1 2 refers to ◦ internal process and the product of the mind leading to knowledge development ...
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Refers to ◦ Internal process and the product of the mind leading
to knowledge development Covers a wide aspects of mental activities:
◦ Memorizing◦ Categorizing & simbolizing◦ Problem solving & creativity◦ Inventions◦ Dreaming & fantasizing◦ Reading & Writing◦ Language acquisition etc
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Changes in thinking (logic) Language acquisition The process of how human receive, store and
remember information (knowledge) from their environment.
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How human relate the knowledge they receive and applied it to their everyday lives.
How the information from the environment Receive Stored Re-use
Stressed on individual Level of understanding & use of knowledge
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Thus, every changes, including those learned is being:-
◦ Recorded by the brain
◦ Processed which involves mental activities
The thinking & reasoning process of children differs from adolescent and adults.
As age increases, the ability to think and reasons became complex (better)
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Attention
Efficiency, ability to shift focus improve. Less attraction to novelty, better sustained attention after first year.
Memory
Retention intervals lengthen. Recall appears by 1 year; excellent in second year.
Categorization
Impressive perceptual categorization in first year. Conceptual categorization in second year
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Focus on the ◦Function and the reaction of the mind to
the environment According to Piaget:
◦Human being can think and are rational◦The thinking ability of a child is strong and
inquisitive : Always interact with their environment
consistent to their understanding and cognitive ability.
Piaget argued that children have schemas.
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SCHEMA is a/an…◦ cognitive structure built to assist individual to
understand their past experiences.◦ Organized ways of making sense of experience
Child’s schemas change with age involved the modification of intellectual schemas as the child seeks to understand its world
Action-based (motor patterns) at first Later move to a mental (thinking) level
Thus, Schemas are ◦ organized patterns of thought or behavior assist in
making sense of experience
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Through the process of Adaptation & Organization.
A Child cognitive ability rely a lot on:◦How a child response to an event that
occurs in their environment.◦The effect of these event on their
development.
Schemas developed by children must be able to handle new information and situations
Schema can be built based on adaptation process
◦Adaptation is the process of building schemes through direct interaction with the environment.
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According to Piaget, adaptation can be further divided into two intellectual processes:
◦Assimilation: Involves interpreting new information in light of an old (existing) schema
All 4-legged animals are viewed as a “dog”
◦Accommodation: Process by which old schemas are created or modified to fit new situations
A horse is not a “dog”
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Organization is an internal process of arranging and linking together schemas to form an interconnected cognitive system.
Schemas reach a true state of equilibrium when they become part of a broad network of structures that can be jointly applied to the surrounding world.
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Stages of Cognitive development:
1. Sensory Motor (0-2 yrs old)2. Pre operational (2-7 yrs old)3. Concrete Operation (7-11 yrs old)4. Formal Operation (12 and above)
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Birth to 2 years Building schemes through sensory and motor exploration
Circular reactions
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Piaget based this stage on his observation of his children.
Emphasize on Circular Reaction (CR):
◦ CR the means by which infants explore the environment and build schemas by trying to repeat chance events caused by their own motor activity.
◦ Reactions are first centered on infant’s own body later change to manipulating objects then to produce effects in the environment.
8-12 mths Concept of Object permanence develop
Object permanence, the realization that an object/person continues to exist when out of sight.
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Reflexive Schemes Birth –1 month
Newborn reflexes
Primary Circular Reactions
1 – 4 months Simple motor habits centered around own body
Secondary Circular Reactions
4 – 8 months Repeat interesting effects in soundings
Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions
8 – 12 months
Intentional, goal-directed behavior; object permanence
Tertiary Circular Reactions
12 – 18 months
Explore properties of objects through novel actions
Mental Representations
12 months – 2 years
Internal depictions of objects or events; deferred imitation
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Understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight
According to Piaget, develops in Substage 4.
Incomplete at first
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Internal, mental depictions of objects, people, events, information◦Can manipulate with mind◦Allow deferred imitation (ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not immediately present) and make-believe play
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Piaget: Develops about 18 months
Newer research: ◦ Present at 6 weeks – facial imitation◦ 6 – 9 months – copy actions with
objects◦ 12 – 14 months – imitate rationally◦ 18 months – imitate intended,
but not completed, actions
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As child enters preoperational stage, the earlier abilities/skill continue to develop & become better, such as abilities in :◦ object permanence ◦ Mental representations◦ Deferred Imitation
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Cognitive Advances◦ Ages 2 to 7 yrs is a time of great expansion in the
use of *symbolic thought, or representational ability, which first emerges at the end of the sensorimotor stage
The use of symbols is a universal mark of human culture. Without symbols, people could not communicate verbally, make change, read maps, or treasure photos of distant loved ones. Yet an understanding of symbolism comes only gradually usually after age 3.
