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Mindreading and Mindreading and CultureCulture

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Social MindsSocial Minds

Our minds are adapted for social reasoning.Our minds are adapted for social reasoning.

We have a persistency to anthropomorphize; we We have a persistency to anthropomorphize; we react to objects as they’re intentional agents;….react to objects as they’re intentional agents;….

We don’t have to decide whether to interpret We don’t have to decide whether to interpret another person’s movement as action: we do so another person’s movement as action: we do so automatically.automatically.

No inferential reasoning, no analogy reasoning,No inferential reasoning, no analogy reasoning,……

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Interpretative competence is dissociated Interpretative competence is dissociated from other aspects of human cognition. from other aspects of human cognition.

This suggest the presence of a module This suggest the presence of a module operating independently of other cognitive operating independently of other cognitive faculties.faculties.

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The module presence, is reinforced by The module presence, is reinforced by studies on autism and schizophrenia. studies on autism and schizophrenia.

Autism is characterized by the incapacity to Autism is characterized by the incapacity to read other people mind but leaves other read other people mind but leaves other cognitive capacities intact. cognitive capacities intact.

This suggests that the interpretative capacity This suggests that the interpretative capacity is dissociated from other cognitive capacities is dissociated from other cognitive capacities (cf. argument from aphasia in favor of the (cf. argument from aphasia in favor of the language module).language module).

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Arguments for ModularityArguments for Modularity

1. Dissociation1. Dissociation

Two capacities are dissociated if one can be Two capacities are dissociated if one can be lost and the other retained. There is thus lost and the other retained. There is thus informational and operational autonomy. informational and operational autonomy.

E.g.: aphasia proves that linguistic skills can E.g.: aphasia proves that linguistic skills can be lost while other don’t; thus there is a be lost while other don’t; thus there is a language module. language module.

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The same for our capacity to interpret others: The same for our capacity to interpret others: if it can be dissociated from general if it can be dissociated from general intelligence, it proves the existence of an intelligence, it proves the existence of an interpretative module, i.e. interpretative module, i.e. a theory of mind a theory of mind module, ToMmodule, ToM..

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High functioning autists seem to prove this. High functioning autists seem to prove this.

E.g.: high functioning autistic children fail the E.g.: high functioning autistic children fail the false-belief task, yet they pass the false-false-belief task, yet they pass the false-photography task (where a photo is taken photography task (where a photo is taken from a scene which get subsequently from a scene which get subsequently changed … the autistic children will say that changed … the autistic children will say that the picture will be of the previous scene).the picture will be of the previous scene).

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2. Poverty of the Stimulus2. Poverty of the Stimulus

Children become competent reasoners about Children become competent reasoners about mental state even if they cannot see, hear, mental state even if they cannot see, hear, or feel them (cf. blind children).or feel them (cf. blind children).

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Poverty of the stimulusPoverty of the stimulus

A child may acquire a language even though A child may acquire a language even though the data itself is too poor to determine the the data itself is too poor to determine the language: the child needs no evidence for language: the child needs no evidence for much of the knowledge she brings to the much of the knowledge she brings to the learning situation. learning situation.

Children acquire language from pidgin.Children acquire language from pidgin.

Roughly, children always make the right Roughly, children always make the right ‘hypotheses’ as a function of their genetic ‘hypotheses’ as a function of their genetic endowment.endowment.

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Since the child can fixate on Since the child can fixate on anyany language in language in the face of a poverty of stimulus about the face of a poverty of stimulus about eacheach language and since all languages are equally language and since all languages are equally acquirable, children acquirable, children all begin with the all begin with the same universal linguistic knowledgesame universal linguistic knowledge. .

This is the essence of This is the essence of the poverty of the poverty of stimulus argumentstimulus argument. .

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The poverty of the stimulus argument The poverty of the stimulus argument does does notnot tell tell us: us:

1.1. What information is innate.What information is innate.

2.2. How the innate information is How the innate information is represented in the mind/brain.represented in the mind/brain.

3.3. Whether the information is available to Whether the information is available to a general learning mechanism or specific to a a general learning mechanism or specific to a dedicated one (i.e. general intelligence or dedicated one (i.e. general intelligence or language module). language module).

These issues are to be decided by the These issues are to be decided by the normal scientific routenormal scientific route of the testing and of the testing and comparison of hypotheses.comparison of hypotheses.

