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7. Caverly CS. Preliminary report of an epidemic of paralytic disease, occuring in Vermont, in the summer of 1894. Yale Medical Journal. 1894;1:1–20.

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4. Jenner E. An inquiry into the causes and effects of the Variolae Vaccinae: a disease discovered in some of the Western Counties of England, particularly Gloucestershire, and known by the name of the Cow Pox. London: Sampson Low; 1798.

5. Williams G. First steps in the right direction. In Angel of Death, pp. 52–70. 6. Gheorgiu M. Antituberculous BCG vaccine: lessons from the past. In Plotkin S,

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8. Römer P. Die epidemische Kinderlähmung (Heine-Medinsche Krankheit). Berlin: Springer; p. 1911.

9. Flexner S, Amoss H. Survival of the poliomyelitis virus for six years in glycerol. J Exp Med. 1917;25:539–43.

10. Rhoads C. Immunity following the injection of monkeys with mixtures of poliomy-elitis virus and convalescent human serum. J Exp Med. 1931;53:115–21.

11. Frozen monkeys. Current Comment, 17 August. J Am Med Ass. 1935;105:517.12. Boy Scout Jamboree canceled because of poliomyelitis. Medical News, 17 August.

J Am Med Ass. 1935;105:521.13. Maurice Brodie. Obituaries. Can Med Ass J. June 1939, p. 632.14. Brodie M, Elridge A. The portal of entry and the transmission of the virus of polio-

myelitis. Science. 1934;79:235–37.15. Department of Health. Directive for dealing with outbreaks of smallpox. London: HM

Stationery Office; 1962. p. 24.16. Brodie M. Active immunization against poliomyelitis. J Exp Med. 1932;56:493–505.17. Brodie M. Active immunization in monkeys against poliomyelitis with germicidally

inactivated virus. Science. 1934;79:594–95.18. Paul J. Ill-fated vaccine trials of 1935. In A history of poliomyelitis. New Haven: Yale

University Press; 1971. p. 256.19. Schaeffer M. William H. Park (1863–1939): his laboratory and his legacy. Am J Publ

Health. 1985;75:1296–302.20. Benison S. Tom Rivers: reflections on a life in medicine and science. Cambridge, Mass:

MIT Press; 1967, pp. 183–84.21. Smith J. Patenting the sun. New York: William Morrow; 1990, pp. 71–2.22. Brodie M. Active immunization of children against poliomyelitis with formalin-

inactivated virus suspension. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1934;32:300–02.23. Brodie M, Park W. Active immunization against poliomyelitis. NY State J Med.

1935;35:815–18.24. Brodie M, Park W. Active immunization against poliomyelitis. J Am Med Ass.

1935;105:1089–93.25. Specter of Paralysis stalks Carolina. Literary Digest. 1935;17.26. Paul J. A history of poliomyelitis, pp. 256–57.27. Gilbert R. The tormented President: Calvin Coolidge, death, and clinical depression.

Connecticut: Westport; 2003, pp. 151–63.28. Kolmer J. Susceptibility and immunity in relation to vaccination in acute anterior

poliomyelitis. J Am Med Ass. 1935;105:1956–62.29. Kolmer J. Vaccination against acute anterior poliomyelitis. Am J Publ Health.

1936;26:126–35.

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30. Benison S. Tom Rivers, p. 188.31. Benison S. Tom Rivers, p. 189.32. Leake J. Poliomyelitis following vaccination against this disease. J Am Med Soc.

1935;105:2152.33. Benison S. Tom Rivers, p. 190.34. Brodie M, Park W. Active immunization against poliomyelitis. Am J Publ Health.

1936;26:119–25.35. Marks H. The 1954 Salk poliomyelitis vaccine field trial. Clin Trials. 2011;8:224.36. Schneider J. Polio vaccination. JAMA. 1962;179:988.37. Burnet F, Macnamara J. Immunological differences between strains of poliomy-

elitic virus. Brit J Exp Path. 1931;12:57–61.38. Paul J. A history of poliomyelitis, pp. 233–37.39. Ibid., p. 256.40. Koprowski H. After Pasteur: history of new rabies vaccines. In: Plotkin SA, (ed.)

History of vaccine development, pp. 103–08.41. Programme of the American Medical Assocation 86th Annual Meeting, Atlantic

City, New Jersey, June 1935. JAMA. 1935;104:1739–41.42. New Remedies. JAMA. 1935;104:1605.43. Ibid., p. 1712, 1728, 1753.44. Ibid., p. 1728.45. Flexner S. Concerning active immunization in poliomyelitis. Science. 1935;82:420–21.46. Paul J. A history of poliomyelitis, pp. 261–62.47. Morgan I. Immunization of monkeys with formalin-inactivated poliomyelitis

viruses. Am J Epidemiol. 1948;48:394–406.48. Paul J. A history of poliomyelitis, p. 261.49. Jackson R. Migration of gray squirrels. Science. 1935;82:549–50.

9 Front Runner

1. Smith J. Patenting the sun. Polio and the Salk vaccine. New York: Morrow; 1990, pp. 101–05.

2. Wilson JR. Margin of safety. The story of poliomyelitis vaccine. London: Collins; 1963, p. 75.

3. Smith J. Patenting the sun, pp.103–05. 4. Smith J. Patenting the sun, pp. 106–07. 5. Bodian D, Morgan I, Howe H. Differentiation of types of poliomyelitis viruses. III.

The grouping of fourteen strains into three basic immunological types. Am J Hyg. 1949;49:234–40.

6. Wilson J. Margin of safety. p. 75. 7. Enders J, Weller T, Robbins F. Cultivation of the Lansing strain of poliomyelitis

virus in cultures of various human embryonic tissue. Science. 1949;109:85–57. 8. Youngner J. Monolayer tissue cultures I: preparation and standardization of

suspensions of trypsin-dispersed monkey kidney cells. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1954;85:202–05.

9. Salk JE, Youngner J. Use of color change of phenol red as the indicator in titrating poliomyelitis virus or its antibody in a tissue culture system. Am J Hyg. 1954;60:214–21.

10. Kane F. The Second International Poliomyelitis Conference. A report. Ulster Med J. 1952;21:49–60.

11. Smith J. Patenting the sun, pp. 171–73.

326 Notes

12. Horstmann D, Paul J. The incubation period in human poliomyelitis and its impli-cations. J Am Med Ass. 1947;135:11–4.

13. Salk J, Krech U, Youngner J, Al. E. Formaldehyde treatment and safety testing of experimental poliomyelitis vaccines. Am J Publ Health. 1954;44:563–70.

14. Committee on Typing of the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis. Immuno-logical classification of poliomyelitis viruses: a cooperative program for the typing of one hundred strains. Am J Hyg. 1951;54:191–274.

15. Beecher H. Ethics and clinical research. New Eng J Med. 1966;274:1354.16. Smith J. Patenting the sun, pp. 136–42.17. Offit P. The cutter Incident. New Haven and London: Yale University Press; 2005, p.

39–40.18. Salk J, Bennett BL, Lewis LJ, Ward EN, Youngner JS. Studies in human subjects on

active immunization against poliomyelitis. I. A preliminary report of experiments in progress. JAMA. 1953;151:1081–98.

