the following tasks. Read the transcript carefully and complete the following tasks.

1) Make a note of all the items of data you consider to be potentially 1) Make a note of all the items of data you consider to be potentially interesting. interesting.

2) Identify “categories” of data. 2) Identify “categories” of data. 3) How many categories have you identified? 3) How many categories have you identified? 4) Do some items of data potentially relate to more than one category? 4) Do some items of data potentially relate to more than one category? 5) Can you identify major and minor categories? 5) Can you identify major and minor categories?

Group exercises taken from “An Introduction to Qualitative Research” by B. Hancock, 2002.Group exercises taken from “An Introduction to Qualitative Research” by B. Hancock, 2002. http://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA603_files/IntroQualitativeResearch.pdfhttp://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA603_files/IntroQualitativeResearch.pdf

How to Write up Qualitative How to Write up Qualitative Research for PublicationResearch for Publication

Typical article format also works for qualitative research!Typical article format also works for qualitative research!Same standards as for any type of paperSame standards as for any type of paper

A link in reasoning from introduction to methodology to findings to A link in reasoning from introduction to methodology to findings to conclusion.conclusion.

Abstract Abstract IntroductionIntroduction

•What’s the question? What’s the question? •Why’s it important? Why’s it important? •How to address it?How to address it?

Theory/Framework and Research QuestionsTheory/Framework and Research QuestionsMethod Method Findings Findings Discussion Discussion Conclusion Conclusion ReferencesReferences

Consider the use of Consider the use of tablestables to summarize less exciting to summarize less exciting details details

Use of Use of quotesquotes from participants from participants Use Use diagramsdiagrams to show analyses and framework to show analyses and framework Thoroughly justify and explain your Thoroughly justify and explain your philosophy/theoryphilosophy/theory

and research method.and research method. Use the Use the standard research paper formatstandard research paper format as a guideline as a guideline

for qualitative write-up.for qualitative write-up.

How to Write up Qualitative How to Write up Qualitative Research for PublicationResearch for Publication

Writing Tips for Qualitative Writing Tips for Qualitative ResearchResearch

Reference article Reference article http://educationforhealth.net/EfHArticleArchttp://educationforhealth.net/EfHArticleArchive/1357-hive/1357-6283_v14n1s12_713664938.pdf 6283_v14n1s12_713664938.pdf

ImportantImportant

Qualitative research is different than Qualitative research is different than quantitative researchquantitative research May not be appropriate to generalizeMay not be appropriate to generalize Findings only apply to group of focusFindings only apply to group of focus