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Simulation Theory (ST) Simulation Theory (ST) vsvs. ToM. ToM

Either the great apes represent the action of Either the great apes represent the action of their conspecifics in intentional terms or they their conspecifics in intentional terms or they represent them in terms of bodily motion.represent them in terms of bodily motion.

Even without a rudimentary theory of folk Even without a rudimentary theory of folk psychology we wouldn’t see other agents as psychology we wouldn’t see other agents as mere bulk of skin, but as animate, self-mere bulk of skin, but as animate, self-moving creatures with functionally organized moving creatures with functionally organized behavior.behavior.

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Simulation theorySimulation theory

The behavior of others is interpreted and The behavior of others is interpreted and predicted by using our own decision-making predicted by using our own decision-making procedure as model for others.procedure as model for others.

Advantages: ST fits the phenomenology of Advantages: ST fits the phenomenology of agency insofar as we often understand agency insofar as we often understand others by imagining ourselves in their others by imagining ourselves in their situation. situation.

If ST is right it also frees us from the burden If ST is right it also frees us from the burden of calculation and discovery. ST is a less of calculation and discovery. ST is a less intelligence-hungry account.intelligence-hungry account.

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ReplyReply

At most ST presents a supplement to the At most ST presents a supplement to the representational theory of representation. We representational theory of representation. We often take into account differences between our often take into account differences between our thoughts and the ones of other agents.thoughts and the ones of other agents.

E.g.: we can understand/adjust our expectations, E.g.: we can understand/adjust our expectations, predictions, etc. of agents from other cultures.predictions, etc. of agents from other cultures.

ST looks more plausible when seen as part of a ST looks more plausible when seen as part of a hybrid. It need to be combined with account of hybrid. It need to be combined with account of the information agents use to guide their the information agents use to guide their simulations.simulations.

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But why need that information be in the form But why need that information be in the form of a theory?of a theory?

If our information about others was a mere If our information about others was a mere form of empirical generalizations from our form of empirical generalizations from our experience, then we could not predict the experience, then we could not predict the behavior of agents in novel situations.behavior of agents in novel situations.

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Folk PsychologyFolk Psychology

Can be seen (Sterelny) as a form of guided Can be seen (Sterelny) as a form of guided learning instead of a full blooded theory. learning instead of a full blooded theory.

As such, it is sensitive to development. As such, it is sensitive to development.

Would it be similar to Chomsky’s LAD?Would it be similar to Chomsky’s LAD?

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In favor of the view that folk psychology is a In favor of the view that folk psychology is a full blooded theory people (Scholl & Leslie) full blooded theory people (Scholl & Leslie) mentions the: mentions the:

1.1. uniform outcomesuniform outcomes: all individuals across : all individuals across cultures manifest (with the exception of cultures manifest (with the exception of psychological pathologies) a more or less psychological pathologies) a more or less identical folk psychology.identical folk psychology.

2. 2. Insensitivity of development to Insensitivity of development to learning abilitieslearning abilities: the development of folk : the development of folk psychology seems insensitive to differences psychology seems insensitive to differences in general learning abilities.in general learning abilities.

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But folk psychology (FP) can be learned. But folk psychology (FP) can be learned.

There are important differences, though, on There are important differences, though, on the way FP is learned and ordinary learning.the way FP is learned and ordinary learning.

The acquisition is The acquisition is developmentally developmentally entrenchedentrenched. .

But most of this developmental buffering is in But most of this developmental buffering is in the environment rather than the genome.the environment rather than the genome.

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3.3.The process of development is The process of development is insensitive to evidenceinsensitive to evidence: This campaign : This campaign against the learning of FP. If FP is insensitive against the learning of FP. If FP is insensitive to evidence it cannot be learned.to evidence it cannot be learned.

But richer environment (linguistically and But richer environment (linguistically and socially) accelerate the development (e.g. socially) accelerate the development (e.g. children pass the false-belief test a bit faster). children pass the false-belief test a bit faster).

This difference, though, is only of timing not of This difference, though, is only of timing not of degree.degree.

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Vs. Evolutionary Psychology (Sterelny)Vs. Evolutionary Psychology (Sterelny)

““The idea that the human mind consists of an The idea that the human mind consists of an ensemble of domain-specific, innately ensemble of domain-specific, innately specified, cognitive mechanisms that are specified, cognitive mechanisms that are adaptations to specific ecological and social adaptations to specific ecological and social problems of Pleistocene foraging is a radical problems of Pleistocene foraging is a radical oversimplification of the pattern of hominid oversimplification of the pattern of hominid evolution. … It exaggerates the importance evolution. … It exaggerates the importance of evolution of specific adaptations to specific of evolution of specific adaptations to specific problems, and ignores adaptations to problems, and ignores adaptations to variability itself.”variability itself.”

