1

2

What was Charles Darwin’s idea about evolution called?

A) CompetitionB) Natural SelectionC) SurvivalD) Complete Evolution

3

What are the two steps of speciation?

A) Geographic Isolation and Reproductive Isolation

B) Adaptive radiation and geographic isolation

C) Reproductive isolation and adaptive radiation

D) None of the above

7

What is adaptive radiation?

A) Differences in isolated groups become so great, they can no longer interbreed

B) When a population becomes divided by a natural barrier

C) survival of the fittest

D) When one species splits into many species to fill open habitats

8

Layering occurs in which type of rock?

A) igneousB) sedimentaryC) metamorphic

9

Evolution is:

A) rapid changeB) complete changeC) gradual changeD) extreme change

10

Which is not a cause of evolutionary change?

A) genetic driftB) speciationC) mutationD) founder effect

11

Genetic drift involves:

A) isolation accumulate mutations

B) Mutations accumulate isolation

C) founder effect D) isolation

12

When a new species evolves during the recovery period following mass extinction

A) Mass extinction B) Background extinction C) Adaptive radiation D) Emergent Species

13

Which island would have the most species diversity?

A) bigger islands

B) small islands

C) islands close to mainland

D) islands farther from mainland

15

What was interesting about the finches beaks?

A. They all got fatter due to the tropical climate

B. They got narrower since the seeds were harder here

C. They were the same as on the mainland

D. They all adapted individually to different situations.

E. They fell off within 5 months of adult life.

16

The current species on the island

A. Separated into different species over time as their beaks and characteristics adapted

B. Killed each other, leaving only the species seen now- a result of survival of the fittest and competition.

C. All were replaced by new finches/birds the settlers brought over

D. Were partially replaced by finches/birds the settlers brought over

17

According to Darwin, what made up natural selection?

A. Competition

B. Variance

C. Competition and Variance

D. Competition and Instinct

18

Being “fit” means ?

A. Being the strongest in the species

B. Being the strongest in the population

C. Being the fastest and strongest in the species

D. Being the fastest and strongest in the population

E. Surviving to reproduce

19

Fossils are formed when:

A.Sedimentary rock compress against each other with the bones of dead organisms in them

B. Dead animals bones are weathered by natural wind processes

C. The sun burns away flesh and imprints dead animal bones into rock and sand\

20

Limbs that share similar bone structure but have different function are called

A. Homogenous

B. Synonymous

C. Homology

D. Forelimbs

E. Homologous

22

Why do insecticides not work completely?

A.Companies purposely make the products weaker so customers have to buy more

B.Government regulates their power to protect the environment under the FIFRA

C.They target only adults in the insect population so those hatched do not get killed

D.The stronger survive and reproduce genetically resistant offspring

E.Insecticide has a very short half-life, so it wears off before the job is done a lot of times.

23

How do we get How do we get Biodiversity?Biodiversity?

24

Evolution, Evolution, Biodiversity, and Biodiversity, and

Community Community Processes Processes

25

BiodiversityBiodiversity

26

27

BiodiversityBiodiversity• Biodiversity

– increases with speciation– decreases with extinction

• Give-and-take between speciation and extinction changes in biodiversity

• Extinction creates evolutionary opportunities for adaptive radiation of surviving species

Interpretations of SpeciationInterpretations of Speciation

Two theories:Two theories:1.1. Gradualist Model (Neo-Gradualist Model (Neo-

Darwinian):Darwinian):

Slow changes in species Slow changes in species overtimeovertime

2.2. Punctuated Equilibrium:Punctuated Equilibrium:

Evolution occurs in spurts of Evolution occurs in spurts of relatively rapid changerelatively rapid change

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Adaptive Adaptive RadiationRadiation

Emergence of Emergence of numerous species numerous species from a common from a common ancestor introduced ancestor introduced to new and diverse to new and diverse environmentsenvironmentsExample::Hawaiian Hawaiian Honeycreepers Honeycreepers

Convergent EvolutionConvergent Evolution

Species from different evolutionary branches may come to resemble one another if they live in very similar

environments

Example:

1. Ostrich (Africa) and Emu (Australia).

2. Sidewinder (Mojave Desert) and

Horned Viper (Middle East Desert)

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CoevolutionCoevolution• Evolutionary change

– One species acts as a selective force on a second species

– Inducing adaptations – that act as selective force on the first

species Example:1. Wolf and Moose2. Acacia ants and Acacia trees2. Yucca Plants and Yucca moths3. Lichen