◦ Growing understanding of space, causality, identities, categorization, and number
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Gains in Mental Representation◦Make-believe Play◦Dual Representation
Limitations in Thought — Cannot Perform Mental Operations◦Egocentrism and Animistic Thinking◦Conservation◦Hierarchical Classification
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With age, make-believe gradually becomes:◦More detached from real-life
conditions◦Less self-centered ◦More complex Sociodramatic Play
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Viewing a symbolic object as both an object and a symbol
Mastered around age 3 Adult teaching can help
◦Provide lots of maps, photos, drawings, make-believe playthings, etc.
◦Point out similarities to real world
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Belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities
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Cannot reason logically as to cause and effect Attribute life to inanimate objects = animism Failure to understand conservation: two things
remain equal if their appearance changes but nothing is added or taken away◦ Egocentrism : Center so much on their own point
of view that they cannot take in another's ◦ Conservation: Understanding that the basic
properties of an object are constant even if the object changes shape
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Egocentrism refers to a cognitive refers to a cognitive view in which a child understands view in which a child understands the world to have only their view the world to have only their view (has great difficulty in (has great difficulty in understanding the views of understanding the views of others)others)
◦ E.g: Piaget’s three-mountain task. A preoperational child is unable to describe the “mountains” from the doll’s point of view - an indication of egocentrism
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Centration Focus on one aspect and neglect others
Irreversibility Cannot mentally reverse a set of steps
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Conservation◦ Decentration◦ Reversibility
Classification/ categorization Seriation
◦ Transitive inference Spatial Reasoning
◦ Directions◦ Maps
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Postponing action to weigh alternatives Organizing task materials
◦Remembering steps of plan◦Monitoring how well plan works◦Revising if necessary
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Chunking - Breaking the information into manageable chunk. ◦ eg. OFHRTJUDYCX OFH RTJ UDY CX
Rehearsal - Simple repetition◦ Elaboration when info to be remembered is linked to other
information Imagery - Conjured image of an object/related meaning. Mnemonics - Memory strategy to help remember information
◦ Eg. A rhyme or pairing of to-be-learned information with well learned information.
Schema activation - Strategy to use with encoding complex info. relates new information to prior knowledge.
Level of processing -Material that is only skimmed will not be as deeply processed as material that is studied in detail.
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Rapid Mental activities Cognitive development - better
◦ Organisation and thinking process ◦ Reasoning abilities
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Aspects Of Cognitive Maturation ◦ Develop the capacity for abstract thought a new,
more flexible way to manipulate information ◦ Can use symbols more extensively ◦ Can understand metaphor and allegory◦ Can imagine possibilities and can form and test
hypotheses (hypothetical-deductive reasoning)◦ Gradual accumulation of knowledge and expertise in
specific fields◦ Higher gain of information-processing capacity;◦ Growth in metacognition awareness and monitoring
of one's own mental processes and strategies.
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Language ability Ability in making decision Memory and reasoning capacity
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INTELLIGENCE
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Group Tests Allow testing of large
groups Require little training
to administer Useful for instructional
planning Identify students who
need individual testing
Individually-Administered Tests
Examiners need training & experience◦ Provide insights about
accuracy of score Identify highly
intelligent and children with learning problems
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Bayley Scales of Infant Development (0-2 ½ yrs)
o Mental, motor, social scale Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale (2- adult)
o General, verbal, quantitative, abstract/visual, short term memory scale
Weschler Intelligence Scale for children (WISC III)◦ 3-8 yrs (Weschler Preschool & Primary Scale of
Intelligence - WPPSI-R)◦ 6-16 yrs (WISC)
o Verbal & performance scale Kaufman Battery of Assessment
o Information processing 43
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Formula * MA/CA x 100 = IQ
Ma = mental age CA = Chronological age Example
◦ Hasif is 10 yrs old and got a metal age of 12 years old. Thus Hasif have an IQ of 120, ie.
