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Cover photos

1. Photo Unesco/Paul Almasy2. Photo UNATIONS3. Photo Unesco/D. Bahrman4. Photo rights reserved

Science and Technology Education

Document Series No. 22

Leisure, Valuesand Biology Teaching

Alan J. PritchardDean J. Buckland

Division of ScienceTechnical and Environmental

E d u c a t i o n

ED-86/WS/102 UNESCO

PREFACE

The document series has been initiated as part of Unesco's Scienceand Technology Education Programme to encourage an internationalexchange of ideas and information on science and technology education.This is further intended to develop greater awareness and betterunderstanding of the nature of science and technology and their role ina changing society by improving and extending their teaching to in andout of school education. The present volume as part of the "Biology ahdHuman Welfare" theme was produced under the auspices of the Commissionfor Biological Education of the International Union of BiologicalSciences (CBE - IUBS) under contract with Unesco. Mr. A. J. Pritchardand Mr. D. J. Buckland, both of the Department of Education, TheUniversity, Southampton are the joint authors of this book. The origi-nal drawings were done by Mr. D. J. Buckland. The opinions expressed inthe following pages are those of the authors and not necessarily thoseof Unesco.

CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE

Chapter 1 Science, Education and Values 1

Chapter 2 Animals, Plants and Man 17

Chapter 3 Aesthetics 27

Chapter 4 Sport 47

Bibliography 59

CHAPTER 1

SCIENCE EDUCATION AND VALUES

Sir Ernest Chain (1970), the Nobel Laureate asserted when writingabout science and society that 'As long as it limits itself to the des-criptive study of the Laws of Nature, science has no moral or ethicalquality'. Such a view of science as an activity insulated from societyand associated with the disinterested pursuit of truth has, it has beensuggested (Kuhn, 1970) enabled scientists to concentrate on problems oftheir own choosing and ones which they felt that they could solve. LordBullock (1976) the historian in addressing the Association for ScienceEducation in Britain described science as 'the greatest intellectualand cultural achievement of modern man'. Robert Oppenheimer's chillingdescription of research on the hydrogen bomb as 'technically sweet', aphrase which for him embraced considerations such as accuracy, preci-sion, problem-solving capacity, breadth of scope, elegance and truth isreflective of the intellectual aspects of science Lord Bullock refersto, together with the descriptive study of nature Sir Ernest Chain hadin mind in his discussion. However Lord Bullock goes on to describescience as 'a humane study deeply concerned with man and society, pro-viding scope for imagination and compassion as well as for observationand analysis'. Such a view as this emphasises that science is not acultural or value free activity, no more than it is simply materialis-tic and unconcerned with aesthetics. Science is seen by many, however,as being only concerned, to use Bronowski's words (1960), in taking therainbow to pieces rather than putting it together, in turning the beau-ty of a flower or the movement of a wild animal into a cold and intel-lectual mathematical formula. Bronowski in his fascinating discussionof science and the growth of civilisation (The Ascent of Man, 1973)gives numerous examples of science as a humanity in which judgements ofvalue, goodness, beauty, right conduct and freedom of ideas are absolu-tely essential concerns.

However a view of science emphasising only the cognitiveaspects and denying the affective context has significantly influen-ced thinking about science teaching. Klopfer (1976) argues that theaims predominantly associated with school science are cognitive onessuch as knowledge and understanding of scientific laws,and skill indesigning and carrying out experimental investigations. This mayhave been reinforced in recent years, particularly in the Englishspeaking world, with curriculum reforms attempting to develop rigo-rous enquiry style methods of science teaching more reflective ofresearch science. Layton (1986) has argued that the opposition toschool science as a subject in the nineteenth century was on thegrounds that it emphasised 'intellectual training debasing scienceeducation to the acquisition of technique without regard for its

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human significance'. It was seen to be a dehumanising activity andso had no place in an education whose prime function was moral Hegoes on to suggest that the objectives of science education have notchanged significantly since that time in many parts of the world.

The preposition on which the ideas presented in this book isbased that science is not value free, and importantly cannot betaught in a value free way. Teaching science inevitably involvesvalue messages for instance in the management of the curriculum (e.g.science can be presented as physics, chemistry and biology or asrural science, or domestic science or as environmental science eachof these involving different value judgements) and the particularselection of knowledge which is included in the curriculum (e.g.breathing and circulation are conventionally taught in a biology pro-gramme in such a way as to emphasise anatomy and physiology relatedto the preparatory needs of future medical students. Much interestingbiology is excluded in this way - if one was concerned with theneeds of a future sportsman or woman the approach would be substan-tially different - see later section of sport). Layton (1976) givesan interesting example of the significance of context and values inpresenting 'objective scientific facts' in the case of Linus Paulingand Edward Teller, two distinguished scientists in the U.S.A., ' eachreported the same experimental results on the predicted effects ofradioactive fall-out. Pauling expressed his conclusion as the absolu-te number of deaths likely to occur. Teller, in contrast, gave theexpected shortening of average life expectancy compared to theshortening due to smoking'. It is important in science teaching torecognise that the selection of content and contextual presentation arepowerful infleunces on the images of science presented.

In many parts of the world today there is a concern about therole science education may play in establishing a sense of personaland social identity for a student. Implicit in this concern is therecognition of

(a) the powerful social, economic and cultural impact ofcontemporary science world wide;

(b) the importance of the process, ideas and products ofscience to individual citizens irrespective of theirparticular role and status in society; and

(c) the urgent need to harness science tohuman welfare.

This has been expressed by Edward Rugumayo (1984) in discussingscience education and the needs of developing countries as follows "……the challenge is thrown at science eductors to carry outinnovations into new methods of science education, taking intoaccount work done elsewhere in the world, and incorporating this intotheir own home produced approaches. But for them to be successful,science educators in developing countries have to make their sciencerelevant, practical, and problem-oriented, and in the processproduce persons who have the creativity to apply acquired knowledge

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Table 1 Attitudes, Skills and Knowledge for Biological Education

Attitudes

Respect for living organismsAppreciation of the complexity of biological systemsCautiousnesstowards disturing balances in biological systemsOpen-minded approach to problems and their solutionAwareness of the nature of biological informationRespect for the methods of scientific investigationAppreciation of the limitation of science and respect for other

forms of knowledgeRecognition that social problems even those that are science-

related, cannot be solved by scientific means alone

Skills

Ability to grow and propagate common plantsAbility to maintain domestic animals in a healthy,humane mannerAbility to use basic laboratory tools and apparatus safelyAbility to carryout small biological investigations individually

and co-operativelyHonesty and integrity in the conduct and reporting of an

investigationAbility to apply biological knowledge to everyday situations,

including decision-makingAbility to recognize when a problem is a scientific one and can be

solved by scientific means

Knowledge

Cellular unity of living organismsStructure and function of cells and their inclusionsFamiliarity with the diversity of living organismsAwareness of the major groups of animals and plantsPopulation and distribution of organisms in selected ecosystemsConcepts of ecological balance and problems of pollution, con-

servation and recyclingEnergy conversion in ecological systemsBiology of selected animals and plants including life histories,

life processes and adaptationsBiology of micro-organisms development of biotechnologyHuman biology structure and function of organ systems man in

evolutionary perspective man as a social animal, includingissues of health and population impact of human activityon the environment

Continuity and change in life through the study of evolution andgenetics

Redrawn from Jennings A., J. of Biol. Ed. (1983) 17 (4)

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to new situations, the competence to get things done, the curiosity todiscover and understand the world around them; and the compassion toput science education to humane needs". Baez (1984) in discussingissues of science, environment, education and basic human needs identi-fies survival needs such as food, shelter, health and safety, develop-ment needs such as education and employment, and perceived needs suchas wealth, security and growth. He notes that all these are in someform or other dependent upon the physical environment in which we live.However he goes further in his identification of basic human needsmaking the point that .... 'Man does not live by bread alone. His needsgo beyond the purely physical and include such things as leisure timeand the human qualities of respect, care and affection. Deprived ofthese a person may languish as surely as if he were deprived of foodand water'.

