11

22

PSYCHOLOGY & PSYCHOLOGY & CULTURECULTURE

22

Food consumption among animals is Food consumption among animals is mainly a solitary activitymainly a solitary activity

How many different people enable us to How many different people enable us to have dinner? have dinner?

Our dinner is highly dependent on other Our dinner is highly dependent on other members of the species, from the bank members of the species, from the bank manager to the food producer to ….manager to the food producer to ….

For dinner to succeed culture must For dinner to succeed culture must organize the behavior of a large number organize the behavior of a large number of individual (the complexity of the of individual (the complexity of the system)system)..

33

Advantage of cultureAdvantage of culture

It can organize and coordinate the action of many people..

If culture is advantageous why it is If culture is advantageous why it is human specific?human specific?

The downside of culture is that it demands a The downside of culture is that it demands a great deal of the individual. Each one should great deal of the individual. Each one should sustain her own niche in the system. Culture sustain her own niche in the system. Culture is expensive (e.g. large brain, …)is expensive (e.g. large brain, …)

44

The level of collective organization is The level of collective organization is one of the important differences one of the important differences between social and cultural animals.between social and cultural animals.

To sustain this level the individual must have To sustain this level the individual must have a rich cognitive capacity.a rich cognitive capacity.

Meaning and CultureMeaning and Culture

Culture is made from meaning (storing and Culture is made from meaning (storing and transmission of information). Hence the transmission of information). Hence the importance of language.importance of language.

55

Language and ThoughtLanguage and Thought

Sapir-Whorf hypothesisSapir-Whorf hypothesis: language shape : language shape thought. thought.

Cultural relativism: different languages Cultural relativism: different languages entails different concepts (e.g. Eskimo entails different concepts (e.g. Eskimo words/concept for snow; colors division.words/concept for snow; colors division.

English, though, does not prevent us to English, though, does not prevent us to discriminate different types of snow … Hence discriminate different types of snow … Hence thought is not constraint by language the thought is not constraint by language the way the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis supposes.way the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis supposes.

66

The Universality of languages.The Universality of languages.

Languages are far more similar than it has Languages are far more similar than it has been thought. been thought.

E.g. all language have VP, NP, pronouns, E.g. all language have VP, NP, pronouns, adverbs … adverbs …

This suggests that the brain is designed to This suggests that the brain is designed to understand and categorize the world in a understand and categorize the world in a certain way. E.g. verbs for actions/events, certain way. E.g. verbs for actions/events, nouns for objects ….nouns for objects ….

Translation is possible.Translation is possible.

77

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is highly The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is highly misleadingmisleading. .

Almost every thought can be expressed in Almost every thought can be expressed in almost any language. almost any language.

What is extraordinary is the similarity among What is extraordinary is the similarity among languages, not the difference.languages, not the difference.

Universality of concepts (only words are Universality of concepts (only words are arbitrary).arbitrary).

The universe of possible ideas was there to The universe of possible ideas was there to be discovered. The brain didn’t create the be discovered. The brain didn’t create the structure of meaning. It merely evolved to structure of meaning. It merely evolved to discover it. (E.g. mathematical truths).discover it. (E.g. mathematical truths).

88

Language as a toolLanguage as a tool

It allows us to deal with the world which tends It allows us to deal with the world which tends to present the same issues and problems to present the same issues and problems everywhere.everywhere.

By an large people have the same thoughts By an large people have the same thoughts everywhere. everywhere.

The brain evolved via natural selection to The brain evolved via natural selection to make use of this tool. To enable people to make use of this tool. To enable people to access the universe of possible ideas and access the universe of possible ideas and concepts and to use meaning to think and concepts and to use meaning to think and communicate.communicate.

99

Physical Physical vs.vs. Social Causality Social Causality

They are different genuine influences of They are different genuine influences of behavior.behavior.

Anti-reductionismAnti-reductionism: The social and : The social and psychological reality do not reduce to the psychological reality do not reduce to the physical one. physical one.

E.g.: Imagine describing the second world war E.g.: Imagine describing the second world war merely in terms of physical and biological merely in terms of physical and biological activity. You would miss the point.activity. You would miss the point.

Thoughts cannot be reduced to brain and Thoughts cannot be reduced to brain and physical activities and psychology will not be physical activities and psychology will not be able to be reduced to physics and neuroscience.able to be reduced to physics and neuroscience.

1010

Culture is not a Physical RealityCulture is not a Physical Reality

It is grounded in a network or system of It is grounded in a network or system of people. It is not contained inside a single people. It is not contained inside a single brain. brain.