19. Smith J. Patenting the sun, pp. 144–46.20. The scientist speaks for himself, CBS broadcast, 26 March. 1953.21. The letters of Albert Sabin [Internet]. Albert B. Sabin Digitization Project,

University of Cincinatti. [cited 20 Febraury 2013]. Available from: http://www.libraries.uc.edu/liblog/2011/10/05/the-albert-b-sabin-digitization-project-sabin-and-salk/

22. Hellman H. Greatest feuds in medicine: ten of the liveliest disputes ever. New York: Wiley; 2001, pp. 136–41.

23. Milzer A, Leveson S, Shaughnessy H, et al. Immunogenicity studies in human subjects of trivalent tissue culture poliomyelitis vaccine inactivated by ultraviolet light. Am J Publ Hlth. 1954;44:26–33.

24. Offit P. The cutter Incident, p. 43.25. Albert Sabin to Aimes McGuinness, 15 December 1953. [Internet]. Jonas Salk

Papers. MSS 1. University Library, Mandeville Department of Special Collec-tions, University of California, San Diego. 1953 [cited 20 Febraury 2013]. Available from: http://drc.libraries.uc.edu/bitstream/handle/2374.UC/672775/general_1985–89_039.pdf

26. Smith J. Patenting the sun, p. 88.27. Meldrum M. ‘A calculated risk’: the Salk polio vaccine field trials of 1954. BMJ.

1998;317:1233–36.28. Wilson J. Margin of safety, pp. 87–8.29. Oshinsky D. Polio. An American story. Oxford: OUP; 2006, p. 160.30. Marks H. The 1954 Salk poliomyelitis vaccine field trial. In: Goodman S, Marks

H, Robinson K, (eds) 100 landmark clinical trials. John Wiley and Sons; 2011, p. 224.

31. Smith J. Patenting the sun, p. 231.32. Smith J. Patenting the sun, p.221–23.33. Offit P. The cutter Incident, pp. 45–8.34. Oshinsky D. Polio: an American story. p. 180.35. Carter R. Breakthrough. The saga of Jonas Salk. Wichell W, (ed.) New York: Trident

Press; 1966.36. Smith J. Patenting the sun, p. 253.37. Ibid., pp. 70–1.38. Meeting of the Advisory Committee on Technical Aspects of the Poliomyelitis

Field Trials, 30–31 January, 1954. Alabama Department of Public Health, Polio

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Correspondence, SG014427, Alabama Department of Archives and History. Montgomery, Alabama; 1954.

39. Smith J. Patenting the sun, pp.266–67.40. Carter R. Breakthrough, pp. 229–30.41. Francis Jr TJ. Papers, Bentley Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.42. Smith J. Patenting the sun, pp. 280–85.43. Ibid., p. 318.44. Wilson J. Margin of safety, pp. 96–8.45. Smith J. Patenting the sun, pp. 313–20.46. Offit P. The cutter Incident, p. 62.47. Ibid., p. 48.48. Smith J. Patenting the sun, p. 322–27.49. Fábregas L, Bails J. Youngner proud to be a part of history, still angered by Salk’s

slight [Internet]. 2005 [cited 14 February 2013]. Available from: http://triblive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/specialreports/s_319390.html#axzz2LRG0yO5m

50. Smith J. Patenting the sun, pp. 345–47.51. Wilson J. Margin of safety, p. 100.52. Smith J. Patenting the sun, p. 347.53. Wilson J. Margin of safety. p. 86, pp. 115–16.54. Offit P. The cutter Incident, pp. 59–61.55. Ibid., p. 62.56. Ibid., pp. 72–5.57. Ibid., pp. 75.58. Ibid., pp.63–5.59. Ibid., p.83.60. Nathanson N, Langmuir A. The Cutter incident. Poliomyelitis following formalde-

hyde-inactivated poliovirus vaccination in the United States during the spring of 1955. I. Background. Am J Hyg. 1963;78:16.

61. Nathanson N, Langmuir A. The Cutter incident. Poliomyelitis following formalde-hyde-inactivated poliovirus vaccination in the United States during the spring of 1955. II. Relationship of poliomyelitis to Cutter vaccine. Am J Hyg. 1963;78:29–60.

62. Nathanson N, Langmuir A. The Cutter incident. Poliomyelitis following formal-dehyde-inactivated poliovirus vaccination in the United States during the spring of 1955. III. Comparison of the clinical character of vaccinated and contact cases occurring after use of high-rate lots of. Am J Hyg. 1963;78:61.

63. Gard S. Discussion on Induction of long-term immunity to paralytic poliomy-elitis by use of non-infectious vaccine. Papers and discussions presented at the Third international Poliomyelitis Conference, Rome, 6–11 September 1954. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott; 1955.

64. Wilson J. Margin of safety, p. 108.65. Ibid., p. 116.66. Wilson J. Margin of safety, p. 116.67. Ibid., p. 113–15.68. Offit P. The cutter Incident, p. 119.69. Wilson J. Margin of safety, pp. 117–19.70. Offit P. The cutter Incident, p. 133–43.71. Ibid., pp. 113–15.72. CDC Cases & Deaths [Internet]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs

/pinkbook/downloads/appendices/G/cases&deaths

328 Notes

10 Poles Apart

1. Williams G. More fatal than smallpox. In Angel of Death. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan; 2010, pp. 256–82.

2. Jenner E. The origin of the vaccine inoculation. Massachusetts, London: DN Shury; 1801. 3. Sabin A. Properties and behaviour of orally administered attenuated poliovirus

vaccine. J Am Med Ass 1957;164:1216–23. 4. Berkovich S, Pickering J, Kibrick S. Paralytic poliomyelitis in Massachussetts,

1959: a study of the disease in a well-vaccinated population. New Engl J Med. 1961;264:1323–27.

5. Vaughn R. Listen to the music: the life of Hilary Koprowski. Berlin: Springer; 2000. 6. Theiler M, Smith H. The use of yellow fever virus modified by in vitro cultivation

for human immunization. J Exp Med. 1937;65:787–800. 7. McDade JE. Historical Aspects of Q Fever. In Marrie TJ, (ed.) Q Fever, Volume I:

The Disease. CRC Press; 1990, p. 8. 8. Koprowski H, Cox HR. Studies on chick embryo adapted rabies vaccine. I. Culture

characteristics and pathogenicity. J Immunol. 1948;60:533–54. 9. Interview with GW, Ardmore, Pennsylvania, 7 November 2011.10. Armstrong C. Successful transfer of the Lansing strain of poliomyelitis virus from

the cotton rat to the white mouse. Publ Health Rep. 1939;54:2302–05.11. Koprowski H, Plotkin S. History of Koprowski vaccine against poliomyelitis.

In Plotkin S, (ed.) History of vaccine development. New York: Springer; 2011, pp. 155–66.

12. Maxcy K. Proceedings of a Round-Table Conference on Immunization in Poliomyelitis, Hershey, Pennsylvania, March 15–17 1951. New York: National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis; 1951, p. 1.

13. Carter R. Breakthrough. The saga of Jonas Salk. Wichell W, (ed.) New York: Trident Press; 1966, p. 171.

14. Benison S. Tom Rivers: reflections on a life in medicine and science. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press; 1967, p. 465–67.

15. Koprowski H, Jervis GA, Norton TW. Immune responses in human volunteers upon oral administration of a rodent-adapted strain of poliomyelitis virus. Am J Hyg. 1952; 55:109–116.