If science education is to play an effective role in helping har-ness science to human needs, then the science educator will need to payattention not only to those needs Baez describes as survival, develop-ment and perceived, but also to the satisfaction of human needs in theaffective domain. There is considerable literature on the cognitiveaspects of science education, but very little on the affective, parti-cularly in relation to the role of science in the education of thewhole person. When one looks at the general aims of biology programmes,the affective dimension on the other hand is often represented.Jennings (1983) in discussing the place of biology in the curriculumand its role in the education of the individual argues that the respec-tability of school biology as a scientific study was hard earned andthe rigour and precision of modern biology make it important forschools to sustain the scientific process dimension to the biology cur-riculum. However he adds that the key issue is that while retainingthis scientific biology curriculum it is necessary to extend it adequa-tely along a human social dimension. He presents an interesting distil-lation of objectives associated with biology programmes in which heidentifies affective as well as cognitive aspects (Table 1, see nextpage).

Kelly (1980) has pointed out the importance of seeing biologicaleducation in relation to meeting individual and social needs when hesaid:

'It is one of the greatest challenges to biological education toformulate a biosocial synthesis in a way that gives it credibilityand a rightful place in the curriculum'.

The affective dimension of biological education has often beenmore effectively developed in terms of translating affective aimsinto effective teaching strategies when biological science has beenplaced in a broader curiculum context such as that of environmentaleducation, health education or personal and social education. Theperception of the relevance of biological processes and concepts tothe individual has in such programmes been sharpened by the need tolook more at the whole education of the person and so individual andsocial need rather than deriving teaching programmes solely based onthe internal logic of the subject. Environmental education pro-grammes for instance often focus upon issues which involve scienti-fic knowledge within a framework of social values and aesthetic

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personal life, through their community, culture and environment. Insuch contxts as these it has been necessary to explore teaching strate-gies which go beyond the cognitive and give scope for affective deve-lopment. Tones (1981) in discussing this aspect of health educationsuggests that the options open to teachers are as in Figure 1, options1 to 4 are likely to be strategies familiar to science teachers, and 5- 8 options less likely to be found in science teaching programmes.

Figure 1 Teaching Options - Redrawn from Tones, K. (1981)Affective Education and Health.

It is when options 5 - 8 are attempted to be implemented in scien-ce programmes that the values context of the cognitive processes startsto be recognised creating problems for the teachers role in relation toimparting particular sets of values. Teachers may not wish to imposetheir own values, or those of a particular class or culture in the com-munity. A particular approach that has been used by teachers takingthis attitude has been that of value clarification. Simon (1972) hasdefined value clarification as involving a hierarchy of seven sub-pro-cesses:

PRIZING 1. Prizing and cherishing.2. Publicly affirming, when appropriate.3. Choosing from alternatives.

CHOOSING 4. Choosing after consideration of consequences. 5. Choosing freely.

ACTING 6. Acting.7. Acting with a pattern, couristency and

repetition.

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Cognitive

1.Provision of facts and information

2.Promotion of understanding

3.Development or modification of beliefs

4.Development ofdecision-makingcompetence

Affective

5.Exploration andclarification of values

6.Development of approved values.

7.Changing ofundesirablevalues andattitudes

Action

8.Developingskills and routines.

judgements - e.g. planning and conservation issues. The aims of pro-grammes in Environmental education overlap those of pure science pro-grammes, but are often more loaded with aims associated with sensitivi-ty, awareness, enjoyment, personal attitudes, social skills, aestheticjudgements and personal satisfaction. This can be seen if one comparesthe aims set out in Table I with those elaborated in the EducationReport of the U.K. Council for Environment Education in response to theWorld Conservation Strategy (Baines, 1983) in Table II.

Table II Aims of Environment Education

(a) create sensitivity to and awareness of the total environment;

(b) help develop a basic understanding of the toal environment and theinterrelationships between humans and the environment so that theymay more easily appreciate why conservation is fundamental tohuman survivaland well-being;

(c) help develop the skills to investigate the environment and toidentify and solve actual and potential environmental problems;

(d) promote the acquisition of strong feelings of concern for theenvironment;

(e) help people identify alternative approaches and make informaldecisions about the environment based on all the relevant factors- ecological,political, economic, social and aesthetic;

(f) motivate people to participate actively in environmental improve-ment and protection and to provide people with opportunities to beactively involved in working towards the resolution of environmen-tal problems;

(g) help people appreciate and enjoy their environment.

*********

Similarly Health Education programmes focus on issues (e.g. drugs,smoking, nutrition, fitness, sex) which not only involve an importantcognitive base but also values and attitudes, in such a way as todemand teaching strategies which require a shift in emphais from thecognitive to the affective compared to conventional approaches.

Both environmental and health education approaches includescience, and in particular biology, in such ways as to point out therelevance of science to (a) cultural, social, economic andpolitical issues and (b) to the individual's personal developmentin particular in aiming to produce well adjusted, rationalindividuals who can relate and feel, and gain satisfaction in their

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Although such an approach is problematic and by no means value-free, it has been supported as a useful tool when teaching responsi-bility. Goodlett (1976) suggests, for instance, that 'In order tomake personally satisfying and socially responsible decisions (children) must have a good understanding of self; what one values;what society values; the valuing process; the effects of peer pressu-re; risk taking behaviours; the strategies used in making decisions;the necessary information, and the ability to identify alternativesand the consequences of behaviour'. He suggests that value clarifica-tion can be effected through a procedure such as the following:

1. Encounter a problem.

2. Seek help and gather information.

3. Know what you want and be honest with yourself regarding yourvalues and feelings.

4. Look before you leap.

5. Write down all your alternatives and identify the consequences forand against - of each.

6. Anticipate the reaction of others.

7. Choose one alternative after weighing up your values.

8. Try it out on someone.

9. Accept the consequences.

10. Evaluate your decision.

Approaches such as environmental and health education not only havedeveloped teaching strategies somewhat different than those found intraditional science courses, but such approaches also require teachersto see science, as part of a whole, in a whole curriculum perspective.The U.K. Association for Science Education in a discussion paper onPlanning for Science in the Curriculum (1985) has argued that a broadbalanced science curriculum should be seen within the context of abroad balanced general education and that each teacher should be awareof the total package that is being prepared for and offered to the stu-dents. It is further argued that 'Learning experiences should beconstructed so as to take account of student's needs and not only theentry requirements of the profession and higher education or the per-ceived needs of the nation. Students have to be helped to developtheirown identities so that they can become autonomous learners and decisionmakers and feel a sense of confidence and success in their personalrelationships'. This does not necessarily mean that the traditionalsubjects are not an appropriate way in which to organise teaching, butit does mean that there should be co-ordination across the curriculum.Figure 2 (page 9) illustrates a possible managerial technique for orga-nising such co-ordination within a school, and could be extended to aregion or group of school.

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Figure 2 An Organisational Framework Using CurriculumCo-ordinators and Heads of Subjects

(Redrawn from ASE, Planning for Science in the Curriculum, 1983)

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Perhaps in such a way we may be able to see means though which scienceeducation can contribute not only to man's physical needs but also tothose such as leisure and human qualities of respect, care and affec-tion that Baez has pointed to (Baez, 1984).

An interesting model for the curriculum has been developed by Blackand Harrison (1985). They were particularly concerned with the rela-tionship between science and technology in the school curriculum andthe development of 'capability' in children. The curriculum model theyelaborated claims that the curriculum as a whole ought to be planned toserve the conjunction and interplay of two types of activities -Resource activities and Task activities. Resource activities are thosefound in the conventional school subjects. Task activities cut acrosstraditional subject boundaries. The model assumes that Task andResource interact in both ways, Tasks motivate and stimulate Resourcestudies as well as depending on and drawing on them. The model, illus-trated in Figure 3 below, only reflects those areas relevant to theauthor's immediate concern, in their paper, with Science andTechnology. However if one looks at other school subjects (e.g. physi-cal education) and other types of tasks (e.g. team work, decisionmaking) and other capabilities (e.g. personal awareness, social skills,empathy with the natural world) it is possible to see how such a modelcan apply very widely across the curriculum, and identify how the'Resources' of science can relate to such other tasks and outcomes.

Figure 3 A Model for the Curriculum

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Redrawn from Black and Harrison (1985) In Place of Confusion

Biology teaching seen in this way can be developed to contribute tolinguistic, mathematical, scientific, personal, aesthetic and physicaldevelopment, rather than at times actually inhibit or even conflictwith some of these development aims. When teaching physiology for ins-tance through experiment and dissection the imperative of an isolatedscientific approach, can produce teaching that discourages aesthetic,personal and social development to the detriment of both the individualand of science. The aims of biology teaching when placed alongsidethose of other curriculum areas such as Art and Physical Education canbe seen to be often complementary for instance. Allison (1986) in dis-cussing Art education suggests that among the aims of art and designeducation are:-

- the development of perceptual skills leading to a sensitivity tovisual qualities;

- the development of bases for informal aesthetic judgement; personaland community;

- the ability to value and meaningfully experience the cultural heri-tage of a society past and present.

and Renshaw (1972) lists as aims of physical education:-

- physical fitness and health

- neuro-muscular skills

- motor sensitivity and competence

- social adjustment through group activities

- moral socialisation

- motional stability

- positive attitudes towards physical activity (and future leisureuse).