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ExtinctionExtinction• Extinction of a species occurs when it

ceases to exist; may follow environmental change - if the species does not evolve

• Evolution and extinction are affected by:– large scale movements of continents– gradual climate changes due to continental

drift or orbit changes– rapid climate changes due to catastrophic

events

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ExtinctionExtinction• Background extinctionBackground extinction - species disappear - species disappear

at a low rate as local conditions changeat a low rate as local conditions change• Mass extinctionMass extinction - catastrophic, wide- - catastrophic, wide-

spread events spread events abrupt increase in abrupt increase in extinction rateextinction rate– Five mass extinctions in past 500 million Five mass extinctions in past 500 million

yearsyears

• Adaptive radiationAdaptive radiation - new species evolve - new species evolve during recovery period following mass during recovery period following mass extinction extinction

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Mass ExtinctionsMass ExtinctionsDate of the Extinction

Event

Percent

Species Lost

Species Affected

65 mya

(million

years ago)

85 Dinosaurs, plants (except ferns and seed bearing plants), marine

vertebrates and invertebrates. Most mammals, birds, turtles, crocodiles,

lizards, snakes, and amphibians were unaffected.

213 mya 44 Marine vertebrates and invertebrates

248 mya 75-95 Marine vertebrates and invertebrates

380 mya 70 Marine invertebrates

450 mya 50 Marine invertebrates

http://www.geog.ouc.bc.ca/physgeog/contents/9h.html

39

1. Diversity is a balance of factors that increase diversity and factors that decrease diversity

2. Production of new species (speciation), and influx can increase diversity

3. Competitive exclusion, efficient predators, catastrophic events (extinction) can decrease diversity

4. Physical conditions a. variety of resourcesb. Predatorsc. environmental variability

Equilibrium Theory of BiodiversityEquilibrium Theory of Biodiversity

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Species Diversity

Def: the variety of species in an area

Two subcomponents: species richness species evenness

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Species Richness vs. EvennessSpecies Richness: measurement of the

number of species in a given area

Species Evenness: measurement of how evenly distributed organisms are among species

Community A Community B

species 1 25 1species 2 0 1species 3 25 1species 4 25 1species 5 25 96

42

Determining Species Diversity

Scientists may want to:

* get an estimate of # of species in an area

* compare species diversity of two communities

To be accurate, need to:

* take both species evenness and species richness into account

43

Species Diversity Indices

Shannon-Weiner (Shannon-Weaver) Index

Diversity =

(p spp 1 - ln(p spp 1)) + (p spp 2 - ln(p spp. 2) + …

(p spp N - ln(p spp. N)

Simpson Index

Diversity = 1 (pspp1)2 + (pspp2)2 + … (psppN)2

44

Why should we care about measuring

biodiversity(species diversity)?

45

Biodiversity Factoids

~ 2,000,000 spp. have been described  ~ 10-30,000,000 species actually exist (est.)

~ 8,000,000 – 22,000,000 spp. unidentified

~ 40 – 60% of all spp. occur in two areas:

* tropical rainforests* coral reefs

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• Richness (number of species)

• Relative abundance

• How do we describe these differences?

Comparison of Two Comparison of Two CommunitiesCommunities

47

Biogeographical ChangesBiogeographical Changes

• Richness declines from equator to pole

• Due to:

–Evolutionary history

–ClimateFig 53.23 Bird species numbers

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• Species-area curve

• The larger the geographic area, the greaterthe numberof species

Geographic (Sample) SizeGeographic (Sample) Size

Fig. 23.25 North American Birds

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Species Richness on IslandsSpecies Richness on Islands• Depends on:Depends on:

–Rate of immigration to islandRate of immigration to island–Rate of extinction on islandRate of extinction on island

• These in turn depend on:These in turn depend on:–Island sizeIsland size–Distance from mainlandDistance from mainland

50

How do species move?How do species move?• Humans (accidental and intended)• Animals (sticky seeds and scat)• Wind and ocean currents (+ or -)• Land bridges• Stepping stone islands

– affected by climactic changes (glaciation)– ocean levels– short-term weather patterns

51

What allowed colonization?What allowed colonization?