16. Poliomyelitis: a new approach. Lancet. 1953; 259:552.17. Plotkin SA. CHAT oral polio vaccine was not the source of human immunodefi-

ciency virus type 1 group M for humans. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32:1068–84.18. Koprowski H, Norton TW, Hummeler K et al. Immunization of infants with living

attenuated poliomyelitis virus. JAMA. 1956;162:1281–88.19. Tyrrell D. George Williamson Auchinvole Dick. Munk’s Roll 1997. London: Royal

College of Physicians; 1997, p. 107.20. Personal communication. Alan Trudgett, Belfast, 27 May 2011.21. Personal communication. Joan Williams, Perth, 17 March 2012.22. Dick G, Dane D. Vaccination against poliomyelitis with live virus vaccines. 3. The

evaluation of TN and SM virus vaccines. BMJ. 1957;1:70–4.23. Dane DS, Dick GWA, Connolly JH et al. Vaccination against poliomyelitis with live

virus vaccines. 1. A trial of TN type II vaccine. BMJ. 1957;1: 59–65.24. Dick GWA, Dane DS, Fisher OD et al. Vaccination against poliomyelitis with live

virus vaccines. 2. A trial of SM type I attenuated poliomyelitis virus vaccine. BMJ. 1957;1:65–70.

329Notes

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26. Plotkin SA. Recent results of mass immunization against poliomyelitis with Koprowski strains of attenuated live poliovirus. Am J Publ Health. 1962; 52: 946–60.

27. Courtois G, Flack A, Jervis GA et al. Preliminary report on mass vaccination of man with live attenuated poliomyelitis virus in the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi. BMJ. 1958;2:187–90.

28. Plotkin S. History of rubella vaccines and the recent history of cell culture. In Plotkin S, (ed.) History of vaccine development, p. 226.

29. Don Francis, interview with GW, Berkeley, Gloucs., 20 May 2011.30. Oshinsky D. Polio. An American story. Oxford: OUP; 2005, p. 138.31. Skeptics Forum [Internet]. Available from: http://tech.dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/

skeptics-forum/message/100632. Matysiak A. Albert B. Sabin: the development of an oral vaccine against poliomyelitis.

University of Cincinatti; 2005, pp. 22–33.33. Benison S. Tom Rivers, p. 182.34. Sabin AB. ‘Stained slide’ microscopic agglutination test. Application to (1) rapid

typing of pneumococci; (2) determination of antibody. Am J Publ Health 1929;26:492–96.

35. Sabin AB, Park WH, Jungeblut CW. Nature of skin reactions produced by heat-inactivated poliomyelitis virus: reaction of persons convalescing from poliomyelitis and of normal persons to intracutaneous injections of heat-inactivated virus. Arch Int Med. 1933;51:878–889.

36. Sabin A, Wright W. Acute ascending myelitis following a monkey bite, with the isolation of a virus capable of reproducing the disease. J Exp Med. 1934;59(2):115–36.

37. Smith J. Patenting the sun. Polio and the Salk vaccine. New York: Morrow; 1990. p. 147–8.

38. Olitsky P, Sabin AB. Comparative effectiveness of various chemical sprays in protecting monkeys against nasally-instilled poliomyelitis virus. Proc Soc Exper Biol Med. 1937;36:532–35.

39. Sabin AB to Olitsky PK. Telegram, 12 September 1935, Box OL3, Sabin File 7, Peter Olitsky papers, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.

40. Sabin AB, Olitsky PK. Cultivation of poliomyelitis virus in vitro in human embryonic nervous tissue. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine (New York, NY). Royal Society of Medicine; 1936, pp. 357–59.

41. Sabin AB, Olitsky PK. Influence of pathway of infection on pathology of olfactory bulbs in experimental poliomyelitis. Proc Soc Exper Biol Med. 1936; 35: 300–01.

42. Matysiak A. Albert B. Sabin, p. 88.43. Sabin A. The olfactory bulbs in human poliomyelitis. Am J Dis Child. 1940;

60:1313–18.44. Matysiak A. Albert B. Sabin. p. 100.45. Flexner S. Concerning active immunization in poliomyelitis. Science. 1935;

82:420–21.46. Matysiak A. Albert B. Sabin, pp. 101–03.47. Ibid., p. 110.48. Oshinsky D. Polio. An American story, pp. 142–43.49. Benison S. Tom Rivers, p. 465.

330 Notes

50. Offit P. The cutter Incident. New Haven and London: Yale University Press; 2005, p. 47.51. Sabin A. Present position of immunization against poliomyelitis with live virus

vaccines. BMJ. 1959;1:663–82.52. Sabin AB, Boulger LR. History of Sabin attenuated poliovirus oral live vaccine

strains. J. Biol. Stand. 1973;1:115–18.53. Matysiak A. Albert B. Sabin, p. 138.54. Rothman D, Rothman S. The Willowbrook wars. A decade of struggle for social justice.

New York: Harper and Row; 1984.55. Matysiak A. Albert B. Sabin. p. 166.56. Sabin AB, Hennessen WA, Winsser J. Studies on variants of poliomyelitis virus:

experimental segregation and properties of avirulent variants of three immuno-logic types. J Exp Med. 1954;99:551–76.

57. Smith J. Patenting the sun. p. 123.58. Matysiak A. Albert B. Sabin, pp. 156–59.59. Horstmann DH, Melnick JL. Poliomyelitis in chimpanzees. Studies in homologous

and heterologous immunity following inapparent infection. J Exp Med. 1950; 91:573–97.

60. Matysiak A, Albert B. Sabin, pp. 192–200.61. Chumakov M, Sarmanova E, Bychkova M, Al E. Identification of Kemerovo

tick-borne fever virus and its antigenic independence. Fed Proc Trans Suppl. 1964;23:852–54.

62. One-dose oral vaccine against polio revealed. Washington Post, 7 October 1956.63. Sabin A. Oral poliovirus vaccine: history of its development and use and current

challenge to eliminate poliomyelitis from the world. J Infect Dis. 1985;151, 423.64. Sabin AB Role of my cooperation with Soviet scientists in the elimination of polio:

possible lessons for relations between the U.S.A. and the USSR. Perspect Biol Med. 1987;31:57–64.

65. World Health Organisation, Pan-American Sanitary Bureau. Live Poliovirus Vaccines: papers and discussions held at the First International WHO Conference on live poliovirus vaccines, Washington DC, 12–17 July 1959. Geneva: WHO; 1960.

66. Hooper E. The River: a journey back to the source of HIV and AIDS. Boston, Mass: Little, Brown & Co; 1999, p. 212.

67. Horstmann D. The Sabin live poliovirus vaccination trials in the USSR, 1959. Yale J of Biology and Medicine. 1991;64:499–512.

68. Horstmann D. Report on a visit to the USSR, Poland and Czechoslovakia to review work on a live poliovirus vaccine, August–October 1959. Unpublished.

69. US Department of Health, Education and Welfare. CDC Poliomyelitis Surveillance Report no. 218. Atlanta, GA: US Dept Health Educ Welfare; 1960.

70. Sabin AB, Pelon W, Spigland I et al. Community-wide use of oral polioivirus vaccine. Am J Dis Child. 1961;101:46–55.

71. Matysiak A. Albert B. Sabin, pp. 255–56.72. Pan-American Health Organisation. Scientific publication no. 50. Washington DC:

PAHO; 1960.73. US Congress. House of Representatives Committee on manufacture of live virus

polio vaccine and results of utilization of killed virus polio vaccine, 16–17 March 1961. Washington DC: US Government; 1961, pp. 13–52.