A whole curriculum perspective which sets the aims of biological educa-tion alongside those of other curriculum areas can be a helpful basisfor the development of teaching strategies that can help achieve allthe curriculum aims.

An effective science education will be one that is placed in avalues context and contributes to the education of the whole indivi-dual. Science and in particular biology teaching has affective aimswhich are essential contexts for the cognitive aims. Science teachingin a whole curriculum perspective can be effectively organised and leadto a useful rethinking of the purpose of science programmes for indivi-duals especially at the Upper Secondary level where, increasingly, thenumber of students who will go on to professional or technical levelcareers in science, technology or related fields is limited (Unesco,1980).

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If one uses such a framework to explore the wider aspects of biolo-gy teching related to human needs, not only does this lead to ideas ofTasks using the local environment, and putting science investigationsinto asocial and economic context, but also, just as importantly, Taskswhich relate the biology to deeper personal needs. Such needs as rela-ting to others, understanding oneself, relating to the natural world.

Biology is the science that explores life forms, and as such, notonly extends our knowledge and understanding of the natural world,including ourselves,but can also increase our sensitivity, enjoymentand concern for the natural world. Plants, animals and the human formhave inspired all world cultures in many ways, for instance in litera-ture and particularly in art (See Figure 4 below and Figure 5 on page13), but also in science. Biology should not be seenas a cold, insensi-tive activity but one which must demand a developing empathy with thenatural world. Julain Huxley, a famous scientist, and also firstDirector General of UNESCO could sense no distinction between art andnature in this respect, he wrote:

'The witnessing of wild life on a grand scale can give a sense notonly of privilege but also of wonder and deep emotion. To see largeanimals going about their natural business in their own naturalway, assured and unafraid, is one of the most exciting and movingexperiences in the world, comparable with the sight of a noblebuilding or the hearing of a great symphany or mass. A processionalfrieze of antelopes moving across the African horizon rivals anytheatrical spectacle'. (UNESCO, 1973)

Figure 4 A Drawing of a Stucco Panel of Flower a n d Leaf Motif6th Century A.D.

This panel (about 102 x 103 cm) is one of many that decorated the hugehall of the 6th Century A.D. place at Ctesiphon near Baghdad. Thispalace was to assert great infleunce on the development of Islamicarchitecture and decoration and is illustrative of the influence ofplant forms on Islamic decorations.

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Figure 5 Wen Chenp-ming,Seven Juniper Trees,1532. Ming DynastyDrawing of Detailof Handscroll Inkon Paper

(Drawn from copyby D. Buckland)

Note for Figure 5

Wen Cheng-ming developed a highly personal style especially in pain-tings of juniper trees, symbols of vitality in old age, and much morebesides. The scroll, from which a detail is illustrated here, has aninscription referring to the trees as 'flawless idols, spirits infini-te' that 'hallow the Palace of the Stars, attendants subservient toHeaven's majesty'. It is illustrative of how plants influenced form inChinese painting.

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The World Conservation Strategy embodies Huxley's feeling for thenatural world together witha 'scientific' analysis of man's impact-

'Human beings in their quest for economic development and enjoymentof the riches of nature, must come to terms with the reality ofresource limitation and the carrying capacities of ecosystenis, andmust take account of the needs of future generations. This is themessage of conservation. For if the object of development is toprovide for social and economic welfare, the object of conservationis to ensure Earth's capacity to sustain developmentand to support all life'. (World Conservation Strategy)

Social and economic welfare involves an enhanced quality of life forthe individual that is not only materially better but also enable indi-viduals to enjoy deeper satisfaction in their personal lives throughtheir communities, culture and environment. Education has obviouslymuch to contribute to this, science and especially biology have parti-cular contributions to make to values in education related to the deve-lopment of personal autonomy. Biology teaching offers the possibilityof considering the values and choices involved in a considerable rangeof environmental and personal issues, but given the limitations of timeand their own competence a biology teacher may need to select a moremodest notion of possible outcomes. Figure 6 (page 16) gives a usefulframework for thinking through such outcomes. The following Chaptershave taken three themes Plants and Animals, Sport and Aesthetics asways of exploring practical teaching strategies that could be developedin either biology or science programmes, in order to put some of theconventional biology taught into a more affective and personally rele-vant context.Each theme assumes a whole curriculum perspective for bio-logy as discussed earlier in this Chapter.

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Figure 6 Matrix of Perspectives and Elements for ConsideringValue-Related Aspects of the Curriculum

Redrawn from Tomlinson and Quinton - Values Across the Curriculum, 1986.

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CHAPTER 2

PLANTS, ANIMALS AND MAN

The shaping process of evolution has woven a pattern in time andspace which is man's natural history. Anthropologists have, sinceDarwins' day sought to trace out the detail of this complex pattern andprocess. To do this properly requires an ecological approach the evol-ving populations of human beings and their ancestors need to be seen intheir total environment. The struggle for adaptation and survival isengendered by the interaction between the biological needs of the orga-nism and the stresses of the physical and organic environment. Weiner(1971) has argued that the intense never ending ecological interactionis 'responsible for the natural history of man and ultimately his tech-nological and cultural history also. For the intensity of the strugglewith the environment will force man at last to a self-conscious aware-ness of his situation in nature; with this realisation will begin thatquest for reconciliation with natural forces and the control of theworld and human society which emerges as religion, philosophy, techno-logy and science'. He identifies four ecological stages in human evo-luation from anthropoid origin:

(a) the 'break out' from the restricted anthropoid arboreal andforest covered environment;

(b) the emergence of a terrestrial hunting mode of life in a warmsunny terrain;

(c) an epoch of enormous ecological expansion and population diffe-rentiation in which a wide variety of habitats was successfullycolonised; and

(d) the epoch of deliberate control and modification of the envi-ronment, beginning with the manipulation of primary foodsources, plant and animal, and ending with the man made urbani-sed habitat and energy-harnessed machine systems of the presentday.

Weiner goes on to suggest that the ecological challenge of thefuture is 'the achievement of that social self-control that will ensurethe survival of a secure and harmonious world society.

In exploring man's relationship with the natural world duringthe current epoch we need to see man's cultural evolutionwithin an 'ecological' context. Our manipulation of plant andanimals has not only been related to our physical needs but alsoto our evolving psychological needs. Histories of all humancultures illustrate relationships with nature that show concern

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for and pleasure in plants, animals and landscapes. Such considerationsas these are important elements of that 'science and harmonious worldsociety'. Weiner and others look forward to, and essential issues forbiology teachers to take into account when considering science educa-tion.

Anthony Huxley, the botanist, argues that all human cultures haveseen plants as objects of beauty and important symbols e.g. the Madonnalily being a Christian symbol of the Virgin and of purity the recurringtheme of a cross dividing a garden scene into four parts - representingthe cosmic cross - in Persian Carpets and many gardens designs. He sug-gests that the biblical story of the Garden of Eden expresses a univer-sal characteristic of humanity - the love of natural beauty. 'From theAssyrian "Tree of Life" to the Greek Acauthus columns, from the Minoanfrescoes of lilies to the lotus of the east, our architecture, arts,artefacts and poetry all reflect the deep impression which flowers andfoliage make on human consciousness. Such appreciation is a luxury, yetgiven freedom from want and a little leisure, we are all gardeners atheart'. (Huxley, 1984)

The first gardens which were decorative were found in Egypt around1500 B.C. although the plants were grown for food or building mate-rials,but not long afterwards purely decorative plants such as thewater-lily were included. Gardens of old civilisation includedNebuchadnerzzar's Hanging Gardens of Babylon, and the 'hunting garden'of Assyria and Babylon. The Chinese and Japanese, stylised and symbolicgardens originated with the first Chinese gardens in the 4th CenturyB.C. while in India water enclosures included trees, and flowers asdecorative features.