• Niche opening

• No competition

• Endemics not utilizing resources

• Accessibility to colonists

52

Theory of Island BiogeographyTheory of Island Biogeography

1. Immigration rate decreases as island diversity increases

2. Extinction increases as island diversity increases

3. Species equilibrium on islands is a balance of immigration and local extinction

53

54

1.Smaller islands have lower total populations

2.Probability of extinction increases with lower population

3.Smaller islands have lower species diversity

Theory of Island BiogeographyTheory of Island Biogeography

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56

1.Islands further from mainland have lower immigration rates

2.More distant islands have lower species diversity

Theory of Island BiogeographyTheory of Island Biogeography

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58

Wilderness Act of 1964Wilderness Act of 1964• directed the Secretary of the Interior, within

10 years, to review every roadless area of 5,000 or more acres and every roadless island (regardless of size) within National Wildlife Refuge and National Park Systems and to recommend to the President the suitability of each such area or island for inclusion in the National Wilderness Preservation System, with final decisions made by Congress. The Secretary of Agriculture was directed to study and recommend suitable areas in the National Forest System.

59

RooseveltRoosevelt• T. Roosevelt also tripled the size of

the forest reserves and transferred

administration from Department of

the Interior (USDOI) to

Department of Agriculture (USDA.• 1905, Congress created the US

Forest Service to manage and

protect forest reserves. Roosevelt

appointed Gifford Pinchot as its

first chief.• 1907, Roosevelt reserved 16 million

acres of land. Congress was trying

to ban Executive orders for forest

reservation. Roosevelt did this

defiantly the day before Congress’

ban became law!

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PinchotPinchot• (1905) Pinchot pioneered

scientific management of forest resources on public lands, using the principles of sustainable yield and multiple use.

• This same year, the Audubon Society was founded to preserve the nation’s bird species.

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US National Park ServiceUS National Park Service• 1912, Congress created the US National

Park Service.• 1916, Congress passed the National park

System Organic Act – declared that the parks were to be maintained in a manner that leaves them unimpaired for future generations and established the National Park Service (DOI).

• Stephen Mather was the first Director of NPS. He began establishing grand hotels and other tourist facilities in parks with spectacular scenery to encourage tourism by allowing private concessionaires to operate facilities within the parks.

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Community Community RelationshipsRelationships

63

Niche isthe species’ occupation

&

Habitat is location of species

(its address)

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NicheNicheA species’ functional role in its ecosystem; includes anything affecting species survival and reproduction

1. Range of tolerance for various physical and chemical conditions

2. Types of resources used

3. Interactions with living and nonliving components of ecosystems

4. Role played in flow of energy and matter cycling

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NicheNiche

Realized niche: more restricted set of conditions under which the species actually exists due to interactions with other species

Fundamental niche: set of conditions under which a species might exist in the absence of interactions with other species

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Types of SpeciesTypes of Species•Generalist

–large niches–tolerate wide range of environmental variations–do better during changing environmental

conditions

•Specialist–narrow niches– more likely to become endangered– do better under consistent environmental

conditions

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• Depending upon the characteristics of the organism, organisms will follow a biotic potential or carrying capacity type reproductive strategy

The r-strategists1. High biotic potential – reproduce very fast2. Are adapted to live in a variable climate3. Produce many small, quickly maturing offspring = early

reproductive maturity4. “Opportunistic” organismsThe K-strategists1. Adaptations allow them to maintain population values around the

carrying capacity2. They live long lives3. Reproduce late4. Produce few, large, offspring

r and k strategistsr and k strategists

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Types of SpeciesTypes of Species• Native species normally live and thrive in a

particular ecosystem• Nonnative species are introduced - can be

called exotic or alien• Indicator species serve as early warnings of

danger to ecosystem- birds & amphibians• Keystone species are considered of most

importance in maintaining their ecosystem

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Nonnative Species• Nonnative plant species are invading the

nation's parks at an alarming rate, displacing native vegetation and threatening the wildlife that depend on them

• At some, such as Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore in Michigan, as much as 23 percent of the ground is covered with alien species, and the rate of expansion is increasing dramatically.

Nonnative Species– Also called invasive, alien, and exotic species– Not necessarily threatening- most food crops,

animals, and flowers are non-native– Ex: Killer bees- 1957 Brazil imported African

honeybees to honey production BUT they displaced the honeybees and honey supply

– Have moved north and killed 1000s of animals and 1000 people

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71

Indicator Indicator SpeciesSpecies

• a species whose status provides information on the overall condition of the ecosystem and of other species in that ecosystem

• reflects the quality and changes in environmental conditions as well as aspects of community composition

Case Study: Why are Amphibians Vanishing?