74. Albrecht R, Bigwood D, Levy W, Al. E. Oral poliovirus vaccination program in Central New York State, 1961. Publ Health Rep. 1963;78:403–12.

75. Matysiak A. Albert B. Sabin, pp. 265–66.76. Ibid., p. 261, 268.

331Notes

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78. Matysiak A. Albert B. Sabin, p. 268.79. Matysiak A. Albert B. Sabin, p. 2.

11 In the Opposite Corner

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8. Isolation of wild poliovirus type 3 among members of a religious community objecting to vaccination – Alberta, Canada, 1993. MMWR (Morb Mortal Wkly Rep) 1993;42:337–39.

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24. Smith CE, Simpson DI, Bowen ET, Zlotnic I. Fatal human disease from vervet monkeys. Lancet. 1967;2:1119–21.

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attenuated poliomyelities virus in Leopoldville, Belgian Congo 1. Description of the city, its history of poliomyelitis, and the plan of the vaccination campaign. Bull World Health Organ. 1960;22:203–13.

28. Elswood B, Stricker R. Polio vaccines and the origin of AIDS (letter). Res Virol. 1993;144:175–77.

29. Curtis T. The origin of AIDS. Rolling Stone, 19 March 1992, pp. 54–60.30. Koprowski H. AIDS and the polio vaccine. Science. 1993;257:1024.31. Hooper E. The River: a journey back to the source of HIV and AIDS. Boston, Mass:

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AAchilles tendon, 146active immunity, 166, 169,

174adhesion molecules, 270adrenaline, 93Afghanistan, 27, 265, 293,

294, 303–4Africa, 229–30, 251–2,

263–4Afridi, Shikal, 294Ahmed, Datti, 264AIDS pandemic, 82,

256–63alcohol, 58Alda, Alan, 26algal toxins, 59alternative therapies,

254–5, 263American Heart

Association, 126American Medical

Association (AMA), 139, 189, 201, 245

American Society of Public Health, St. Louis meeting of, 183–6, 190

Amoss, Harold, 79, 102–3Am Spiegelgrund, 41–2anaesthetics, 145ancient Egypt, 5, 7Andersen, Vivi, 284–5Anderson, Donald, 134,

135animals

blamed for trans-mission, 99–102

research on, 24, 40, 69, 81, 95–6, 100, 102–7, 162–4, 174–5, 177, 179, 182–3, 185, 190, 195, 201, 204, 211, 223, 227–8, 237

anterior horn, 20, 36anterior poliomyelitis, 21anterior ramus, 20

antibiotics, 69, 138, 139antibodies, 74–6, 109, 166,

169, 188antidotes, 165–6antisepsis, 145Apostolic Church, 251–2Armstrong, Charles, 96–7,

106, 107, 223Arrowsmith (Lewis), 129arsenic, 37, 56, 60–2Arthritis Foundation, 126artificial respiration, 46–7,

151–9asbestos, 210ascorbic acid, 163–5Association pour les

Paralysés de France, 130

asthma, 300asymptomatic carriers, 15Atlantic City AMA

Conference, 189atrophy of disuse, 143atropine, 58–9attenuation/attenuated

vaccines, 173–4, 182–3, 190, 219, 223, 224, 237, 270

see also live vaccinesaxons, 20

BBaba Utca Rehabilitation

Home, 51–3Bacille Calmette-Guérin

(BCG), 174Bacillus X (BX), 86bacteria, 21–2, 55, 70–2bacterial infections, 139bacterial meningitis, 29,

36, 38, 39Badham, John, 10Bang respirator, 160Barré, Jean-Alexandre, 39Bates, Paul, 41, 157, 158Bath, England, 113–14Bay of Fundy, 120, 265

bedbugs, 101bed rest, 141Belgian Congo, 229–30,

253, 257, 259Bell, Joseph, 203Belli, Melvin, 216Bergenholtz, Nils, 10beriberi, 70–1, 85, 88Berkefelt candle, 69, 72,

73, 79Berry, Mary, 158Betty Bacharach Home for

Crippled Children, 4Bevan, Aneurin, 150Bhanu, Rahima, 303Bible, 4–5Bible Belt, Dutch 249–52bin Laden, Osama, 294biological weapons, 302–3Biskind, Morton J., 64–5,

68, 262biting stable flies, 100, 101,

105–6Black polio victims, 127bleeding, 139, 140Blegdams Hospital, 45–7blistering, 139, 140blood-brain barrier, 73blood groups, 23Bodian, David, 91, 92, 98,

105, 190, 194, 204Both, Arnold, 155Both, Edward, 155Both respirator, 155–6Botswana, 264Bovril, 189Bradford frame, 142, 143,

151Bradley, W. H., 131Bragg, William Henry, 82Bragg, William Lawrence,

82–3brain lesions, 17brain washout therapy, 39,

298breathing, control of 30–1Brebner, William, 233

Index

346 Index

Briggs, Moya, 227British Anti-Lewisite

(BAL), 165, 262British Polio Fellowship,

296Brockman, poliovirus

strain, 223Brodie, Maurice, 106,

129, 176–7, 179–80, 183–93, 231, 260, 286

Bronze Age, 5Brues, C., 105–6Brunenders, poliovirus

strain, 272Brunhilde, poliovirus

strain, 82bulbar paralysis, 30, 31Burnet, Macfarlane, 81,

187, 239, 286, 297Burstall, Aubrey, 159B virus, 233, 243

Ccallipers, 146calomel, 140camomile, 140Campobello Island, 120–1Canada

polio outbreaks in, 42–5vaccine availability in,

210Canadian Foundation for

Poliomyelitis, 131cancer, 256cantharidin, 139Cantor, Eddie, 124–5Carey, Patricia, 131, 132Carson, Rachel, 66, 67cats, as vectors of polio

100, 118causation, theories of

poliomyelitis, 54–68, 72–88

cautery, 139Caverly, Charles, 16–17,

56, 99Cello, Jeronimo, 271cerebrospinal fluid (CSF),

37–9charcoal, 300Charcot, Jean-Martin, 3,

21, 32, 39CHAT poliovirus strain,

82, 225, 229–30, 259–60

chemical toxins, causing paralytic illnesses 37, 56–68

Chesterfield Inlet polio outbreak, 42–5

childhood diseases, 2, 26Chillicothe Federal

Reformatory , 238chimpanzees, 105, 259–60chiropractic, 255cholera, 13, 26, 41, 54, 55,

115, 169, 173Christianity, opposition

to polio vaccines 249–52

Chumakov, Mikhail, 240, 241, 242, 245

Cincinnati, Ohio, 62–3Cincinnati-Hamilton,

trials of Sabin polio vaccine, 244

circulating VDPV (cVDPV), 275

Clarke, Arthur C., 26Clevedon respirator, 160clinical trials, design

201–2, 226–8, 299–300

Clinton, Bill, 301–2Clinton Farms, New Jersey

225cobra venom, 165Cold War, 209Coleman, Tom, 133Collier’s, 163Colmer, George, 10Communicable Disease

Center (CDC), 214, 245

Congressional Gold medal, awarded to Jonas Salk 209–10, 285

Connaught Laboratories, 204

conspiracy theories, 252–66

constipation, 157contagion, 55convalescent serum

therapy, 169, 300Cooke, Alastair, 209Coolidge, Calvin, 182Coppola, Francis Ford, 26Cordier, S., 11, 54