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The evolution of some important aspects of The evolution of some important aspects of hominid cognition are perceptual and hominid cognition are perceptual and affective mechanisms. affective mechanisms.

This may explain for instance a particular This may explain for instance a particular preference of waist to hip ratio, and other preference of waist to hip ratio, and other phenomenon discussed by evolutionary phenomenon discussed by evolutionary psychology.psychology.

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Humans inherits much more than genes from Humans inherits much more than genes from past generations. past generations.

These information-transmitting inheritances These information-transmitting inheritances are human-specific. are human-specific.

Hence we cannot easily apply evolutionary Hence we cannot easily apply evolutionary models built for other species.models built for other species.

Cultural evolutionCultural evolution …. ….

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Cumulative niche constructionsCumulative niche constructions

Behavioral innovations can trigger cascades Behavioral innovations can trigger cascades of further changes that entrench the new of further changes that entrench the new behavior (e.g. lactose tolerance because of a behavior (e.g. lactose tolerance because of a new diet).new diet).

The increasing cultural differentiation The increasing cultural differentiation generated by cumulative niche construction generated by cumulative niche construction made the boundaries between groups less made the boundaries between groups less permeable.permeable.

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The importance of The importance of dual inheritancedual inheritance..

Human Human inherits both genes and cultureinherits both genes and culture from their parents. from their parents.

This is an important factor in accelerating This is an important factor in accelerating changes.changes.

For dual inheritance to work, group selection For dual inheritance to work, group selection must be powerful, for the fidelity of must be powerful, for the fidelity of transmission depends both on individual transmission depends both on individual psychological adaptations (importance of psychological adaptations (importance of learning) and developmental environment.learning) and developmental environment.

Hence, culture contributes in shaping nature.Hence, culture contributes in shaping nature.

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TheThe Theory of Evolution Theory of Evolution

The determiner ‘the’ is the problem. The determiner ‘the’ is the problem.

We don’t have a single theory, but a set of We don’t have a single theory, but a set of complex views with various degrees of complex views with various degrees of certainty (Christians fundamentalists exploit certainty (Christians fundamentalists exploit that in favoring design …).that in favoring design …).

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Evidence for evolutionEvidence for evolution

1. Physiological1. Physiological

Evidence of related structures Evidence of related structures

E.g.: the structure of mammalian forelimbs. E.g.: the structure of mammalian forelimbs. The wing of the bat, the flipper of the whale The wing of the bat, the flipper of the whale and the human arm all share the same bones and the human arm all share the same bones organized for different functions.organized for different functions.

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2. Fossils2. Fossils

They can be dated and show sequences of They can be dated and show sequences of organisms from currently unknown forms to organisms from currently unknown forms to familiar forms.familiar forms.

3. Biogeography3. Biogeography

I.e., the geographical relationships between I.e., the geographical relationships between organisms of different kinds (e.g. Darwin organisms of different kinds (e.g. Darwin finches who have been blown to different finches who have been blown to different places and in the absence of competitors places and in the absence of competitors evolves differently).evolves differently).

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Natural SelectionNatural Selection

Evolution by natural selection is Darwin’s Evolution by natural selection is Darwin’s great contribution. great contribution.

This is understood via the idea of heritable This is understood via the idea of heritable variations of variations of fitnessfitness, i.e. the disposition to , i.e. the disposition to produce surviving offspring. produce surviving offspring.

If organisms differ in fitness some will have If organisms differ in fitness some will have more offspring than others.more offspring than others.

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If fitness is If fitness is heritableheritable, and the features that , and the features that ground differences in fitness are pass down ground differences in fitness are pass down from generation to generation then features from generation to generation then features conveying fitness will become more common. conveying fitness will become more common. We’ll thus have changes in populations …We’ll thus have changes in populations …

Main debateMain debate

What exactly it is what natural selection What exactly it is what natural selection select?select?

Dawkins claims that are not organisms but Dawkins claims that are not organisms but genes, i.e. the prevalence of genes that were genes, i.e. the prevalence of genes that were most efficient at reproducing themselves.most efficient at reproducing themselves.

