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14. Ethical Issues

In Sustainabilityof Agriculture & the Environment

Larry D. Sanders

Spring 2002Dept. of Ag Economics Oklahoma State University

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INTRODUCTION Purpose:

– to understand ethical issues related to agriculture and the environment

Learning Objectives:1. To review the concept of sustainability with respect to agriculture & the environment. 2. To understand the alternative concepts of sustainability & respective criticisms.3. To understand the ethical issues related to sustainability.4. The concept of sustainability with respect to poor developing countries & the global system5. The importance of long term thinking to avoid possibly irreversible or very costly damage & loss of life6.To understand the keys to sustainable economic development.

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Spaceship Earth . . .

“We travel together, passengers on a little spaceship, dependent on its vulnerable reserves of air and soil; all committed for our safety to its’ security and peace; preserved from annihilation only by the care, the work, and, I will say, the love we give our fragile craft. We cannot maintain it half fortunate, half miserable, half confident, half despairing, half slave to the ancient enemies of man, half free in a liberation of resources undreamed of until this day. No craft, no crew can travel safely with such vast contradictions. On their resolution depends the survival of us all.”--Adlai Stevenson, 195?

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How to Boil a Frog:

“If you drop a frog in a pot of boiling water, it will of course frantically try to clamber out. But if you place it gently in a pot of tepid water and turn the heat on low, it will float there quite placidly. As the water gradually heats up, the frog will sink into a tranquil stupor, exactly like one of us in a hot bath, and before long, with a smile on its face, it will unresistingly allow itself to be boiled to death. . . . an example of the smiling-boiled-frog phenomenon, is provided by our own culture.”

--”B” in The Story of B

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Sustainable Agriculture: the Ideal “to live in harmony w/nature” or the Idea “to maintain profitable operation”?

Pre-Mechanical Revolution Farm (1940s)

Diversified family farm Relatively small

(200 ac?) Several farm

enterprises (livestock, grain, vegetables, …)

Self-sustaining, no off-farm income

Present-Day Farm (2000s) Fewer people farming more

acres fewer enterprises Many by managers, not

families Farm populations down Higher yields Capital-intensive Dependent on chemicals,

equipment, irrigation Off-farm income important

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“Sustainable” Agriculture grew out of concerns/claims with postwar US ag. . .

1. Human health & safety2. The environment3. Future availability of natural resources required for food

production4. Policies/technologies favor capital-intensive farming5. Decrease profitability of mid-sized, family farms6. Unintended consequences:

1. Polluted water2. Depleted soil/energy resources3. Habitat destruction4. Unsafe food5. Depopulated rural areas6. Concentration of capital

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Sustainable Ag as Alternative Assumes no Undesirable Consequences

Wes Jackson, New Roots for Agriculture – Ag failure part of broader spritual failure

» Dominant value: pursuit of wealth & ethic of self-interest misses basic value of land

– “Farm as food factory” vs. “Farm as hearth”

– Soil as “placenta . . . living organism . . . is now dying. . . utterly senseless, & portends our own. . .”

– “Alternative Agriculture”—perennial polyculture mimics natural prairie

– Research to support perennialism, ag ecosystem, “domestic prairies” (The Land Institute)

– Greed of conventional view vs. hearth as spiritual & technical alternative

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Sustainable Ag as Alternative Assumes no Undesirable Consequences (cont.)

Miguel Altieri & Agroecology– Peasant farmers use sophisticated mix of

crops/practices, limit risks of pests, drought, other natural disasters

– Regional variation, local adaptation w/in unique ecosystems is “agroecology”

– Scientific emphasis upon universal laws, replicability of experiments inappropriate for agriculture» Leads to elimination of sources of variability

– Farms do better when crops adapt to unique local ecosystems

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Sustainable Ag as Alternative Assumes no Undesirable Consequences (cont.)

Miguel Altieri & Agroecology (continued)– Conventional practices profitable in short run lead to

dependence upon» New science, technology» Agribusiness firms» Government support

Industrialized farming-friendly land/credit policies

Subsidized inputs (fertilizer, feed, chemicals, irrigation

Not internalizing environmental costs to society

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Sustainable Ag as Alternative Assumes no Undesirable Consequences (cont.)

Miguel Altieri & Agroecology (continued)– Agroecology protects family farms– Industrial agriculture serves needs of scientists &

agribusiness, not farmers– Research needed to meet local conditions of specific

farms

Note from TMR: Marxist overtones in rejecting need for introduced capital in production process

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Sustainable Ag as Alternative Assumes no Undesirable Consequences (cont.)