Cortez, Luis Fermín Tenorio, 27, 290

cotton rats, 106–7, 223counter-irritants, 139cowpox vaccine, 169–71,

218cow’s milk, 58Cox, Herald, 221–3, 226,

228, 239, 247Coxsackie virus A7,

36, 84Coxsackie virus B4, 84Coxsackie viruses, 84–5,

272Crick, Francis, 83, 127,

286Crimes of the Cowpox Ring,

252The Crippler, 134–5Croatia, 229, 243crystals, poliovirus 83Cuba, 273cuirass, 159, 160Cunningham, Orval,

138–9Cunningham Tank

Therapy, 176cupping, 139, 140cure

see also treatmentssearch for, 168

Curtis, Tom, 258–9Cutter Incident, 188–9,

211–16, 238, 247, 256, 288

Cutter Pharmaceuticals, 189, 211–16, 238

cytopathic effect, 195Czechoslovakia, 242–3Czerny, Adalbert, 16

DDane, David, 226dark-field illumination, 23Davis, Nancy, 135DDT, see dichloro-

diphenyl-trichlo-roethane (DDT)

deformities, 32–4de Kruif, Paul, 128–9,

204, 231Democratic Republic of

Congo, 229Denmark, polio outbreak

in, 45–7

347Index

developing countries, polio incidence in 109

diabetes, nerve damage in 20

diagnosis of polio, 36–40diaphragm, 30–1diarrhoea, 140diatomite, 286dichloro-diphenyl-trichlo-

roethane (DDT), 63–7, 101–2, 262

Dick, George, 226–8, 239, 247

diphtheria, 2, 55, 177–8disease theories, 54–68Dochez, A. R., 69double-blind trials, 202–3,

299Draper, George, 69, 94,

128, 297Drinker, Philip, 153–4‘dromedary’ pattern, 29drug companies, 216

price-fixing by, 210vaccine production by,

211D.T. Wilson Home for

Crippled Children, 199

Dudley, England, 115Dulbecco, Renato, 239,

287Dutch Bible Belt, 249–52

EEbert, Vivi, 45–7, 284–5Eddy, Bernice, 211, 214,

256Edison, Thomas, 220Egypt, 275Egyptian frieze, 5, 7Eighteenth Dynasty,

Egyptian 5, 7Eijkman, Christiaan, 85Eisenhower, Dwight D.,

209–10, 285electricity, in treatment of

polio 161electron microscope,

76, 82electrotherapy, 161Eli Lilly, 75, 204, 216Elswood, Baine, 258Emerson, John Haven, 99,

117–18, 154

Emerson respirator, 154–5

Enders, John, 87, 107–8, 127, 195, 196, 215, 234, 272, 286, 288, 297

England, see Great Britainenteroviruses, 4, 36, 84–5,

89, 271–2epidemics, 26–7Epstein-Barr virus, 36exercise, 92–3, 141

FFaber, Harold, 87faecal-oral transmission

route, 89–90, 91, 106, 240

Farkas, Aladar, 141Farrow, Mia, 26fear of polio, 112–13,

116–17, 119–20, 133–5, 168, 302, 303

Fever in acute polio, 28, 30

fever therapy, 138, 139filterable virus, 17, 23, 24,

56, 69, 71, 72Finch, John, 83Flanders, Michael, 131Flexner, Simon, 25, 56,

77–80, 82, 87, 95–9, 102–3, 106, 129, 138, 164, 166, 174–5, 177, 178, 185, 189, 233, 235–7, 276–7, 288, 289, 298

flies, role in transmission of polio, 100–2, 105–6

flu vaccine, 194, 196, 198, 265

Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 163

food sources, 57–60foot-and-mouth disease,

23forced spinal drainage

(Retan therapy), 161–3, 189

formaldehyde, 58formalin, 90, 177, 198,

210, 214, 286Fox, John, 220, 223, 225Fracastoro, Girolamo, 54

France, polio outbreak in, 10–11

Francis, Tom, 205–6, 208Franklin, Rosalind, 83–4Frauenthal, Henry, 32, 70,

99, 140, 141, 144, 147, 152, 161

fruit flies, role in trans-mission of polio, 101

fruits, role in transmission of polio, 57

fugu fish, 59fund-raising, 119, 122–35,

168, 196–7

GGallagher, Hugh, 158Gard, Sven, 214, 273,

287–8germ theory, 11, 54, 55–6,

73, 262germ warfare, 302–3Gilot, Françoise, 192, 281Ginger Jake, 62–3, 67Global Polio Eradication

Initiative (GPEI), 27, 290–4, 304

globoid bodies, 77–80, 87glucose, 93–4Goldberger, Joseph, 85gorillas, 105Gottsdanker, Anne,

215–16great apes, 105Great Britain

polio outbreaks in, 26–7, 47–9, 111, 113–15

vaccination in, 272Great Depression, 123Greek Society for the

Protection of Crippled Children, 131

Green, Johnny, 113grey matter, 19, 254Gross, Harry, 63Gross, Samuel, 140Guillain, Georges, 39Guillain-Barré syndrome

(GBS), 39–40, 244, 278

guinea worm, 303

HHahnemann, Samuel, 255Hall, Jeff, 272

348 Index

Hammond, William, 167Heine, Jacob von, 4, 8–10,

16, 20, 144, 145Heine-Medin disease, 4,

10Hektoen, Ludvig, 71–2,

86, 189Henderson, D. A., 274Henderson, Yandell, 153Henry, William, 82–3hepatitis A, 267herd immunity, 44, 245,

249high-pressure oxygen tank

(Cunningham Tank therapy), 138–9

Hippocrates, 57His fighting chance, 113,

134Hispaniola, 275HIV/AIDS, 256–61, 262–3Hobby, Oveta Culp, 207,

210, 215Holland, 273homoeopoathy, 255Hooper, Edward, 259–61Hoover, Herbert, 122–3hormonal imbalances, in

causation of polio, 93Horstmann, Dorothy, 92,

105, 243–4, 282Howard, L. O., 101Howe, Howard, 105Howitt, Beatrice, 76Hudson Bay polio

outbreak, 42–5human experimentation,

41–2, 199, 224–5, 237–8, 300–2

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 82, 256–61

Hungary, polio outbreak in, 51–3

hydrotherapy, 144hygiene, role in polio

transmission, 89, 109, 116

IIbsen, Bjorn, 46–7, 160,

284immobilisation, 141–3,

147, 151immune cells, 90–1

immune serum, 166–7immunity, 40–1, 74, 90,

109, 169, 184, 189, 197–8, 236, 240

active, 166, 169, 174herd, 44, 245, 249intestinal, 109, 218, 219,

238, 243, 272passive, 166, 175

inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), 178, 180, 184, 188, 190, 194, 196–204, 213–16, 272, 273, 275

incidence of polio, 114–15, 217

incubation period, 15India, 293infantile paralysis, 3, 20

see also polioInfantile Paralysis

Fellowship, 131–3, 296infants, immunity in, 109infection, 55Infection Surveillance