Individual brains are replaceable. Yet culture Individual brains are replaceable. Yet culture subsists. subsists.

The meaning of a sentence, an event, an act The meaning of a sentence, an event, an act is not something that has a chemical or is not something that has a chemical or molecular structure.molecular structure.

1111

MeaningMeaning

It can be represented in physical structures It can be represented in physical structures and the brain activity is necessary to and the brain activity is necessary to represent it, but meaning is not contained in represent it, but meaning is not contained in the brain activity.the brain activity.

Meaning exists in the social and cultural Meaning exists in the social and cultural world/network. Remember: we live in 3 worlds; world/network. Remember: we live in 3 worlds; (i) physical, (ii) social, and (iii) cultural.(i) physical, (ii) social, and (iii) cultural.

Meaning can only begin to influence the Meaning can only begin to influence the physical world when it is used and understood physical world when it is used and understood by a physical being. The basic elements of by a physical being. The basic elements of grammar and syntax are built into the human grammar and syntax are built into the human brain.brain.

1212

Ideas and BrainsIdeas and Brains

Can ideas move molecules?Can ideas move molecules?

YES, insofar as there are people capable of YES, insofar as there are people capable of understanding them and processing them in understanding them and processing them in their brains. their brains.

Yet ideas do have a reality that is Yet ideas do have a reality that is independent of any particular brain.independent of any particular brain.

1313

Ideas are rooted in the culture which is Ideas are rooted in the culture which is held in common by a group of peopleheld in common by a group of people. .

Human behavior also depends on meaning Human behavior also depends on meaning and social causes. Meaning is not a physical and social causes. Meaning is not a physical reality, but the share understanding of a reality, but the share understanding of a cultural group. This does not entail that cultural group. This does not entail that human behavior violates the law of physics, human behavior violates the law of physics, etc.etc.

The content of one’s thought depends partly The content of one’s thought depends partly on nonphysical realities that are not parts of on nonphysical realities that are not parts of one’s brain (cf. externalism).one’s brain (cf. externalism).

1414

Sharedness as Essence of the Social.Sharedness as Essence of the Social.

Two people may understand the same idea by Two people may understand the same idea by firing the same cells in their brain. Sharedness firing the same cells in their brain. Sharedness though is the though is the nonphysical aspectnonphysical aspect..

Having something in common and Having something in common and understanding it in common is something understanding it in common is something missing from physical causality.missing from physical causality.

E.g. E.g. moneymoney: it is not a physical reality; its value : it is not a physical reality; its value depends entirely of shared understanding. Ten depends entirely of shared understanding. Ten dimes equal a dollar but this equivalence can dimes equal a dollar but this equivalence can never be found in the molecular structure of the never be found in the molecular structure of the coins.coins.

1515

Social/Cultural realitySocial/Cultural reality

Money is real and certainly influence people Money is real and certainly influence people behavior. behavior.

Yet it is an abstract entity mainly existing Yet it is an abstract entity mainly existing only in bank accounts. only in bank accounts.

It is because of the system, the culture, that It is because of the system, the culture, that we can trade a pound of potatoes for a dollar. we can trade a pound of potatoes for a dollar. The dollar coin has meaning which depends The dollar coin has meaning which depends on collective shared assumptions and on collective shared assumptions and symbolic thoughts.symbolic thoughts.

Law is another example of social/cultural Law is another example of social/cultural reality.reality.

1616

The existence of cultureThe existence of culture

Heritable cultural differences can be crucial in Heritable cultural differences can be crucial in understanding human behavior.understanding human behavior.

But we must keep in mind the But we must keep in mind the Culture/culture differenceCulture/culture difference, i.e. between , i.e. between culture as a universal and cultural difference culture as a universal and cultural difference (cf. universal grammar vs. French/German/… (cf. universal grammar vs. French/German/… grammar). grammar).

E.g.: Illinois farming from different immigrant E.g.: Illinois farming from different immigrant groups living just a few miles apart. groups living just a few miles apart.

You cannot guess people’s origin from the You cannot guess people’s origin from the dress or language spoken. But people from dress or language spoken. But people from different background have different beliefs different background have different beliefs about farming which manifests in different about farming which manifests in different behaviors. behaviors.

1717

The German origin farmers The German origin farmers vsvs. the Yankees . the Yankees farmersfarmers

The formers value farming as a way of life and The formers value farming as a way of life and want their descendents to pursue the tradition. want their descendents to pursue the tradition. They have a differentiated culture. Allow more They have a differentiated culture. Allow more people to leave on the same acreage.people to leave on the same acreage.