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The selfish geneThe selfish gene

The organism is a mere vehicle built by The organism is a mere vehicle built by genes in order to project themselves most genes in order to project themselves most effectively into the next generation.effectively into the next generation.

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Group selectionGroup selection

It’s the view that certain features of It’s the view that certain features of organisms favoring conspecifics rather than organisms favoring conspecifics rather than themselves have been produced by selection themselves have been produced by selection between groups of organisms.between groups of organisms.

Unselfish groups survive better than those Unselfish groups survive better than those composed by merely selfish individuals.composed by merely selfish individuals.

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The selection of genes is insufficient to The selection of genes is insufficient to explain the complexity of the evolutionary explain the complexity of the evolutionary process.process.

Selection occurs simultaneously at many Selection occurs simultaneously at many levels, including the gene and the individual levels, including the gene and the individual and possibly also the group and the species.and possibly also the group and the species.

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Multi-level selectionMulti-level selection

It is probably the current orthodoxy among It is probably the current orthodoxy among philosophers of biology.philosophers of biology.

It rejects the idea that it is possible to It rejects the idea that it is possible to separate out specific set of objects involved separate out specific set of objects involved in a certain stage of the evolutionary in a certain stage of the evolutionary process.process.

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An influential version of this perspective is An influential version of this perspective is the the developmental system theorydevelopmental system theory..

It provides a powerful criticism of the gene-It provides a powerful criticism of the gene-centeredness (genes are not special or centeredness (genes are not special or unique). unique).

Genes don’t carry information, nor present a Genes don’t carry information, nor present a plan or a blueprint. plan or a blueprint.

They only provide reliable predictions about They only provide reliable predictions about the state of another organism. the state of another organism.

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Other factors must be taken into Other factors must be taken into consideration. consideration.

E.g.: The sun help tomatoes getting red. The E.g.: The sun help tomatoes getting red. The mere genetic structure of tomatoes does not mere genetic structure of tomatoes does not make them to become red.make them to become red.

Lot of factors intervenes in the development Lot of factors intervenes in the development of an organism.of an organism.

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If the multi-factors view is right, the divorce If the multi-factors view is right, the divorce between evolution and development cannot between evolution and development cannot be consumed.be consumed.

Evolution and development works together.Evolution and development works together.

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Difficulties with evolutionary explanationsDifficulties with evolutionary explanations

1.1. Adaptations vs. exaptationsAdaptations vs. exaptations

The distinction between the views that typically: The distinction between the views that typically:

(i)(i) traits of organisms evolved because they traits of organisms evolved because they serve serve some function that they can be some function that they can be seen now to seen now to promote, and promote, and

(ii) (ii) the organism put the traits to a use that is the organism put the traits to a use that is different from that which explains its different from that which explains its

selection.selection.

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Expactation isn’t just an anomaly that Expactation isn’t just an anomaly that occasionally derails. occasionally derails.

It is a feature of almost any interesting It is a feature of almost any interesting explanation.explanation.

E.g.: the mammalian lung from swim-bladders. E.g.: the mammalian lung from swim-bladders.

I.e. the mammalian lung developed gradually I.e. the mammalian lung developed gradually out of the organs that ancestral fish used to out of the organs that ancestral fish used to keep them afloat.keep them afloat.

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To evolve an organ to doing To evolve an organ to doing X X an organism an organism must start with an organ or structure that must start with an organ or structure that evolved to do evolved to do Y Y

E.g.: the giraffes’ long neck or the peacocks’ E.g.: the giraffes’ long neck or the peacocks’ tail.tail.

The neck first evolved to support the head ….The neck first evolved to support the head ….

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2.2. Organisms are integrated systemsOrganisms are integrated systems

Hence, changes to one trait will cause Hence, changes to one trait will cause correlative changes to other traits and these correlative changes to other traits and these will have positive and negative effects on will have positive and negative effects on fitness. fitness.

Even the traits that are the primary focus of Even the traits that are the primary focus of attention will have many fitness effects.attention will have many fitness effects.

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General lessonGeneral lesson

Given the problem with the multiple Given the problem with the multiple exaptations and the multiplicity of exaptations and the multiplicity of interconnections we may end up to being interconnections we may end up to being capable to give only some hints or capable to give only some hints or suggestions.suggestions.

We may be incapable to provide more than a We may be incapable to provide more than a fragment of the truth.fragment of the truth.

ModestyModesty

We may have a modest but not completely We may have a modest but not completely vacuous conception of evolutionary vacuous conception of evolutionary explanation.explanation.