Unit, 214, 216infectious agent, 69–70

attenuation of, 173–4, 182–3

killing (inactivation) of, 173, 177

search for, 21–5, 70–88infectious disease, 54–7

deaths from, 115–16research on, 70–2

influenza, 2, 194, 267insect transmission,

99–102insecticides, 63–6insulin in experimental

polio, 93–4intensive care nursing, 154intermittent positive

pressure ventilation (IPPV), 160–1

International Conference of Eradication of Infectious Diseases, 1980, 290

International Poliomyelitis Conferences, 128

Internet, 262, 263intestinal immunity,

109, 218, 219, 238, 243, 272

Inuit, 43–56, 89, 94iron lung hallucinations,

158iron lungs, 48, 116, 138,

151–9isolation, 141, 142

JJacobi, Mary Putnam, 11,

21, 140, 161‘Jake walk’, 67Jamaica Ginger, 62–3, 67Japan, 273Jenner, Edward, 139,

169–71, 172, 218, 248, 252

Jervis, George, 224jimson weed, 58–9Johnson, M. H. F., 167Johnston, John, 49–51Johnstone, Donald, 36joint fusion, 147Jones, Robert, 147, 276Journal of the American

Medical Association (JAMA), 175–6

Journal of the Crippled Child, 4

Jungenblut, Claus, 93, 164, 232, 297

KKano, Nigeria, 263–4Kempe, Henry, 201Kempf, Emerson, 94Kennedy, John F., 245Kenny, Elizabeth, 126,

147–51, 279–80Kenny Clinics, 149–50Kerr, Randy, 204–5killing (inactivation), 177

see also inactivated polio vaccine (IPV)

Klenner, Frederick R., 164–5

Klimt, Gustav, 21Kling, Carl, 103, 105–6Klug, Aaron, 83Koch, Hedwig, 88Koch, Robert, 11, 13, 55,

70, 71, 73, 85, 87, 88Kolmer, John, 176, 180,

181–91Koprowski, Hilary, 258,

283–4, 289

349Index

AIDS controversy and, 259–63

polio vaccine of, 190, 194, 197, 219–30, 237, 239, 243, 247, 257

recognition for, 285–6Kramer, Sidney, 163Krugman, Saul, 301Kussmaul, Albert, 3

LLaboratory for Biologics

Control, 211Landry, Jean-Bernard, 39Landsteiner, Karl, 22–5,

54, 69, 71, 72, 102, 254, 286, 297

Langmuir, Alex, 214, 245Lansing poliovirus strain,

82Lasker Award, 285late effects of polio (LEP),

34–5see also post-polio

syndromeLathyrus sativus (Indian

grass pea), 255‘Law of Similars’, 255lead, in paralytic illnesses,

37, 56, 60–2Leake, James P., 185–6Lederberg, Joshua, 239Lederle Laboratories, 221,

226, 228, 239, 247leeches, 139, 140leg braces, 145, 146Leon poliovirus strain, 82leprosy, 20Letchworth Village, 224,

225, 226Levaditi, Constantin, 24,

103, 107Lewin, Philip, 26, 147Lewis, Paul, 79, 174Lewis, Sinclair, 24, 129Lewisite, 165Leyden Jar, 161Li, C. P., 107Lindsay, Donna, 193Lister, Joseph, 173Little, Kenneth, 250, 252Little, Lora C., 252, 255,

263liver extract, in treatment

of asthma, 300

live vaccines, 182–4, 189, 192, 194, 213–16, 223, 272

see also oral polio vaccine (OPV)

Logrippo, Gerald, 80Lovett, Robert W., 56,

59–60, 62, 119, 121, 143, 144, 147, 161, 276, 278

Lubomirski, Raphael Napoleonovich, 175–6

lumbar puncture, 37–9, 47–8, 140, 141

luxation, 255Lynn, Vera, 131

MMaalin, Ali Maow, 303MacLean, Alistair, 302,

303Macnamara, Jean, 81, 187Mahler, Gustav, 21Mahoney poliovirus

strain, 81–2, 197–8, 213, 215, 237

Makumbe, Beauty, 252Makumbe, Jeremiah, 252malaria, 26, 55, 64, 102,

304Manning, Jacolyn, 32, 70,

99, 100, 101, 102, 140, 141, 152

Marange, Johanne, 251–2Marburg virus, 257March of Dimes, 124–30,

133–5, 279, 296March of Pennies, 132–3Marwat, Abdul Ghani, 265massage, in treatment of

polio, 143, 144Matysiak, Angela, 247McAlpine, Douglas, 40McBean, Eleanor, 57,

254–5, 262McCare, James, 160measles, 2, 26, 70,

115–16, 251mechanical aids in polio

rehabilitation, 144–5mechanical ventilation,

151–9medicinal drugs in

treating polio, 140

Medin, Karl Oscar, 4, 11–13, 16, 55–6

Melnick, Joseph, 91, 101meninges, 19, 28–9meningitis, 29, 36, 39mentally handicapped

children/adults, 301polio vaccine testing

on, 41–2, 199, 224–5, 237–8

Menzies, Frederick, 156mercury salts in treating

polio, 138, 140Metzger, Dr., 143–4Miasma theory, 13, 54,

55–6Middleton, Julie, 158milk, role in transmission

of polio, 58milk sickness, 58Milzer, Albert, 201, 214Mitchell, Joni, 26molecular biology of

poliovirus, 267–272monkeys, polio research

on, 24, 40, 69, 73, 75, 79, 81, 95–6, 99–100, 102–7, 162–4, 174–5, 177, 179, 182–3, 185, 190, 195, 201, 204, 211, 223, 227–8, 237

monoplegia, 30Monteggia, Giovanni

Battista, 8Moody, Joseph P., 43–5Morena, Frederic, 131,

132, 133Morena, Mini, 132Morgan, Isabel, 190Morris, William, 155mortality rate in polio, 17motoneurones, 2, 4, 20,

30–1, 93Muller, Paul, 64mumps, 251MV poliovirus strain,

102–3, 107, 182, 187, 234

NNathanson, Neal, 92, 214National Foundation for

Infantile Paralysis (NFIP), 104, 124–30, 133–5, 145, 168, 196,

350 Index

196–7, 242, 278–9, 296

National Institutes of Health (NIH), 126

Nazis, medicine under the, 41–2, 199, 300

Nelmes, Sarah, 171Neolithic era, 5neosalvarsan, 138nerve damage causing

paralysis, 20Netter, A., 166neuropathology, 17–18neurovirulence, 270New Deal, 123Newton, Sir Isaac, 169New York City, polio