The latter regard faming as a profiting activity. The latter regard faming as a profiting activity. They value education. They tend to monoculture. They value education. They tend to monoculture. They can sell land if it is profitable ….They can sell land if it is profitable ….

Many differences in human groups’ behavior Many differences in human groups’ behavior result from conservative transmissible behavior result from conservative transmissible behavior based on a different stock of beliefs. This is a based on a different stock of beliefs. This is a way of cultural transmission.way of cultural transmission.

1818

Culture can “resurrect”. Culture can “resurrect”.

E.g. Bolshevik’s revolution was a social E.g. Bolshevik’s revolution was a social revolution aspiring to a cultural revolution revolution aspiring to a cultural revolution modeling the whole population on a single, modeling the whole population on a single, Soviet, model. Soviet, model.

Yet, after the Russian break down, many old Yet, after the Russian break down, many old practices (e.g. religion) reappeared within practices (e.g. religion) reappeared within the former republics.the former republics.

Difference in behavior among groups does Difference in behavior among groups does not usually rest on genetic difference.not usually rest on genetic difference.

1919

Cultural transmission transcends family Cultural transmission transcends family transmission (unlike genetic transmission (unlike genetic transmission).transmission).

E.g.1: dialect transmission is a case of cultural E.g.1: dialect transmission is a case of cultural transmission influenced by nonfamily transmission influenced by nonfamily environment. environment.

E.g.2: Adoption. Adopted kids from different E.g.2: Adoption. Adopted kids from different races/regions adapt/acquire a new culture. races/regions adapt/acquire a new culture.

Thus ethnic differences don’t rest on genetic Thus ethnic differences don’t rest on genetic differences.differences.

Cultural identity Cultural identity vs. vs. Genetic idenityGenetic idenity

2020

Epidemiological Epidemiological vsvs. Evoked Culture. Evoked Culture

(Cf. Cosmides & Toby)(Cf. Cosmides & Toby)

EpidemiologicalEpidemiological: culture resulting from : culture resulting from different values/ideas acquired.different values/ideas acquired.

Evoked: Evoked: cultural differences that are not cultural differences that are not transmitted but evoked by a different transmitted but evoked by a different environment, i.e. the same initial mechanism environment, i.e. the same initial mechanism adapt differently to different environment. adapt differently to different environment.

2121

Many evolutionary psychologists believe that Many evolutionary psychologists believe that most culture is evoked culture. most culture is evoked culture.

E.g.: different religious practices are triggered E.g.: different religious practices are triggered by different environments, not by teaching. by different environments, not by teaching.

This model rest on modularity (various mind This model rest on modularity (various mind modules specialized for different tasks e.g.: modules specialized for different tasks e.g.: language organ/ …)language organ/ …)

But cumulative cultural adaptations cannot be But cumulative cultural adaptations cannot be based directly on innate inherited features. based directly on innate inherited features. Thus culture must be, in great part, Thus culture must be, in great part, epidemiological.epidemiological.

2222

Social Causes.Social Causes.

They depend on language and meaning. They depend on language and meaning.

Norms and values guide how people act.Norms and values guide how people act.

Social causality, though, does not operate Social causality, though, does not operate alone. It requires physical processes too (e.g. alone. It requires physical processes too (e.g. the brain must process the information).the brain must process the information).

2323

Intertwining of physical and social Intertwining of physical and social causality.causality.

E.g. a football game (with social rules, E.g. a football game (with social rules, physical activities, etc.)physical activities, etc.)

Human action and psychology requires one Human action and psychology requires one to appreciate both physical and social to appreciate both physical and social causes. The molecular and electrical causes. The molecular and electrical processes in the brain allows humans to processes in the brain allows humans to understand and process meaning. So their understand and process meaning. So their behavior can be the effect of social causes.behavior can be the effect of social causes.

2424

Meaning and RepresentationMeaning and Representation

Meanings allows people (unlike animals) to Meanings allows people (unlike animals) to represent and be influenced by things represent and be influenced by things beyond their immediate surrounding and beyond their immediate surrounding and perceptual sphere.perceptual sphere.

Humans, unlike aunts for instance, can Humans, unlike aunts for instance, can incorporate the past into the present (e.g. incorporate the past into the present (e.g. possibility o agriculture).possibility o agriculture).

2525

People are capable of understanding their People are capable of understanding their world on the basis of invisible forces and world on the basis of invisible forces and facts. facts.