The Renaissance in Europe increased interest in gardens andplants generally with that the development of large landscaped park-lands planted with species collected from many other parts of theworld. The domestication of plants for pleasure started in earnest atthis time with what were probably originally medicinal plants becomingused ornamentally e.g. the Day lily (H e m e r o c a l l i s); and the SyrianMallow (Hibiscus syriacus). Botonical Gardens were the places whereplants were first collected and exchanged (Pisa, 1543 and Padua, 1545)and such gardens today are immensely important throughout the world asplaces where plant life is conserved. The 17th Century saw the deve-lopment of Nursery Gardens in Europe, and the search for more varie-ties of potentially ornamental plants. At first new types depended onnew discoveries of wild flowers and mutation of existing known spe-cies. Pronounced mutation such as the doubling of flowers (Dahilias,Crysanthemus and Paeonis) or colour changes (Poppies) were those firstsought after. Later attempts were made at deliberate breeding, many ofthese were unsuccessful until the science of genetics developed lea-ding to today's more precise breeding techniques. Knowledge of vegeta-tive reproduction enabled what had been rare examples of plants tobecome common cultivators, available to a much greater number ofpeople whether for garden or especially with increased urbanisation ashouse plants. In the contemporary world gardens and houseplantsoften provide sanctuaries for species threatened-with extinction bythe removal of many species original habitats. The Monterey Pine,

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the Flame Tree, the Phillipine Jade Vine, the Maiden Hair Tree(Ginglco) are rarely seen in the wild, Primula sinensis and Malus spec-tabilis only exist in cultivation, and Orchids and African Violets,popular houseplants in the Northern Hemisphere are fast disappearing inthe wild with the removal of rain forests in the tropical parts of theworld.

The Chinese, early devotees of the beauty of individual flowershave a proverb, Huxley (1984) quotes when discussing the importance offlowers to man, 'If you have two pennies left in the world buy a loafof bread with one and a lily with the other'. Man has intervened in thenatural world of plants to select and enhance the beauty of individualplants and the planted landscape, today we can apply our science tosuch purposes and so in Bronowslu's words not only 'take the rainbow topieces', but also put it together again. Cultivation of plants and gar-dening are important aspects of civilised human life throughout theworld.

Man has not only sought to manipulate the world of plants, butalso that of animals, and again not simply for utilitarian reasons.Konrad Lorenz the famous ethologist has written much about the human -animal bond, and the significance of animals to human beings. He wrote'The wish to keep an animal usually arises from a general longing for abond with nature. It seems like a re-establishment of the immediatebond with that unconscious omniscience that we call nature'. The parti-cular ways in which the relationships between man and animals is mani-fested is obviously related to different cultural contexts. Serpell(1985) reporting on cross-cultural attitudes to the domestic dog arguedthat human beings have a natural tendency to form close, affectionaterelationships with companiable species such as dogs. However this ten-dency interferes with the need in some context to exploit the same ani-mals for less pleasant economic purposes. In those cultures where thisis necessary he noted that conflict was avoided by keeping dogs, atleast in emotional terms, at a distance. Figure 7 (page 20) refers toexamples of cultures with largely affectionate attitudes to dogs andFigure 8 (page 20 ) to those in which attitudes vary according tocontext.

Many domestic animals, especially pet animals, have been selectedand domesticated by man. However it is argued that some, notably thedomestic cat, were not chosen by man, but that the cat 'chose' to livewith man and is, in Lorenz's terms, 'self-domesticated' ( Leyhausen,1985). Although the concept of self-domestication is controversial (seeGehlen 1962 and Portmann 1951), it is true that the behaviour of diffe-rent groups of domesticated animals does follow patterns that coincidewith the 'domesticated', 'self-domestication' analysis. Cats, for ins-tance, establish very complex neighbourhood systems and are also ableto adopt a very great variety of social systems depending on climateand other environmental conditions, and perhaps, population diffe-rences. This is a useful adaptive feature when cats go feral - howeverother domesticated animals such as dogs (and horses) revert to the kindof social system peculiar to their wild ancestors, often a rathersimplified version of it, usually in situations - such as inurban and semi urban areas (e.g. pariah dogs in India) where

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Figure 7 Cultures with Predominantly AffectionateAttitudes to Dogs

Redrawn from Serpel (1985)

Figure 8 Cultures in which Attitudes to Dogs vary Accordingto Context

Redrawn from Serpel (1985)

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such behaviour is less adaptive and causes ecological imbalance. Suchbehavioural characteristics are important in considering man's respon-sibility to domestic, and other animals.

Livestock breeding is one of man's great achievements, the numberof domestic animals kept by man has continually increased, togetherwith the variety of breeds. However partly because of this and otherpressures on land use, whole populations of animals in unspoilt natureare now under threat, and when we talk about man animal-relations weneed to take both this into account and the industrialisation of animalhusbandry, particularly that of poultry and cattle. The threat to theexistence of large mammal populations is particularly serious inAfrica. Marzrui (1986) has argued that many African belief systemsinclude animistic tendencies which attribute a soul to natural objectsand blur the distinction between Man and nature. He suggests that indi-genous African culture permitted and even promoted a good deal ofliving together of human beings and animals, so allowing co-habitationand co-pasturing of wild life and man and his domestic animals. Withthe advent of modern technology such co-habitation was replaced by asegregation of human-beings and their livestock on the one hand andwild beasts on the other - he uses the phrase ecological apartheid todescribe the human consequences of this in modern Africa - a form ofseparation of man from nature.

In many parts of the world urbanisation means that most of theworld's population are also divorced from any contact with the husban-dry of those animals and plants which form the essential components oftheir diet. This must raise very serious questions about how societiescan deal with the ethical issues of man's stewardship of nature. Formany people contact with the plants and animals is very limited, publicparks and gardens, houseplants and pet animals (cats, dogs, birds,fish) are the main experiences of other living things formany urbandwellers, with zoos, nature reserves and museums as potential sourcesof contact depending upon local facilities. If the message of conserva-tion implicit in the work of the World Wildlife Fund and theInternational Union for the Conservation of Nature is to get across,then it is necessary at the school level to explore ways in which wemay use and extend chilren's experience of the living world to increasetheir sensitivity and enjoyment of living things in order to lead to anenhanced sense of responsibility towards, and empathy with, nature:Peter Kelly has argued that 'Society as a whole must acquire a deepersense of the reality of nature - of animals, of the environment, and ofpeople'. He argues that the potential for empathy with animals, forinstance, lies unfulfilled in most people and that education can play amajor role in developing this potential. Schools and places of non-for-mal education (zoos, museums, field study centres) can do much to fos-ter this. The keeping of pets, studies of animal behaviour, ecologicalstudies in the field - properly treated can place biological science inits proper affective context and help foster an awareness of man's res-ponsibility to the natural world through personal enjoyment and satis-faction in the living things being studied. In doing this it is notnecessary to omit the quantitative and experimental aspects of science- but to use these to wider ends.

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Pet animals can be a very useful focus for study in school sciencecourses. There are many issues that could be studied, but for instance,nutrition and feeding behaviour, breeding and genetics, territorial andsocial behaviour are some of the traditional areas of biology that lendthemselves to be studied through pet animals. Children can study thefeeding preferences of pet dogs and/or cats this can involve the scien-ce processes of observation, inferring and hypothesising. It can alsorequire the students to explore the animals behaviour from, as it were,the animals point of view - and help consider their feelings and atti-tudes to the animal, and so lead on to larger value considerations. Avariety of teaching/learning situations can be developed in such astudy. Figure 9 (page 23) gives a summary of possible aspects of suchan approach. It would be possible to contrast this with the ecologicalstudy of a wild animal. One way in which this has been approached in anEnglish context is shown in Figure 10 (page 24) where a piece of popu-lar literature - Tarka the Otter - is used as context for an ecologicalexploration of the otter. In this case the others behaviour is viewedwith the sort of biological empathy that Kelly suggests we should pro-mote.