epidemic of 1916, 2, 100, 117–19, 167

niacin, 85Nigeria, 27, 248, 263–4,

293Nineteenth Dynasty,

Egyptian, 5Nobel, Alfred, 286Nobel Prize, 24, 64, 87,

107–8, 286–8Noguchi, Hideyo, 77–80,

87, 220, 288, 298norovirus, 267Norton, Tom, 221, 223nose, as polio transmission

route, 94–9, 105, 106, 235

Nuffield, Lord (William Morris), 155–6

Nuremberg Code, 238, 300, 301

Nuremberg Medical War Crimes Trials, 199, 300

nursing care in polio, 138, 154

OO’Connor, Basil, 122–6,

128–30, 135–6, 149, 167, 196, 203, 204, 207–8, 210, 278–9, 300

Odell, Diane, 158Okatie Farms, 104olfactory theory of polio

transmission, 94–9, 105, 106, 235

Olitsky, Peter K., 95, 107, 233–4, 282, 298

Operation Tyburn, 107oral polio vaccine (OPV),

219, 224, 228, 230, 236–47, 272–5, 291

oral transmission, 89–91orangutan, 105orthopaedic surgery in

treatment of polio, 145–7

‘orthomolecular medicine’, 165

Osler, William, 55, 58, 71, 140

Ppain relief in polio

treatment, 145Pakchanian, Ardrozny,

107Pakistan, 27, 248, 265,

293, 294, 303–4Pan American Health

Organisation (PAHO), 290

paracetamol, 66paralysis, 4, 20, 28, 29–30,

32–3, 37as complication of

vaccine, 256, 274–5precipitating factors,

92–3paraplegia, 30Paris Green, 60–1Park, William H., 129,

176, 177–80, 183, 192–3, 231–2, 260

Parke-Davis, 204, 216passive immunity, 166,

169, 175Pasteur, Louis, 70, 87, 169,

173–4Paul, John, 91, 103–4, 166,

188, 190, 296, 301Pauling, Linus, 165Peabody, Francis W., 69Pearl Harbor, 193, 265peer review, 298pellagra, 70, 85Penfield, Wilder, 176–7penicillin, 139, 301Pepper, William, 11peripheral nerves, 20, 92Perlman, Itzhak, 26

personal experiences of polio survivors, 42–53

pesticides, supposed role in polio causation, 57, 262

Pettersson, Alfred, 105Pfizer, 263Pharaoh Siptah, 5Phipps, James, 171physical therapy, 143–4Picasso, Pablo, 281Pierce, Susan, 213Pitzman, Marsh,

58–9, 68Pius XII, Pope, 128placebos, 202–3, 299plague, 5, 13, 55, 88, 99,

169, 173plaster casts, 141–3Plotkin, Stanley, 260pneumonia, 154Pohl, J. F., 149The poisoned needle, 254poisons, role in polio

causation, 165–6Poland, 229, 243polio (poliomyelitis)

current state of knowledge, 296

damage caused by, 26–35

diagnosis of, 36–40eradication of, 27,

290–5, 303–5fear of, 2–3, 112–13,

116–17, 119–20, 133–5, 168, 302–3

history of, 4–17, 296–305

identification of clinical disease, 3–4

incidence of, 114–15, 217as infectious disease,

15–16, 54–7late effects of, 116see also post-polio

syndromenames for, 3–4outcomes of acute

attack, 28–9, 40–2seasonality of, 2, 109spread of, 15, 80–110symptoms of, 1–2,

11–13, 28–30

351Index

theories on causes of, 54–68

treatments for, 138–68victims of, 27, 32–4,

42–53, 284–5as viral infection, 69–70

polioencephalitis, 31–2polio epidemics, 2, 10–13,

16, 26–7, 111–20, 167, 219

Polio Hall of Fame, 288–9‘poliomyelitic bacteria’, 70,

71–2, 85–8‘poliomyelitic strepto-

coccus’, 72–7, 85–6poliomyelitis, 3–4

see also poliopolio research, 17–25,

69–88, 120, 297–9on animals, 24, 40, 69,

81, 95–6, 100, 102–7, 162–4, 174–5, 177, 179, 182–5, 190, 195, 201, 204, 211, 223, 227–8, 237

competition in, 298fund-raising for, 119,

122–35, 168, 196–7human experimen-

tation, 41–2, 199, 224–5, 237–8, 300–2

by Salk, 194–6tissue culture, 107–8on transmission, 89–110on vaccine development,

168–91polio vaccines, 26, 27, 57,

90, 92, 108, 125–9, 136, 166

see also attenuated and live polio vaccines

attenuated, 173–4, 182–3, 190, 219, 223, 224, 237, 270

‘Brodie-Kolmer fiasco’ and, 176–91

Brodie-Park vaccine, 184, 185–91

clinical trials of, 201–2, 226–8, 300

competition to develop, 174–5, 200–1

complications from, 82, 184, 188, 213–16, 256, 274–5

contaminants in, 256Cutter incident and,

188–9, 211–16, 238, 247, 256, 288

development of, 168–91, 196–204

drawbacks of, 219field trials of, 202–8,

244Flexner and, 189HIV/AIDS and, 256–63immunity provided by,

218, 219, 238, 240inactivated, 178, 180,

184, 188, 190, 194, 196–204, 213–16, 272, 273, 275

Kolmer, 181–91Koprowski’s work on,

219–30, 243live, 182–4, 189,

192, 194, 213–16, 223, 272

in Muslim countries, 263–5

negative attitudes toward, 189–90

opposition to, 248–66oral, 219, 224, 228, 230,

236–47, 272–5, 291preclinical testing of,

199pricing of, 210refinements of, 210–11results of, 207–8Sabin’s, 230–1, 236–47,

272–5, 291sabotage of Salk vaccine,

204safety of, 211, 218Salk’s, 188, 192–217,

225–6, 238, 240, 243–5, 272–3, 275

success of, 216–17testing of, 211, 224, 225,

237–8, 300–2trivalent, 81

poliovirus, 4, 28, 267–72attenuation of, 223, 237,

270culturing, 234denialists of, 261–3elusive nature of, 81–2inactivation methods,,

198–9, 275

invasion of target cell by, 269–70

replication by, 267–8RNA sequence of, 270–2strains of, 81–2, 194–5,

225, 234structure of, 82–4, 269synthesis of, 271transmission of, 89–110

poliovirus receptor (PVR), 269–70

Polk School, 199Popper, Erwin, 24posterior rami, 20postpolio syndrome (PPS),

34–5see also late effects of

poliopostvaccinal encephalitis,

188Power, M. E., 101President’s Birthday Ball

Commission, 123–4, 128, 129, 179

prisoners, research on, 238, 301

Puliyel, Jacob, 296Pulmotor, 152–3purges, in treatment of

polio, 140pyretotherapy, 138

Qal-Qaradawi, Yusuf, 264Queen’s University of

Belfast, 226–8

Rrabies, 70, 79, 87, 169,

173–4, 188, 222–3rats, as experimental

models of polio, 106–7

Redgrave, Michael, 113red-hot pokers (cautery),

in treatment of polio, 140

‘red tide’, 59Reisman, Max, 63religious objections, to

vaccination, 249–52research, see polio

researchresearch ethics, 237–8,

300–2

352 Index

residential homes, for polio survivors, 41–2

respiration, control of, 30–1

artificial, 151–9Retan, George, 39, 162–3,

189, 298Rhesus monkeys, 104rhinoviruses, 84Rife, Royal R., 74, 86–7Rilliet, Frédéric, 20rinderpest, 303Rissler, John, 91The River (Hooper), 260–1Rivers, Tom, 130, 149, 167,

185, 224, 233, 242, 247, 280, 298, 301

RNA viruses, 84, 267–72Robbins, Frederick, 107–8,

195, 286, 288, 289Roberts, Janine, 261Robinson, G. E., 255Rockefeller Institute, 25,

77, 78, 79, 82, 95, 96, 103, 106, 128, 129, 233–4, 235, 277

rocking bed, 160rodent poisons, as possible

causes of paralytic illnesses, 61

Rogers, Naomi, 278Roosevelt, Eleanor, 113,

120, 122, 127Roosevelt, Franklin D.,

4, 26, 56, 120–5, 133, 136–7, 193, 197, 265–6, 276, 277–8, 302, 305

Roosevelt, Theodore, 120Roosevelt dime, 266, 278Roosevelt Warm Springs

Institute for Rehabilitation, 288–9

see also Warm SpringsRosenau, M., 105–6Rosenow, Edward, 72–7,

85–6, 103, 288, 297rotavirus, 304Rous, Peyton, 277, 298Rózsa, Zoltán Lipey, 51–2rubella, 70, 251Ruma, guardian of