The “Standard View”– Most involved in “Sustainable Agriculture”

movement not as systematic as Jackson, Altieri in criticism

– More pragmatic management perspective of “what works”

– Based on concept that exploitation of natural resources must be sustainable (consider threshold levels)

– Empirical facts don’t consider sustainable judgments– Need for land, farms, farm families, rural

communities, banks, government to sustain certain farm systems w/o disintegration/ collapse

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Sustainability Concept & the Questions Continue to Evolve . . . (continued)

“ . . .sustainable development . . . meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” 1987, Brundtland Commission

Which empirical views “right”?– Global Warming?

– Conservation tillage?

– Carbon sequestration?

– Hazardous waste management?

– Biodiversity?

The cost of “right” decision vs. “wrong” decision– Economic restructuring/loss vs. irreversibility

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Sustainability Concept & the Questions Continue to Evolve . . . (continued)

R. Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) dire predictions of unsustainability w/chemical future vs. chemical company claims & later scientific studies

Economic development to sustain poor/hungry masses (“make the pie bigger”) vs. claims of over-population (Ehrlich, “spaceship Earth”), natural resource shortages (Meadows) & environmental catastrophe– Western, North, Developed, Industrialized, Wealthy countries vs.

Eastern, Southern, Less Developed, Peasant, Poor countries

– Progress & growth & development = Good & right?

– Growth is relative, qualitative, sometimes inappropriate?

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Sustainability Concept & the Questions Continue to Evolve . . . (continued)

Goodwin challenges GNP as appropriate measure of well-being– Measures wealth, not distributional equity

– Masks moral issues

– Utilitarian efficiency concept doesn’t answer critical questions (morality? Current vs. future generations? Impacts on nature?)

Technological Fix & unlimited substitutability (J. Simon) concepts allow optimistic view of exploitation of nature

Goodin, Beckerman-Daly essays challenge w/questions of “irreplaceability” & “irreversibility”; Should we trust the market & technology to always have a solution?

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Sustainability Concept & the Questions Continue to Evolve . . . (continued)

Time factor & who’s deciding are critical– Human life spans necessarily relevant (even if

anthropocentric)– Sustainability/alternative proponents (technological

pessimists) may be wrong in next 50-100 years, but right in next 100-300 years

» Is that relevant? (“so far, so good”)

– “Tragedy of the Commons” vs. the “tyranny of private greed” challenges extremes of public social control & privatization

» Open access externality vs. property rights

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Sustainability Concept & the Questions Continue to Evolve . . . (continued)

VP: How to make sustainability concept an evaluation criterion?– What can be sustained vs. what ought to be sustained

» Beckerman: because both fused together, “hopelessly blurred”, but need to answer both questions

– Clarify what counts as relevant practice.– Should the “maximizing assumption” be discarded

» Shiva: incompatible w/sustainability

» Instrumental vs. intrinsic value

– “Wrong jungle” vs. success of progress

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TMR: Is sustainability the “right” criterion to evaluate agriculture?

If “Yes”--Historic examples: Babylon (irrigation fails); Chaco (over-population/weather change); Africa (desertification)

If “No—too strong”: some sustainable goals met while others violated– Example: Conservation tillage may cut soil erosion, but added

use of chemicals may pollute environment, have lower profits

If “No—too weak”: doesn’t provide evaluative criterion for choices including ethical issues (“normative concept masquerading as a descriptive one”)

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TMR: Evaluating Alternative Agriculture (not sustainable ag)

Alternative Ag attempts to:– Reduce use of purchased synthetic chemical inputs– Include such farm practices as

» Crop rotations

» Integrated pest management

» Low-intensity animal production systems

» Tillage/planting practices to conserve soil/water & control weeds

– Promotes diversified, multi-enterprise farming– Promotes ag research needed to develop effective

alternative ag practices

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Some Anticipated Ethical Issues w/Alternative Agriculture

Costs to consumers?– Food costs may increase– Distribution questions

Food security threatened? Land value changes?

– Increased: could accelerate concentration– Decreased: could reduce wealth base for farmers

More labor in agriculture?– Lower income in rural communities?

More livestock on farms?– Competition with wildlife?

More regulation?– Limits choices?

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Sustainable Agriculture Adapted by Commercial Agriculture . . .