Where zoos - or nature reserves, are available there is muchwork that can be done that can allow children to develop enjoymentof animals, awareness of issues of conservation and scientificskills and understanding. A visit to a zoo or nature reserve, linkedto work in the school can be used for instance to develop in youngchildren the science process of skills of observation, hypothesisingand inferring, as well as encourage communication through group work.By focussing on the animals needs, it is possible to enable the chil-dren to react spontaneously to the animals they are taken to see,asking first their own questions, and then using these as a basis forsharpening and developing their observations in relation to questionsof each animals needs. Questions concerning how much space the animalneeds, what food and when and does the animal need special conditionsfor breeding can provide a 'scientific' context to concern for animalwelfare. A meeting with zoo keepers or game wardens describing the sortof activities each day's work involves them in could be helpful in fur-thering the values aspect of the children's work. Follow up work tosuch a visit can develop the science process and cognitive dimension ofthe work with objectives such as: to construct inferences based on aset of observations; to demonstrate that more than one inference can bedevised from the same set of observations and to recognise that infe-rences are tentative and liable to refutation. This should be developedin the same context of concern for satisfying the animals needs - thismay be done in relation, for instance, to the amount of space needed bythe animal. The children will have already recorded observations fromtheir visit, and conversation with the zoo keeper or game warden. Auseful technique is to devise small cartoon drawings of situations theyhave seen with some guide comments on the situation e.g. it could betwo children observing a large mammal and commenting on (a) the food iteats and (b) the enclosure. The cartoon can then be followed by ques-tions on (i) what did they observe? (ii) what inferences did they make?(iii) which observations supported these inferences? and (iv) think of

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Figure 9 An example of the possible aspects involved in astudy of animal feeding behaviour

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Tarka ran over the bullocks drinking-place andpassed through the willows to the meadow, see-king old dry grasses and mosses under the haw-thorns growing by the mill-leat,1 and gatheringthem in her mouth with wool pulled from theoverarching blackberry brambles whose prickleshad caught the fleeces of sheep. She returned tothe river bank and swam with her webbed hind-feet to the oak tree, climbed to the barky lip ofthe holt2 and climbed within. Two yards insideshe strewed her burden on the wood-dust anddeparted by water for the dry sandcoloured reedsof the old summer's growth which she bit off ,frequently pausing to listen. After several jour-neys she sought trout by cruising under wateralong the bank, and roach which she found bystirring up the sand and stones of the shallowwhereon they lurked. The whistles of the dogotter were sometimes answered, but so anxiouswas she to finish making the couch in the hollowtree that she left off feeding while still hungry,and ran over the water meadow to an inland pondfor the floss3 of the reed maces which grewthere. On the way she surprised a young rabbit,

Tarka the OtterFig.lO shows an extract from Tarka the Otter byHenry Williamson. Read the passage carefully andanswer the questions below:1 Copy out Table 1 and list the plants and animalsmentioned in the passage in the correct columnsaccording to their type of feeding.2 Draw a food chain including an otter.3 Copy out and complete the food web in Fig. 5which is based on the animals mentioned in the pas-sage.4 (a) Name 3 materials that Tarka was collecting.Why was she collecting these materials?(b) Where was Tarka building her den?(c) What is the correct name for an otter's den?5 The region where an animal lives is called its habi-tat.(a) Can you remember what animals need from theirhabitat?(b) Describe the habitat of an otter.(c) Pick two other animals mentioned in the passageand describe their habitats.6 Explain why Tarka, like ail otters, was such a goodswimmer.

killing it with two bites behind the car, and tearingthe skin in her haste to feed. Later in the night a bad-ger found the head and feet and skin as he lumberedafter slugs and worms, and chewed them up.

Whistling to her mate, she swam to the high-archedbridge up-river and hid among sticks and branches.Here he found her, and as he scrambled up she slip-ped into the river and swam under the arch. meetinghim nose-to-nose in a maze of bubbles. They playedfor half an hour, turning on their backs with sidewayssweeps of rudders and never touching, although theirnoses at each swirling encounter were but a fewinches apart. It was an old game they played, and itgave them delight and made them hungry so theywent hunting for frogs and eels in a ditch which drai-ned the water-meadow.

From Tarka the Otter by Henry Williamson.

Notes1 mill-leat: water channel to the mill2 holt: otter's den3 floss: soft. silky fibres

Feeding types (from 'Tarka the Otter')

A food web from 'Tarka the Otter'

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Figure 10 An extract from Tarka the Otter byHenry Williamson

Tarka the Otter

LUXTON, D. (1986) Biology in Action. Blackie.

some more inferences you could make. Literature concerning the animalsstudied could then be used - in a similar way to the Tarka the Otterextract quoted earlier - as a basis for further study, particularly ofthe ecological context of the animals. This could be a potentially veryrewarding way of working where the animals studied are in their wildstate in the region and the literature drawn upon (whether in writtenor spoken form) is local.

Parks can be used in similar ways to zoos - but with plants, and smal-ler animals, especially fish and invertebrates - it is possible to cul-tivate them on the school grounds. Obviously genetics, photosynthesis,plant physiology, and plant/animal interactions contain much that isrelevant to effective gardening and cultivation of individual plants.The development of the school gronds with the objective of encouragingpupils to enjoy the process of plant cultivation and see the sciencethey are taught as relevant to this is possible. The chapter onAesthetics gives some teaching ideas also in this respect.

Resources available for engaging children through their science educa-tion with the living world in such a way as to develop a respect andenjoyment of life will obviously vary from region to region. Zoos,botanical gardens, public parks, pets, nature reserves, school gardenand aquaria are all potential resources. In some places these resourcesare well developed in others almost non-existent. The World WilflifeFund and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature initia-ted in 1975 an International Education Project. This project has produ-ced many resources and ideas appropriate for use in school science pro-grammes wishing to develop in children a care for the living world.Mobile education units have been developed for use in many countriese.g. the Gambia, Senegal, Zambia, Uganda and Indonesia. However incor-porating into biology teaching an approach which helps develop in chil-dren a sense of wonder and enjoyment of other life forms - leading to asense of responsibility for the natural world is as dependent upon theattitudes of biology teachers as it is upon resources.

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CHAPTER 3

AESTHETICS

Far too often today when children are asked about science and bio-logy the images they conjure up are of test tubes, bunsen burners, andnumerous other instruments which may be used in a science laboratory.The impression children, and many adults, have of science is very muchdominated by such images, with science and scientists being seen bymost as unapproachable and cold. Science is seen to have very little todo with them and their immediate surroundings. As discussed in Chapter1 science eduction needs to develop in ways which can change suchimages. One way in which change may be brought about is to approachbiology/science with a consideration of the aesthetic appreciate of thenatural world. In other words to use art, in its many forms, as a wayof enhancing-children's appreciation of living things. In such a waythe children will be able to experience a biology that is both humanis-tic and not divorced from their everyday experiences.

Science today, as with all school subjects, needs to become moreintegrated within the school Curriculum. There should be a greaterdegree of co-operation between subject areas within the school, withstaff from as many disciplines as possible being responsible for thepreparation of work for the children. Consideration of an art contextin science may be seen in one of two ways, either the overall aim is toteach science through art or vica versa, i.e. art through science.Hopefully in a school with close interdepartmental links both aims willbe achieved. (See the discussion in Chapter 1.)

In starting to think about art and its usefulness in the biologylaboratory some ideas of how conventional topics may be introduced ormade more interesting to some children, through a painting or drawingsculpture or a piece of architecture, may start to emerge. Howeverthere is a less direct approach to stimulating interest in childrenthrough art other than incorporating it formally into biology lessons.The use of posters, paintings, drawings, and models etc. to make thelearning environment (the classroom) as interesting as possible shouldnot be underestimated. The various parts do not have to be labelledon every drawing and the 'art' within the laboratory could be produ-ced by the children as well as include reproductions of more profes-sional artists. If there is for example an aquarium or vivariumwithin the laboratory one could ask the children to design and painta background for the animals. This may of course extend to art workbeing built up all around the animals and lead to an impressive 'picture' of the natural habitat. Work of this nature will involvethe children thinking and asking about what sort of plants andanimals they need to paint in their background, what the conditions

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are like for the animals in their natural surroundings and other rela-ted features. This can then lead on to many other biological considera-tions about the organisms.

Art, culture and religion have always been closely linked throughoutthe world. Within each culture and religion, animals and plants haveplayed an important role in inspiring creative art. The art and archi-tecture of all the major world cultures has utilised life forms asobjects of beauty and inspiration. A few examples of this are shown inthe following figures 11 - 17.

Figure 11 The Fates, from the East Pediment of the Parthenonc 438 - 431 BC. Marble.

One of a group of figures called the Fates. Greek sculptors realisedthat drapery running counter to the direction of the body could indica-te movement as well as form.