Animals cannot understand invisible Animals cannot understand invisible causality. causality.

Time is an invisible reality informing and Time is an invisible reality informing and structuring our life, much more than it does structuring our life, much more than it does with other species.with other species.

2626

The Power and Limit of CultureThe Power and Limit of Culture

E.g.: alcohol intoxication. E.g.: alcohol intoxication.

Drunkenness seems to operate as a kind of Drunkenness seems to operate as a kind of time out, an interruption of the normal set of time out, an interruption of the normal set of rules. rules.

But which rules remain in force and which But which rules remain in force and which ones are suspended varies considerably ones are suspended varies considerably among various groups (e.g. some groups among various groups (e.g. some groups become violent while other calm, etc.)become violent while other calm, etc.)

2727

Only a mixture of nature and culture can Only a mixture of nature and culture can begin to explain the impact of alcohol.begin to explain the impact of alcohol.

E.g.: advertising. Can influence some E.g.: advertising. Can influence some behavior but it cannot change it drastically.behavior but it cannot change it drastically.

Culture must work with the basic facts of Culture must work with the basic facts of human nature: it can exaggerate them or human nature: it can exaggerate them or stifle them. It cannot change them (e.g. stifle them. It cannot change them (e.g. gender differences).gender differences).

2828

The Duality of the MindThe Duality of the Mind

conscious conscious vsvs. automatic. automatic (intuitive or (intuitive or reflexive system). reflexive system).

Animals usually have only an automatic Animals usually have only an automatic mind.mind.

The human mind has two major processing The human mind has two major processing systems at work with different properties. systems at work with different properties. Both get the same input from the senses but Both get the same input from the senses but what they do with the incoming information what they do with the incoming information is different.is different.

2929

Automatic systemAutomatic system

It does many small things at once It does many small things at once independently of one anotherindependently of one another

Conscious systemConscious system

It does one thing at a time. It can process in It does one thing at a time. It can process in dept and follow multiple steps (e.g. symbolic dept and follow multiple steps (e.g. symbolic logic)logic)

Both systems use meaning, but only the Both systems use meaning, but only the conscious one is able to use the power of conscious one is able to use the power of meaning and language (e.g. ‘green meaning and language (e.g. ‘green bred’/‘enemy loses’: only the conscious mind bred’/‘enemy loses’: only the conscious mind can make two positive/negative become can make two positive/negative become negative/positive).negative/positive).

3030

Limits and Advantages of the two Limits and Advantages of the two SystemsSystems

Only the automatic system can do Only the automatic system can do simultaneous things at once (e.g. riding a simultaneous things at once (e.g. riding a bicycle). bicycle).

The conscious system is limited in its The conscious system is limited in its capacities. It intervenes only when facing a capacities. It intervenes only when facing a problem (e.g. the route is blocked and need problem (e.g. the route is blocked and need to figure another way …)to figure another way …)

3131

Limits/Advantages of automatic systemLimits/Advantages of automatic system: :

great capacity and highly efficient, but not great capacity and highly efficient, but not very flexible. Involved in automatic actions.very flexible. Involved in automatic actions.

Limits/Advantages of conscious systemLimits/Advantages of conscious system: :

highly flexible but not very efficient. Involved highly flexible but not very efficient. Involved in planning and dealing with the unknown.in planning and dealing with the unknown.

The conscious system usually starts The conscious system usually starts operating when the automatic one send out a operating when the automatic one send out a distress signal.distress signal.

3232

ConsciousnessConsciousness

It is not a side effect of the human psyche It is not a side effect of the human psyche but an important achievement of it.but an important achievement of it.

Hence nature must have developed it insofar Hence nature must have developed it insofar as it was useful (linked to mindreading).as it was useful (linked to mindreading).

It allows us to reason.It allows us to reason.

It allows control processing (since it is highly It allows control processing (since it is highly flexible).flexible).

3333

The relationship between conscious and The relationship between conscious and automatic processes is not the one of automatic processes is not the one of master and servantmaster and servant. .

Many processes start as controlled and become Many processes start as controlled and become automatic (e.g. learning of skills, automatic (e.g. learning of skills, automatization).automatization).

Automatic overlearned responses are executed Automatic overlearned responses are executed in one part of the brain while new learning in one part of the brain while new learning trough conscious supervision occurs elsewhere. trough conscious supervision occurs elsewhere.

The expert brain in thus not doing the same The expert brain in thus not doing the same thing as the novice’s one, merely better.thing as the novice’s one, merely better.