• Live part in water, part on land• Historically, great at adapting to environmental

changes• BUT rapid env. changes in past few decades to land,

water and air• Since 1980, 100’s of the 6000 species have been

vanishing everywhere (even in protected areas)• Many reasons: habitat loss, drought, UV, pollution,

overhunting…

Case Study: Why are Amphibians Vanishing?

• Why should we care?1. Suggests that environmental

health is deteriorating

2. Natural service- eats more pests than birds

3. Genetic storehouse of pharmaceutical products

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Keystone SpeciesKeystone Species• A keystone is the stone at the top of an arch that supports the

other stones and keeps the whole arch from falling– a species on which the persistence of a large number of other species in

the ecosystem depends.

• If a keystone species is removed from a system– the species it supported will also disappear

– other dependent species will also disappear

• Examples– top carnivores that keep prey populations in check

– large herbivores that shape the habitat in which other species live

– important plants that support particular insect species that are prey for birds

– Pollinators (bees, bats, butterflies)

– bats that disperse the seeds of plants

Case Study: American AlligatorCase Study: American Alligator• A keystone species that almost went extinct!• No natural predators• Outlived the dinosaurs• 1930’s- humans began hunting; by 1960’s 90%

wiped out!• Alligators:

– dig deep holes used as nests of other species– maintain many fish pop.

• In 1967, endangered• Strong come back- now threatened

Species have 5 RolesSpecies have 5 Roles5. Foundation- shapes their communities

by positively changing the habitat– Elephants- push, break and uproot trees

– Beavers- build dams to create ponds and wetlands for other animals

Case Study: Why Should We Case Study: Why Should We Protect Sharks?Protect Sharks?

• In reality, many sharks are plant-eating gentle giants

• Average of 6 deaths/ year

• For every shark that injures or kills a person each year, people kill about 1.2 million sharks

• Amounts to 79-97 million/year!

• Caught for their valuable fins then thrown back alive to bleed to death or drown because they cannot swim without their fins

Scalloped hammerhead shark

Case Study: Why Should We Case Study: Why Should We Protect Sharks?Protect Sharks?

• Keystone species- we NEED them!

– Eat dead and dying fish in the ocean

– Without them, ocean system may collapse

– Strong immune systems

• Wounds do not get infected

• Almost never get cancer

• Could help humans if we understood their immune system

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Species Species InteractionInteraction

80

CompetitionCompetitionAny interaction between two or more

species for a resource that causes a decrease in the population growth or

distribution of one of the species

1. Resource competition

81

CompetitionCompetition

82

Resource CompetitionResource Competition

83

CompetitionCompetitionAny interaction between two or more

species for a resource that causes a decrease in the population growth or

distribution of one of the species

1. Resource competition

2. Preemptive competition

84

85

CompetitionCompetitionAny interaction between two or more

species for a resource that causes a decrease in the population growth or

distribution of one of the species

1. Resource competition

2. Preemptive competition

3. Competitive exclusion

86

Competitive Exclusion

87

CompetitionCompetitionAny interaction between two or more

species for a resource that causes a decrease in the population growth or

distribution of one of the species1. Resource competition2. Preemptive competition3. Competition exploitation 4. Interference competition

88

CompetitionCompetition

89

PREDATION

90

Predator AdaptationsPredator Adaptations• Prey detection and recognition

–sensory adaptations

–distinguish prey from non-prey

91

92

93

94

Predator AdaptationsPredator Adaptations• Prey detection and recognition

–sensory adaptations

–distinguish prey from non-prey

• Prey capture–passive vs. active

–individuals vs. cooperative

95

96

97

98

99

100

Predator AdaptationsPredator Adaptations• Prey detection and recognition

–sensory adaptations–distinguish prey from non-prey

• Prey capture–passive vs. active–individuals vs. cooperative

• Eating prey–teeth, claws etc.