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Figure 12 Parthenon frieze (detail) 447 - 432 BC

The frieze depicts the Great Panathenaia, the most important Athenianreligious festival celebrated in July every fourth year with a greatprocession from the city to the Parthenon. The technical problemsinvolved in the naturalistic representation of men and animals in move-ment, with one overlapping the other, have been completely masteredeven when complicated, as they were here, by optical distortions due tothe siting. The spectator's angle of vision, looking up from the colon-nade, had to be taken into account and compensation made for it in thecarving.

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Figure 13 Discobolus, imperial Roman copy

Several Roman versions survive of a lost Discobolusor discus thrower by Myron of Eleutherae.

Figure 14 Anhrodite of Cnidus, imperial Roman copy

There are 49 surviving copies of Praxiteles' mostfamous statue, that ofAphrodite (whom the Romans called Venus) carved for the city of Cnidus on thecoast of Asia Minor.Surprising as it may seem, in view of the innumerablenude male statues, theAphrodite of Cnidus is the first completely nudefemale in ancientGreek sculpture.

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Figure 15 Flying Horse from Wu-wei, eastern Han dynasty,2nd century AD. Bronze.

This bronze 'flying horse' found at Wu-wei in Kansu is perfectly balan-ced on the one hoof which rests without pressure on a flying swallow,it is a masterpiece of three dimensional form and of animal portraiturewith the head vividly expressing mettlesome rigour. The horse beongs infact, to the 'celestial' or 'bloodsweating' breed which had been intro-duced into China from Ferghana in central Asia about 100 BC and becamea kind of status symbol.

Figure 16 Minoan Vase, 1900 - 1700 BC.

Plants became important to manyearly civilisations both as symbolsand ornamentation. The Minoans inCrete were great devotees of floraldecoration as demonstrated by thisunique vase or crater, from the per-iod 1900 - 1700 BC. Instead of thehabitual painting on clay the flo-wers are three dimensional.

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Figure 17 Stele of Diet, from Abydos, c. 3000 BC. Limestone.

The stele from the tomb of Djet the 'Serpent King', one of the earlymonarchs of the first dynasty of Ancient Egypt is entirely symbolic. Itconsists simply of a crisply carved falcon for the god Horus, incarna-ted in the person of the king, a serpent as the king's name-sign, andthe facade of a building, presumably his royal palace.

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What relevance has this for the teaching of biology? Firstly weshould consider what we mean by art and consequently have some idea asto what biology may then become applicable. Art may be divided into anumber of areas, each of which may be seen as being of importance indifferent biological topics or approaches to a topic. Figure 18 showsone way in which 'art' may be classified.

Figure 18 One possible was of classifvinR art. Each world culture willhave its own examples within each area,Of how life forms have influenced its development.

Architecture

Arts du spectacle Sculpture

ARTCinematography and

Music Theatre et photographie

Song Dance Paintings andDrawings

Craftse.g. needlework, pottery etc

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The performing arts as classified above can be used in biology tea-ching in a number of ways. Firstly there are a number of links with theconsideration of biology and sport. The science of movement and fitnessare areas where certain aspects of the performing arts, dance in parti-cular, overlap. A more obscure relationship with the arts may be thestudy of singing in terms of the production of soundby the vocal cords.This may lead to an examination of breathing techniques, for example,when considering operatic training, and consequently to the conventio-nal biological topics of breathing and circulation. Alternatively itmay very well lead to teaching about sound waves, frequency and so on.Thus the potential for an integrated science approach also becomesapparent.

Probably the most obvious relationship between art and the scien-ce laboratorywould be its use in introducing or illustrating particu-lar topics. For instance, sexual reproduction in plants may be ini-tially introduced with a look at paintings, architecture and potterywhich feature flowers from within the culture background of the chil-dren. Those plants chosen should be picked for their beauty as wellas for their anatomical detail.

One area where paintings and drawings would be very useful in thiscontext would be in the study of ecology. The enormous variety oforganisms and their habitats may be illustrated in this way. A sui-table painting or drawing may led the children into an activity wherethey are asked to draw, paint or photograph various habitats withintheir surroundings. The emphasis here, initally at least, is on theart and the considerable personal satisfaction which may be gainedfrom such a close look at the landscape, rather than the biologybehind it. Other ecological aspects could be approached in a similarway. Paintings or photographs of aspects of rain forest (Figure 19,page 34) may lead to a discussion of organisms interdependance and tofood chains and webs. Similarly a painting or photograph of a tigerwithin a grassland setting might be the introduction into the topicsof camouflage and predator/prey relationships. (Figure 20, page 35) Thescope for the use of illustrations in this way is very wide indeed andwill depend on the imagination of the teacher concerned more than any-thing else.

Anatomical studies throughout the history of plant and animalbiology have always relied heavily on detailed and very often beauti-fully coloured paintings and drawings. Some knowledge of the structu-re and function of a subject is thought to improve the artistsinterpretation. One of the Western worlds most famous artists andscientists, Leonardo da Vinci produced detailed and accurate drawingsof the human anatomy, Figure 21, page 36.

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Figure 19 Golden lion tamarin, now on verge of extinction.Photo - World Wildlife Fund

The total area on which the future of these monkeys and indeed that ofthe entire South Eastern Brazilian flora and fauna depends, certainlydoes not exceed 500,000 ha. An understanding of the ecology of suchanimals is vital to any hopes of their surviving in the wild even tothe turn of the century.

(World Wildlife Fund Year Book 1980 - 81 and Red Data Book 1988.

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Figure 20 India's Project Tiger

India's Project Tiger backed by WWF/IUCN has been remarkably success-ful. Numbers in the tiger reserves have doubled over the past 10 years,while other wild life has increased proportionately and vegetation isregenerating through the removal of domestic cattle.

(World Wildlife Fund Year Book 1980/81)

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Figure 21 Studs of the arm and shoulder muscles.Leonardo da Vinci.

The artists of the Italian Renaissance brought about a return to a'scientific' vision of anatomy. The artist who, above all others, per-sonified the return to objective and intense investigation of humananatomy was Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519)(Human Anatomy for the Artist, 1981)

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Other examples include the work of the 18th century British pain-ter Stubbs, whose paintings of horses in particular show a detailedanatomical knowledge. The world famous statues of the ancient Greeksalso illustrate a quite profound knowledge of human anatomy possessedby the sculptors. Figure 22, below.

Figure 22 Statue of a Kouros from Anavysos, Greece 540 - 515 BC

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Cultures throughout world history have produced sculpture thatcould only have come about through an intimate knowledge of the under-lying structures of the body and in the case of Greco/Roman art adegree of familiarity with its dynamics as well.

The artist then needs some 'knowledge' of his subject to improvehis interpretation although this may not be apparent in his finalresult. The early Egyptians for instance may have possessed a greatdeal of knowledge concerning human structure but chose to ignore it inthe interests of simplicity in order to clarify the stories oftencontained in their works of art.

Many biologists have been attracted to the study of biologythrough an enjoyment of drawing biological specimens purely from anon-scientific view point and not always because it may lead to a grea-ter insight into how pollination is achieved or how the forelimb of ahorse operates. Throughout my scientific/biological education theopportunities to relax and draw a natural form has always given meimmense pleasure and I am sure has contributed to my continued interestin the natural world around me. It seems to me that this aspect ofscience education is sometimes forgotten and its role in developing anappreciation and caring responsible attitude in children thereforeneglected. After all biology has a lot to offer to the artist in acreative way. Light and electron microscopy have given us an insightinto a whole new world of fascinating structures of great beauty. Theworld is made bigger for the artist through science and technology. Soapart from this idea that painting nature for pleasure is important forchildren, the 'artists' creativity may be stimulated by such things asmicroscopy, dissection and so on.

When teaching biology in an art context it is probably wise tochoose a limited number of biological areas within a syllabus ratherthan to try and incorporate 'art' into everything one attempts in theclassroom. An area that is probably well suited in this respect is thatwhich in a biology syllabus may be labelled senses and perception.Categories such as Photography, cinematography, Painting/Drawing andSculpture may be used as starting points for such a consideration. Thismay then progress on to an examination of sense organs, the brain andother parts of the nervous system, and where the biology occurs in anintegrated science approach, colour and the behaviour of light (refrac-tion/reflection). Figure 23 (page 39) shows one simple investigationwhich may be used when examining the behaviour of light.