“An integrated system of plant & animal production practices having a site specific application that will, over the long term: satisfy human food & fiber needs; enhance environmental quality & the natural resource base upon which the agricultural economy depends; make the most efficient use of nonrenewable resources and on-farm resources and integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles & controls; sustain the economic viability of farm farm operation; and enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.”

--The Food, Agriculture, Conservation, & Trade Act of 1990

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Sustainable Development—USDAGuiding Principles (2000):

Sustainable Ag—USDA supports economic, environmental, & social sustainability of diverse food, fiber, agriculture, forest, & range systems.

Sustainable Forestry—USDA balances the goals of improved production & profitability, stewardship of natural resources & ecological systems, and enhancement of the vitality of rural communities.

Sustainable Rural Community Development—USDA integrates these goals into its policies and programs, particularly through interagency collaboration, partnerships and outreach.

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Imperatives for Sustainable Systems

Economy (efficiency)

Individual/ Community (cohesion)

Environment (maintain/ enhance)

From S. Hackett

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Sustainability:

Normative standard/social goal Vision of the future Iroquois Confederation

– Evaluate decisions based on well-being of tribe 7 generations into future

More inclusive/comprehensive view of economic development/well-being

Whatever it takes to maintain the lives & livelihoods of people in the system

From S. Hackett

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Sustainability as an Ethical Standard

Individualism vs. interdependence Need buy-in by key participants Crosses disciplines Concept of “multifunctionality” for

sustaining farms and the environment

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Energy Trends--Sustainable?(1990-2000 annual growth rates)

Wind Power (22%) Solar (16%) Geothermal (4%) Oil Production (2%) Hydro Power (2%) Nuclear Power (1%) Coal (0%) 0

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30

40

50

60

70

1950

1970

1990

WORLDOIL PRO-DUCTION(mil.bls)

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Exponential Growth: the 29th Day

“A French riddle for children illustrates another aspect of exponential growth--the apparent suddenness with which it approaches a fixed limit. Suppose you own a pond on which a water lily is growing. The lily plant doubles in size each day. If the lily were allowed to grow unchecked, it would completely cover the pond in 30 days, choking off other forms of life in the water. For a long time the lily plant seems small, & so you decide not to worry about cutting it back until it covers half the pond. On what day will that be? On the 29th day, of course. You have one day to save your pond.” (D. Meadows et al, 1972)

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Exponential Growth & Doubling Time

Growth Rate (%) Doubling Time (yrs)

0.1 700

0.5 140

1.0 70

4.0 18

7.0 10

10.0 7

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Energy Reserves--Past Predictions

Meadows et al estimates of selected nonrenewable resource reserves, static vs. exponential (1972):– Natural Gas--38-22 years– Petroleum--31-20 years– Coal--2300-111 years

What did Meadows overlook or underestimate?

time1992 1994 2083

OILNATURAL GAS

COAL

Reserves

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Energy--Policy & Environment to achieve sustainability National Energy Strategy How to achieve MCs = MBp?

– Market Pollution Permits– Per unit Pollution Taxes– Liability & Bonding Systems

for Large Stationary Polluters

– Fuel Taxes, Options & Impacts

– Research & Development

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Agrarian Evolution & Long Term Thinking

Process of agricultural evolution has led to a small percentage of large farms producing most of sales in US– displaced farm labor has moved into non-ag sector

either in rural communities becoming more diversified or moving to urban areas

Agricultural evolution in developing countries more rapid, more disruptive, more destructive & harmful – 40-50% world population lives in urban slums

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Urban/environmental pressures increasing

Low-income countries face water shortages, water pollution, air pollution, minimal shelter shortages, transportation stresses

Industrialization that is needed to uplift economies will result in greater stresses on environment & natural resource base

1.2-1.3 billion in absolute poverty 2/3 of world population live on less than $2/day

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“Market Myopia”?

Biased w/short term perspective Discount rates favor present & devalue long

term Tend to under-value cultural/social costs

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Poor Countries less efficient in energy use, thus more wasteful & polluting

Developed (relatively wealthy) countries have decreased CO2/GDP$ emissions 50% in past 30 years

Low-income countries produce about 5x more emissions/GDP$ than rich countries

Example:

1. US co2 emissions/person: 24x India

2. US co2 emissions/GDP$: 1/3 of India levels

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Poor Countries’ access to clean air/water result in severe health problems

Over 1 billion people don’t have access to safe drinking water

2 billion don’t have adequate sanitation High rates of illness/disabilities

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Economic Development Argument

Raise people out of poverty Lower fertility rates Increase use of cleaner, less resource-intensive

technologies Often destructive to culture More sustainable?