101

102

103

104

105

Prey AdaptationsPrey Adaptations• Avoid detection

– camouflage, mimics,

– diurnal/nocturnal

106

107

108

109

110

Prey AdaptationsPrey Adaptations• Avoid detection

– camouflage, mimics,

– diurnal/nocturnal

• Avoid capture– flee

– resist

– escape

111

112

113

114

Prey AdaptationsPrey Adaptations• Avoid detection

– camouflage, mimics, – diurnal/nocturnal

• Avoid capture– flee– resist– escape

• Disrupt handling (prevent being eaten)– struggle?– protection, toxins

115

116

HerbivoryHerbivoryHerbivore needs to find most

nutritious–circumvent plant defenses

117

118

HerbivoryHerbivoryHerbivore needs to find most

nutritious–circumvent plant defenses

Herbivory strong selective pressure on plants–structural adaptations for defense–chemical adaptations for defense

119

120

121

HerbivoryHerbivory

122

HerbivoryHerbivory

123

HerbivoryHerbivory

124

Symbiosis: Symbiosis: Mutualists, Mutualists,

Commensalists Commensalists and Parasitesand Parasites

125

• Symbiosis and symbiotic relationship are two commonly misused terms

• Translation of symbiosis from the Greek literally means “living together”

• Both positive and negative interactions

126

MutualismMutualismDEFINITION:

An interaction between two individuals of different species that benefits both partners in this interaction

127

MutualismMutualism

• Increase birth rates

• Decrease death rates

• Increase equilibrium population densities,

Raise the carrying capacity

128

PollinationPollination

• Animals visit flowers to collect nectar and incidentally carry pollen from one flower to another

• Animals get food and the plant get a pollination service

129

• Yucca’s only pollinator is the yucca moth. Hence entirely dependent on it for dispersal.

• Yucca moth caterpillar’s only food is yucca seeds.

• Yucca moth lives in yucca and receives shelter from plant.

Yucca and Yucca Moth Yucca and Yucca Moth

130

Lichen (Fungi-Algae)Lichen (Fungi-Algae)• Symbiotic relationship of algae and

fungae…results in very different growth formas with and without symbiont.

• What are the benefits to the fungus?

131

Nitrogen FixationNitrogen Fixation

Darkest areas are nuclei, the mid-tone areas are millions of bacteria Gram -, ciliate

132

CommensalistsCommensalists• Benefit from the

host at almost no cost to the host

• Eyelash mite and humans

• Us and starlings or house sparrows

• Sharks and remora

133

Parasites and ParasitoidsParasites and Parasitoids• Parasites: draw resources from

host without killing the host (at least in the short term).

• Parasitoids: draw resources from the host and kill them swiftly (though not necessarily consuming them).

134

Parasitic waspsParasitic wasps

• Important parasites of larvae.

• In terms of biological control, how would this differ from predation?

ovipositor

135

Ecological Ecological ProcessesProcesses

136

Ecological SuccessionEcological Succession

Primary and Secondary SuccessionPrimary and Secondary Succession

gradual & fairly predictable change in species composition with time

•some species colonize & become more abundant;

•other species decline or even disappear.

137

Ecological SuccessionEcological SuccessionGradual changing environment in

favor of new / different species / communities

138

139

Primary Primary SuccessionSuccession

Glacier Glacier RetreatRetreat

140

141

142

DisturbanceDisturbanceEvent that disrupts an ecosystem or community;

• Natural disturbance

•tree falls, fires, hurricanes, tornadoes, droughts, & floods

• Human–caused disturbance

•deforestation, erosion, overgrazing, plowing, pollution,mining

• Disturbance can initiate primary and/or secondary succession

143

Ecological StabilityEcological StabilityCarrying Capacity – maximum number of

individuals the environment can support

144

Ecological Stability - StressEcological Stability - Stress1. Drop in Primary Productivity2. Increased Nutrient Losses3. Decline or extinction of indicator

species4. Increased populations of insect

pests or disease organisms5. Decline in Species diversity6. Presence of Contaminants

145

Which law directed the Secretary of the Which law directed the Secretary of the Interior to review every roadless area of Interior to review every roadless area of 5,000 or more acres and every roadless 5,000 or more acres and every roadless island within National Wildlife Refuge and island within National Wildlife Refuge and National Park Systems?National Park Systems?

A. Endangered Species ActA. Endangered Species ActB. Wilderness Act B. Wilderness Act C. Lacey ActC. Lacey ActD. National Park ActD. National Park ActE. Wild and Scenic Rivers ActE. Wild and Scenic Rivers Act

146

What are keystone species?What are keystone species?