If we now explore this idea of increasing children's aestheticappreciation of the natural world we can start to develop activitieswhich will involve children in decision making and problem solvingon the grounds of both aesthetic and biological considerations. Anexample of a task which would incorporate these considerations wouldbe to ask the children to design a garden or a fish pond or moreambitiously even a nature trail. Their final result would be a com-promise between what is aesthetically pleasing and biologically pos-sible. Along the way the children would experience their ownproblems and recognise their need for biological knowledge andscientific skills. In such a design, problem solving activity the

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Figure 23 Disappearing coin. (Redrawn from Nuffield Secondary Science. Theme 5. Extension of Sense Perception,1971)

One example of an activity which may arise from an introduction intoperception and the senses through an art context. A coin is placed in asink filled with water, and the observer stands in a position where thecoin is just visible over the edge ofthe sink. The sink stopper isremoved and the coin disappears from view as the water level falls.

children may be required to use drawings and paintings as a preliminaryactivity having firstly looked at photographs and paintings of gardensor fish ponds or having visited such sites. The initial activities thenwill be orientated to art and the aesthetics of the project.

In such projects the design considerations may be as shown in Figure 24(page 40) and will relate firstly to aesthetic and then to the biologi-cal implications.

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Figure 24 Design/Aesthetic Considerations

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From these design/aesthetic considerations a number of biologi-cal/scientific problems will arise. For instance if we consider thedesign a fish pond project and look at the size, shape and depth pro-blems we can immediately begin to see the biology apparent. (Figure 25,page 42) The children will of course need guidance at this point, someof the ideas may be new to them but not all. The idea that light isnecessary for plant growth for instance is something that childrenaccept long before any classroom consideration of photosynthesis.

Of course these are but a few of the possible areas to considerand the design of a pond or garden will also be influenced by problemsof upkeep and maintenance. For example Learning out algal blooms fromthe pond will require easy access, as will collection of any fruitgrown in the garden or pruning necessary. The pond itself must be madesafe to prevent anyone falling in and so on. There are a number ofareas then that will need discussion, not least the financial side ofthings. One such aspect of the project may involve the children in asimple costing exercise of their final design, perhaps prior to itsactual construction. This gives ample opportunity for a cross curriculaapproach to such a unit fo work and its development in a variety ofsubject areas.

Classroom activities which may be used could involve the childrenin completing a worksheet on the colour and form of plants they haveavailable for their garden. An example of this type of worksheet isshown in Figure 26 page 43.

Activities as shown in Figure 26 may lead on to a look at whatconditions each plant needs e.g. what soil, how much water, light etc.The children may then have to come to a decision which takes intoconsideration the look of their flower border and whether the flowersthey wish to grow together will grow successfully.

This is just one example of how this type of approach may be usedwith children. Similar activities with trees and shrubs may be used andthen become the starting point for more biological/ scientific orienta-ted activities.

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Figure 25 The biological considerations in deciding thesize, depth and shape of a fish pond

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Figure 26 Example of a worksheet to be used in the classroom.Actual specimens would not be necessary, photographs,coloured drawings or paintings would be acceptable asan alternative.

Worksheet Al

Activity: Deciding which flowers to use

Using the plants or photographs available to you complete the fol-lowing tasks.

(a) Complete the drawings below.

(b) Colour your drawings to show the colours of the flowers and theleaves.

PLANT (A) (B) (C) (D)

(c) How many different colours are there?

(d) How many different leaf shapes are there?

(e) On the squared paper provided show how you would arrange theplants (you may wish to leave out some of the plants avai-lable).

(f) Should the drawings show the roots?

(g) Can you suggest any reasons why knowing the height of each typeof plant is important?

(h) Are there any other things to think about before you decidewhere to put each plant type?

Discuss your answers in your group and with your teacher. After-wards you may wish to redesign your original flower border.

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Figure 27 Worksheet A2 - Accompanying Worksheet A1

Flower Border 1 square represents 1 flower

There are 4 flower types

Flower Border

Flower Border

To summarise this approach it must be said that the usefulness ofany teaching strategy will depend on the teachers ability to assesswhat will benefit the children he or she is teaching. How successfulthese ideas are will of course depend on this factor above all else. Itdoes however reflect what I see as being the overall aims of scienceteaching. These are that:

(a) children develop with an aesthetic appreciation of the natu-ral world, and that this leads to

(b) a more responsible and caring attitude to their envi-ronment, and

(c) a realisation that science is not a cold alien subject butis humanistic in its approach.

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Finally, in developing some of these ideas it is important to reiteratethe need for departmental co-operation which should not be restrictedto just the biology or science and art department but should whereverpossible include other subject areas e.g. mathematics, craft and desi-gn, economics and so on.

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CHAPTER 4

SPORT

Using sport as a vehicle for introducing basic biological conceptscan be a valuable teaching strategy. However a sport approach to tea-ching should not be seen narrowly as a means of only developing biolo-gical knowledge and understanding but just as importantly as a way ofdeveloping knowledge and understanding of science as a whole includingthe process of science. Indeed many aspects of biology can only beeffectively studied within an integrated or co-ordinated sciencecontext. Such an approach needs to be properly integrated, that is, theelements of physics and chemistry present in any consideration of sportscience should be incorporated into the teaching programme. Perhaps itwould be useful to consider the idea of integrated science and sportrather than simply the idea of biology in sport. In a discussion ofteaching relationships between science and sport Hawkey, (1981), sug-gests for instance that Newton's Laws of Motion may be introduced witha consideration of how various balls act in various sports. He takesthe example of a penalty kick being taken in soccer and rebounding offthe goalkeeper to a defender who then stops the ball. He goes on toexplain, "Newton's first law is in action here. An object at rest staysat rest (ball on spot) until a force acts on it (kicked). Once movingan object travels in a straight line (towards goal) until a force actson it (goal keeper). It then moves in a straight line again (rebound)until a further force brings it to rest (defender)". A useful exampleto consider also is that of the analysis of movement. For example theprinciples of levers may be presented in consideration of how the bodymoves in sport. The conventional biology involved; that is the idea ofskeletal and muscle interaction and the action of antagonistic musclepairs together with the traditional physical science involved, levers,can be presented in a biological and sport context. First, second andthird order levers can be demonstrated in this way. (See Figure 28,page 47 )

The usefullness of an approach to science and more specificallybiology, through sport can be justified in a number of ways. First andmost importantly using sport as a vehicle for teaching approach is oneway to stimulate interest and enthusiasm in biological science. Theimportance of sport to many children is often obvious. Their contactwith a variety of sports both within and outside school either as par-ticipants or spectators ensures that the children are likely to befamiliar with and interested in such an approach. Their experience ofand familiarity and success with sport can also provide them with adegree of self confidence and security in such biology lessons.

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1st order levers are themost efficient, but are rarein human limbs. An exampleis the ankle.

The foot also provides a | >2nd order lever: stand> ingon tip-toe.

3rd order levers are themost common in the body.Lifting the forearm is anexample.

Figure 28 First, Second and Third Order Levers as Demonstrated in the Movement of the Human Body

Of equal importance is the idea that science education as awhole should be made more relevant whenever possible. A theoreticalor academic approach to biology works for very few pupils and forthe majority any science taught in this way can soon be seen asboring and irrelevant and may remain just as 'classroom knowledge'.Using sport as a starting point can be a useful way of stimulatingthe children into an appreciation of the relevance to them of scien-ce. The presentation of a problem which confronts the pupils them-selves on the sports field or one which may confront a well knownsportsperson can be used in the classroom as the basis for startingwork on a biological topic. With guidance from the teacher the rele-vance of biological knowledge in order to solve such a problemcan become apparent to the children. In such a way the pupils may

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be encouraged to see the importance of studying areas such as physiolo-gy, diet and nutrition as relevant to serving their own needs andinterests. Once the need to know and understand is accepted as relevantto the learner's own concerns the teachers job becomes much easier.

In order to ensure that as many children as possible benefit fromsuch teaching approaches 'sport' taught through science or sciencethrough sport can be approached in two ways. First those children whoactively participate in sport need to be considered. Here the aim maybe to improve performance in the sport or just as importantly increaseenjoyment. Secondly it must be remembered that many children are notparticipants and their interest may be largely or even only as specta-tors. For these children the aim must be to increase their appreciationof their favoured sport together with the enjoyment gained. For bothgroups the justification lies in the improvement of children's health,both mental and physical and also in the development of various socialskills. A knowledge of biological science can increase the pleasuregained from sport in both approaches.