– No guarantee that technology will keep up– tendency for multinational corporate exploitation– failures of empowerment often occur (especially

w/women), leading to dependency, injustice, corruption, more exploitation, political destabilization

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Income Distribution increasingly skewed

Wealthiest 20% of world population accounts for 83% of world income

Poorest 20% account for 1.4% of world income

Gap has more than doubled since 1960 US: Top 1% have as much after tax income

as bottom 100 million people (60%+)

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Arguments for failure of sustainable environmental systems Rural poor living in fragile ecosystems Ineffective property rights/lack of enforcement Concentration of power/lack of accountability

(especially w/multinationals, & non-democratic governments)

Trade in waste/toxics Trade agreements that weaken environmental

protection

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Arguments for failure of sustainable environmental systems (continued)

Political power controlling; lack of public access Government/corporate control of news media Market has a short term perspective Tax incentives distort environment/natural

resource management Lack of leadership in fostering ethical vision of

sustainability Cultural dysfunction may lead to social problems

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Alternatives that may lead to sustainable global situation

Disaster(s) cause rapid reduction in population? Government intervention?

– incentives– command & control– “new world order”

Free Market may work? Multinationals take over?

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Sustainable Economic Development (ch. 13 Hackett)

Broadens the traditional view of economic development to include social & environmental factors

Traditional economic development:– focus on income growth (real per-capita income)

– sometimes also addresses distributional issues

– tends to favor large-scale projects

– aid thru technical/financial assistance, & loans

Sustainable development:– income growth -- local needs-based

– education --family planning

– environmental regulations -- ecotourism

– information access/empowerment

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Alternate Theories in Sustainable Economic Development

Weak Form “Technological fix”;

substitution ok Limitations

– weak on protecting environment

Strong Form Natural capital is

unique; substitution won’t work

Limitations– ignores new

technology & substitution concept

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Alternate Theories in Sustainable Economic Development (continued)

Weak Form Arguments favoring

– Less Costly in short-to-mid-term

Policy Implications– counterbalancing effects

– environmental mitigation

Strong Form Arguments favoring

– Uncertainty

– Irreversibility

– Scale (threshold effects, etc.)

Policy Implications– safe minimum

standards

– preservation

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“Hard Path” vs. “Soft Path”

“Hard Path”– dependence on nonrenewable fossil fuels (&

polluting energy/production systems)– regional/national energy grids

“Soft Path”– government intervention to more efficient energy,

renewable & less-polluting energy/production sources

– decentralized energy production (local & home-based)

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Soft Path Alternative Energy Sources

Solar Biomass Wind Hydrogen Methane Ocean waves

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The Challenge for Sustainable Production Technology

Create firm-level profit opportunities Provide similar goods/services or alternative that

fill similar needs Be not much more expensive than conventional

alternative Educate producers/consumers on need for

change Maintain competitiveness in the market

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Product Life-cycle Analysis

Evaluation of environmental & natural resource impacts of products/services throughout lifecycle from extraction, production, marketing/distribution, use & disposal

European method for waste management policy– responsibility for disposal of aluminum cans is with

the company that is selling the product in aluminum cans (Coke, Pepsi, etc.)

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Government Intervention Options

EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility) Programs (life cycling)

Tax/subsidize Eco-labelling Standards Fund research/development Education

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References

Altieri, M. Agroecology: The Scientific Basis of Alternative Agriculture, Westview Press, Boulder, 1987.

Ehrlich, P. & R. Harriman. How to be a Survivor: A Plan to Save Spaceship Earth, Ballantine Books, New York, 1971.

Hackett, S., Environmental & Natural Resources Economics, M.E. Sharpe, 1998.

Jackson, W. New Roots for Agriculture, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 1985.

Quinn, D. The Story of B, Bantam Books, New York, 1996. Sanders’ notes TMR UN World Commission on Environment & Development, “Our

Common Future” (Brundtland Report), 1987. VP

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Something to think about . . .

“ Parents, teach your children. Children, teach your parents. Teachers, teach your pupils. Pupils, teach your teachers.

“Vision is the river, and we who have changed are the flood.

“ . . . The world will not be saved by old minds with new programs. If the world is saved, it will be saved by new minds—with no programs.”

--Jared Osborne in The Story of B