12/10 x 100 = 120
According to IQ score chart, ◦ Score above100 = cerdik pintar◦ Score between 100 -69 = kurang kemampuan
intelektual ◦ score of 70 & below = kurang upaya mental
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Genetics◦ Accounts for about half of
differences Environment
◦ SES◦ Culture Communication styles Cultural bias in test content
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Linguistic Logico-mathematical Musical Spatial Bodily-kinesthetic Naturalist Interpersonal Intrapersonal
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Children with Learning Problems◦Mental retardation =significantly subnormal cognitive functioning
◦Dyslexia=developmental reading disorder in which reading achievement is substantially below the level predicted by IQ or age.
◦Learning disabilities =disorders that interfere with school achievementperformance substantially lower than expected.
◦Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with or without hyperactivity
ADHD has a substantial genetic basis, with heritability approaching 80 percent
ADHD is generally treated with drugs, sometimes combined with behavioral therapy, counseling, training in social skills, and special classroom placement
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Gifted◦ Exceptional intellectual strength
The traditional criterion of giftedness is high general intelligence, as shown by an
◦ Usually measured by high IQ (score of 130 or higher)
Talented◦ Outstanding performance in a
specific field◦ Measured by divergent thinking
and creativity
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Gifted Children:◦ these children were taller, healthier, better
coordinated, better adjusted, and more popular than the average child
◦ Their cognitive, scholastic, and vocational superiority has held up for nearly eighty years
◦ Creativity = ability to see things in a new light divergent thinking enrichment or acceleration classes for both gifted and
creative children
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By 2 years old:◦ like to take things apart ◦ explore surroundings ◦ point to 5-6 parts of a doll when asked ◦ Language have a vocabulary of several hundred words use 2-3 word sentences say names of toys ask for information about an object (asks,
"Shoe?" while pointing to shoe box) hum or try to sing listen to short rhymes like to imitate parents
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By 3 years :◦recognize sounds in the environment◦pay attention for about 3 minutes◦remember what happened yesterday◦know what is food and what is not food◦know some numbers (but not always in the right order)◦know where things usually belong◦understand what is "1“, "now," "soon," and "later“◦substitute one object for another in pretend play (as in pretending a block is a "car")
◦laugh at silly ideas (like "milking" a dog)◦look through a book alone◦match circles & squares; match object to a picture of that object or match objects that have same function (as in putting a cup and plate together)
◦count 2 to 3 objects◦avoid some dangers, like a hot stove or a moving car◦follow simple one-step commands
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By 3 years :◦ Language
use 3-5 word sentences ask short questions use plurals ("dogs," "cars," "hats") name at least 10 familiar objects repeat simple rhymes name at least one color correctly
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By 4 years old:o recognize red, yellow, and blueo understand taking turns and can do so without always being
remindedo understand "big," "little," "tall," "short“o want to know what will happen nexto sort by shape or coloro count up to 5 objectso follow three instructions given at one time
("Put the toys away, wash your hands, and come eat.")o distinguish between the real world and the imaginary or
pretend worldo identify situations that would lead to happiness, sadness, or
anger
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Can count 10 or more objects Correctly names at least four colors Better understands the concept of time Knows about things used every day in the
home (money, food, appliances)
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Children can begin to think about their own behavior and see consequences for actions.
In the early stages of concrete thinking, they can group things that belong together (for instance babies, fathers, mothers, aunts are all family members). As children near adolescence, they master sequencing and ordering, which are needed for math skills.
Children begin to read and write early in middle childhood and should be skillful in reading and writing by the end of this stage.
They can think through their actions and trace back events that happened to explain situations, such as why they were late to school. 56
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Children learn best if they are active while they are learning. For example, children will learn more effectively about traffic safety by moving cars, blocks, and toy figures rather than sitting and listening to an adult explain the rules.
Six- to 8-year-olds can rarely sit for longer than 15-20 minutes for an activity. Attention span gets longer with age.
Toward the beginning of middle childhood, children may begin projects but finish few. Allow them to explore new materials. Nearing adolescence, children will focus more on completion.
Teachers set the conditions for social interactions to occur in schools. Understand that children need to experience various friendships while building esteem.
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Children can talk through problems to solve them. This requires more adult time and more sustained attention by children.
Children can focus attention and take time to search for needed information.
They can develop a plan to meet a goal. There is greater memory capability because
many routines (brushing teeth, tying shoes, bathing, etc.) are automatic now.
Child begins to build a self-image as a "worker." If encouraged, this is positive in later development of career choices.
Many children want to find a way to earn money.
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