A. A. existing in such small numbers that it is in existing in such small numbers that it is in danger of becoming extinctdanger of becoming extinct

B. introduced to an environment where it is not B. introduced to an environment where it is not native, and that has since become a nuisance native, and that has since become a nuisance

C. likely to become an endangered species within C. likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its rangesignificant portion of its range

D. serve as early warnings of damage to a D. serve as early warnings of damage to a communitycommunity

E. presence and role within an ecosystem has a E. presence and role within an ecosystem has a disproportionate effect on other organisms within disproportionate effect on other organisms within the system the system

147

Who did Roosevelt appoint to head Who did Roosevelt appoint to head the newly created US Forest the newly created US Forest Service to protect and manage the Service to protect and manage the world’s forests?world’s forests?A. E.O. Wilson A. E.O. Wilson B. Aldo LeopoldB. Aldo LeopoldC. Robert MacArthurC. Robert MacArthurD. Stephen MatherD. Stephen MatherE. Gifford PinchotE. Gifford Pinchot

148

Mutualism benefits:Mutualism benefits:

A) one of the organisms & hurts A) one of the organisms & hurts the otherthe other

B) neither of the organismsB) neither of the organismsC) both of the organismsC) both of the organismsD) benefits one & doesn’t hurt the D) benefits one & doesn’t hurt the

otherotherE) only one of the organismsE) only one of the organisms

149

CommensalismCommensalism::

A) benefits only one of the organismsA) benefits only one of the organisms

B) benefits both organismsB) benefits both organisms

C) benefits one, doesn’t harm the otherC) benefits one, doesn’t harm the other

D) benefits neither of the organismsD) benefits neither of the organisms

150

Biodiversity:Biodiversity:

A) decreases with speciation and A) decreases with speciation and extinction extinction

B) decreases with speciation and B) decreases with speciation and increases with extinctionincreases with extinction

C) increases with speciation and C) increases with speciation and extinctionextinction

D) increases with speciation and D) increases with speciation and decreases with extinctiondecreases with extinction

151

What is not a pre-zygotic barriers?What is not a pre-zygotic barriers?

A) behavioral isolationA) behavioral isolation

B) habitat isolationB) habitat isolation

C) mechanical isolationC) mechanical isolation

D) hybrid isolationD) hybrid isolation

152

Which of the following does Which of the following does species richness not depend on?species richness not depend on?

A) rate of immigrationA) rate of immigration

B) island sizeB) island size

C) distance from mainlandC) distance from mainland

D) types of speciesD) types of species

153

Which is a species on which the Which is a species on which the persistence of a large number of other persistence of a large number of other species in the ecosystem depends?species in the ecosystem depends?

A) r-strategistsA) r-strategists

B) k-strategistsB) k-strategists

C) nonnative C) nonnative

D) keystoneD) keystone

154

What is not characteristic of a What is not characteristic of a k-strategists?k-strategists?

A) long lifeA) long life

B) bigger bodiesB) bigger bodies

C) produce a lot of offspringC) produce a lot of offspring

D) produce late in lifeD) produce late in life

155

What is not a predator What is not a predator adaptation?adaptation?

A) prey detectionA) prey detection

B) prey captureB) prey capture

C) eating preyC) eating prey

D) avoid detectionD) avoid detection

E) mass numbersE) mass numbers

156

BibliographyBibliography1. Miller 11th Edition2. http://abandoncorporel.ca/medias/evolution.jpg3. http://www.ne.jp/asahi/clinic/yfc/fetus.html4. rob.ossifrage.net/images/ 5. http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Five_Kingdoms_Three_Domains.htm6. http://www.gpc.peachnet.edu/~ccarter/Millerlec5/Millerlec5.PPT7. http://www.dnr.state.md.us/education/horseshoecrab/lifecycle.html8. http://www.falcons.co.uk/mefrg/Falco/13/Species.htm9. http://www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/NamSpecies.htm10. http://www.falcons.co.uk/mefrg/Falco/13/Species.htm11. http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/complex_life/complex_life.html12. http://nsm1.nsm.iup.edu/rwinstea/oparin.shtm13. http://www.angelfire.com/on2/daviddarling/MillerUreyexp.htm14. http://exobiology.nasa.gov/ssx/biomod/origin_of_life_slideshow/origin_of_life_slideshow.html15. http://www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/classes/Geo104/HistoryofEarth.html16. http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/objectives/o2_cellular_components.html17. http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/fossils/18. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/halfli.html19. http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEPC/WWC/1995/teach_rad.html20. http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/SNT/noframe/pi179.htm21. http://www.npca.org/magazine/2001/march_april/nonnative_species.asp22. http://www.bagheera.com/inthewild/spot_spkey.htm23. Biology, 2003, Prentice Hall24. http://www.nearctica.com/ecology/habitats/island.htm25. http://www.valdosta.edu/~grissino/geog4900/lect_1.htm