Before a more detailed look at how strategies may be developed forthe classroom it is important to stress that a degree of co-operationbetween subject areas in a school would be desirable in the developmentof this kind of teaching. This should be seen as part of the develop-ment of thinking about the education of the whole person. The perhapsobvious link between biology, or science, and physical education isjust one example of this, but other school subjects could and should beinvolved. One example would be the involvement of the geography orhumanities department with the science and sport departments in aconsideration of orienteering.

Conventional topics taught in any biology course may be introducedthrough a sport science approach. With an emphasis on personal fitnesssome of the topics given below could be appropriately taught usingsport as a vehicle.

1. Breathing and Circulation

2. Respiration

3. Digestion

4. Nutrition and Diet

5. Nervous and Endocrine systems

6. Anatomy and Support

7. Growth and Development

Analysing sport into a number of categories can help to demonstra-te how specific biological concepts and knowledge can be introducedthrough various sports. (See Figure 29, page 49)

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Figure 29 A Consideration of the Possible Categories of SportHelps us to consider the Science/Biologv we may wish toteach through such an Approach

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Classification of Sports

1 COMBAT2 TARGET3 AEROFOIL4 MECHANICAL5 WHEELED6 WATER7 BALL

8 TEAM9 COURT10 RACKET11 HORSE12 WINTER13 JUMPING14 ATHLETIC

(Redrawn from Hawkey, 1981)

Of course in grouping sport in such a way one is not just concer-ned with providing a basis for the development of the biological educa-tion of pupils but also other aspects of their more general educationas well. For example if one of our categories is team sports then wemay wish to develop social skills and impress the importance ofthesesports in children's overall development.

When considering one of these categories in more detail the biolo-gy science involved becomes more obvious, see Figure 30.

Figure 30 A Closer Look at the Category of Athletics, inParticular Track Athletics

The diagram above is by no means exhaustive and concentrates on biolo-gical topics. The sub-categories within athletics i.e. throwing andother jumping events probably best suit a more physical science approach.

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There are a number of strategies that may be developed with thisapproach that can involve a sport as being the sole vehicle for theteaching of biological concepts or as a continual reference point asthe concepts reappear as a particular science course progresses. It maybe that the best way to use a sport and biology unit for work, is todecide which is the main concept within a particular sport and teachthis through this sport. For instance, respiration may be seen as beingthe important topic area in a consideration of athletics,and perhapslocomotion and skeletal structure in a unit of work on horse racing.

The approach taken with a class of children when using this sportcontext will obviously be dependent on the age and ability of the chi-dren involved. With this in mind any teaching strategies developedshould be as flexible as possible and involve a broad teaching resourcebase. Potential resource material will be discussed later. Let us nowconsider possible strategies.

How much of a biology or science course is taught in this contextmust be dependent on the teacher and the level of interest shown by thechildren. It may be as little as one or two weeks in the teaching of aparticular topic, or it may be substantially greater than that, possi-bly taking the form of a project, lasting perhaps a whole term.

One such project type approach, which is presented here as anexample of a possible teaching strategy, is through the study of thetopic of fitness. A possible initial task might be to ask the childrento fill in a questionnaire about their own fitness and their own levelof exercise. Figure 31 is one example of such a questionnaire. (Seepage S2) The questionnaire may be used also at a later date when thechildren may be asked to survey their friends or family. From such anactivity discussion can lead in a number of directions. One such direc-tion may be to see if the results obtained give a true indication offitness. The idea of how to measure fitness can be discussed and fromthis it is easy to see how major biological concepts can be introducedand seen to be of importance. Figure 32 (page 53) shows some of thepathways which may be explored by the children with guidance from theteacher.

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Figure 31 Example of a Questionnaire Concerned with Fitness

FITNESS AND EXERCISE

11 12 13 14 15 16 M FAge Sex

Which of the following activities do you do at present?

Everyday Once a week Now and again

Soccer

Swimming

Cycling

Running

Table Tennis

Long Walks

Dancing

Housework

Do you belong to a club or team?

Yes No Not sure

Do you think you exercise enough?

Why do you exercise?

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Figure 32 Possible Starting Points Leading from an Initial Questionnaire on Fitness. Each Area mav be Consideredas an Individual Unit of Work Within the Fitness Project.As such, a Variety of Strategies and Resources should be used Depending on the Unit. In each there is AdequateScope for all ages and abilities and for an InterDisciplinarv Approach

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It is what is involved in being fit and how it is achieved andmeasured that is of particular importance here. At this stage, perhapsa formal talk or discussion with a sportsperson about their fitness andtraining and how they assess their fitness and performance could beuseful. This may then lead to a series of activities tried by the chil-dren in order for them to assess their own fitness. It is at this stagethat quantitative and qualitative results can be introduced and thebiological knowledge related to ideas of fitness may be seen to berelevant.

By taking a general topic such as fitness there is a freedom tochoose which sport or sports are of most relevance in each schoolcontext. Such a topic can also be seen in the more general context ofhealth, rather than run the risk of losing the interest of some of theless sport orientated pupils.

The potential teaching resources are many and their use varied.Some of these resources are described below.

1. Video/Film

The use of a video or film may be seen in a number of ways.For instance, they could be used as part of an introduction parti-cularly useful when the topic is being presented as a project unitof work. Alternatively various aspects of sport could be shown in aseries of short five minute films or videos with the idea of basingindividual pieces of work on such aspects. Examples might be ashort film following a soccer player as he moves around the field.How long does he spend sprinting? jogging? walking? standing still?and so on. These may be the sort of questions to ask, which maylead into the general topic of fitness. A similar piece of film ofa gymnast may be the introduction into a look at balance and therole of sense organs and the brain in sporting activities.

2. Slides and Photographs

Here again this visual material may be seen as fulfillingthe same roles as above, and, of course, is often more easilyaccessible where resources are limited. Photographs from newspapersand magazines may be useful materal in this respect. Similarly itmay be useful with low achievers especially, allowing the childrento produce their own slides, photographs and drawings. These may beproduced within class based units of work on visits to varioussport related venues. This type of visual material could then bepresented in the form of posters or worksheets produced by thechildren on sport and fitness or any other area within the topic.In a similar way as mentioned above photographs and/or drawings ofathletes participating in the javelin or shot put may introduce theconcept of levers, forces, pivots and so on. This will then providethe teacher with a starting point for a consideration of how thehuman skeleton operates.

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3. Field Work

This may involve similar measuring and recording activities of howthe body reacts during various activities. For instance this may invol-ve measuring pulse rates, length of stride, changes in body temperatu-re, breathing rate, rate of recovery and so on. It may also involveinterviewing sports personalities trainers, groundstaff, sports equip-ment manufacturers etc. One example would be to interview a marathonrunner to find out how he or she prepares for a race not only in termsof training but also in terms of what food they eat before a race, andwhy? Do they have to use feeding stations? What are they replacing? andso on. These questions may be answered partially through a field workapproach and then expanded and fully explored back in the classroom andon the school sports field.

4. Formal Lectures and Talks

These may be given by the teacher or a guest speaker with a par-ticular expertise or knowledge. For example, someone from a companyproducing tennis balls or athletics tracks may talk on how their pro-duct is manufactured and tested. This may lead to the children testingtheir own track, trying to produce a faster surface to run on. It mayalso lead to an investigation into why golf balls or footballs aredesigned in a particular way and why certain materials are used to pro-duce a high quality tennis ball. The possibilities for investigativeproblem solving activities are very great here.

5. Simulation /Role Play /Discussion

This type of work would probably be best suited to a consierationof the effect of sport on social and economic issues. The role ofadvertising in sport would be one such area to explore with children.They could be asked to bring in pictures or examples of advertising insport as an initial task and then discuss its importance and role interms ofh ow much money it supplies the sport with and what effect ithas on the participants and spectators of the sport. Another area wor-thy of inclusion would be that of the use of drugs in sport either toensure for instance, a player can take part in an important footballmatch or the illegal use of drugs to improve individual performance.

6. Model Making and Simple Experimentation

With a little imagination a number of activities can be developedwithout the need for complex measuring instruments or apparatus otherthan a watch, metre rule and other simple pieces of equipment common inmost elementary science laboratories. Simple models can be made bypupils to explore the mechanics of human ventilation. The interactionof skeleton and muscles for example using local materials and

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laboratory enquiries can be generated with such materials. Much of thetraditional experimental approach used in biology teaching can be usedeffectively in the context of an approach through sport with the effec-tive development of science process skills and problem solving.

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