Temple of Astarte, 5, 7

Russia, 26, 240–4, 245, 272Rwanda, 229

SSabin, Albert, 37, 97–8,

103, 106, 107, 129, 136, 164, 168, 190, 192, 279, 282–3, 298–9

biographical infor-mation, 231–2

career of, 232–47Koprowski and, 219–20personality of, 231polio vaccine of, 230–1,

236–47, 272–5, 291recognition for, 285Russians and, 240–4Salk and, 200, 201, 209,

214, 219, 237, 246–7Sabin, Sylvia, 234,

236, 282Sachs, B., 71Salk, Jonas, 57, 82, 125–9,

136, 168, 188, 190, 192–217, 270, 279–81, 298–9

biographical infor-mation, 192–4

clinical trials by, 201–2critics of, 200–1, 218Cutter Incident and,

211–16, 238field trials by, 202–8as hero, 208–10Koprowski and, 224–5medical career of, 193–4NFIP and, 196Nobel Prize and, 286–8polio vaccine of,

192–219, 225–6, 238, 240, 243–4, 245, 272, 275

preclinical testing by, 199publicity around, 200recognition for, 209–10,

285research by, 194–6Sabin and, 200, 201,

209, 214, 219, 237, 246–7

Salzmann, Jean-Godefroy, 5San Angelo, Texas,

111–12, 115Sanders, Murray, 165–6

Sandler, Benjamin, 57, 93–4, 100, 263

sanitation, impact on polio, 109

see also hygieneSapersztejn, Abram, see

Sabin, AlbertSaudi Arabia, 264‘Saval cripples’, 67Sawyer, William, 91saxitoxin, 59scarlet fever, 115Schaefer, Morris, 107Schaffer, Frederick, 83Scheele, Leonard, 27Scheibner, Viera, 231Schwerdt, Carlton, 83Scobey, Ralph, 57, 59, 68,

254, 262Scott, Sir Walter, 26Scrimgeour, Margaret,

47–9scurvy, 70, 85, 163seafood, 59Shaw, Louis Agassiz, 153shellfish, 59Sheppard, Dorothy, 255simian immunodeficiency

viruses (SIVs), 257, 259, 262–3

Simian Virus 40 (SV40), 256, 257

Sinnott, John, 266Sister Kenny Foundation,

149–50skeleton, showing features

of polio, 6Skrovanek, Vilem, 287Slessor, John, 26Smadel, Joseph, 202smallpox, 2, 5, 13, 27, 41,

54, 70, 90, 139, 169–72, 188, 218, 248, 252–3, 290, 291, 302–3, 305

Smith-Clarke respirator, 156

Smorodintsev, Anatoli, 240, 242

Snow, John, 55sodium channels, 64Soviet Union, 240–1, 272,

302Spanish Associación

de Lucha contra la Poliomielitis, 131

353Index

Spanish fly, 139spinal cord, anatomy of,

18–20spinal tap, see lumbar

puncturesplints and frames, 141–3Stalin, Josef, 266Stanley, Wendell, 215Stickle, Gabriel, 203stigma, of polio, 41strains, of poliovirus,

194–5, 225, 234see also poliovirus

Strauss, Johann, 11streptococci, 71, 72–7,

85–6, 182, 189Stricker, Raphael, 258Stromeyer, Georg, 146Strümpell, Adolph von, 32Strümpell-Marie disease,

32strychnine, 119Sudan, 264suffocation, 28, 30–1sugar, as supposed cause

of polio, 57–8, 93–4, 263

surgery, in treament of polio, 145–7

survivors, of polio, 32–4, 158–9

Sutter, Roland, 274Swann, Donald, 131Sweden

epidemics in, 111, 114incidence rates in, 115outbreaks in, 10–13vaccination in, 273

Swedish National Association against Poliomyelitis, 131

Switzerland, 229symptoms, of polio, 11–13,

28–30syphilis, 18, 23, 41, 78,

138–9, 301Szánti, Iván, 52–3Szent-Gyorgyi, Albert, 163

TT4 Aktion directive, 41–2Taliban, 27, 265, 294–5Tank Therapy, 138–9

see also Cunningham, Orval

Taylor, Henry L., 161Ten Broek, Carl, 99, 100tendon transfer opera-

tions, 146Tenth International

Medical Congress, 1890, 11

tephromyelitis, 3tetracoccus, 71tetraplegia, 30tetrodotoxin, 59Theiler, Max, 220, 223,

286thiamine, 85Thompson, G., 18thorn apple, 58–9tissue culture, 107–8, 234tobacco mosaic virus

(TMV), 23, 83, 84TOCP, see triorthocresyl

phosphate (TOCP)tonsillectomy, 92, 113Toomey, John, 128toxic metals, causing

paralytic illnesses, 60–2

toxins, 56, 58, 59Trannoy, André, 130transgenic mice, as models

of polio, 270transmission, of polio, 15,

24, 89–110Trask, James, 91

treatment, for malaria, 138–9

treatments, of polio, 138–67, 168, 299–300

alternative therapies, 159–60

bed rest, 141casts, splints and

frames, 141–3convalescent serum

therapy, 169counter-irritants, 139early, 139–41electrotherapy, 161forced spinal drainage,

161–3, 189hydrotherapy, 144immobilisation, 141–3,

151immune serum, 166–7iron lung, 151–9isolation, 141, 142

mechanical aids, 144–5physical therapy, 143–4poisons and antidotes,

165–6surgery, 145–7vitamin C, 163–5

tremetol, 58Treponema bacterium, 23triorthocresyl phosphate

(TOCP), 62–3, 67tuberculosis, 5, 11, 55, 116,

174Tuskegee, research at, 127,

139, 301–2Type 1 strain of polio-

virus, 40, 81–2, 187, 195, 197, 213, 225, 237

Type 2 strain of polio-virus, 81, 82, 195, 223, 293

Type 3 strain of polio-virus, 81, 82, 195, 275

typhoid, 55, 169, 173typhus, 74, 107, 189

Uultraviolet irradiation, 198Underwood, Michael, 5,

7–8, 140, 161United Nations Children’s

Fund (UNICEF), 264, 290

United Statesdisappearance of polio

from, 273polio epidemics in, 16,

26–7, 111–13, 117–20, 167, 219

‘Universal Microscope’, 86Usman, Fahad, 27Uzbekistan, 242–3

VVaccination Acts, English,

252vaccine-associated

paralytic polio (VAPP), 274–5

vaccine-derived poliovi-ruses (VDPVs, 275

Vaccine Evaluation Center, 205–6

vaccines/vaccination, 27, 168

see also polio vaccines

354 Index

achievements of, 248attenuated, 173–4,

182–3, 190, 218, 219, 223–4, 237, 270

complications from, 218contaminants in, 256cowpox, 169–71, 218flu, 194, 196, 198, 265inactivated, 173, 177,

196–204, 213–16live, 184, 189, 192, 194,

213–16, 223, 272opposition to, 248–66protection provided by,

218rabies, 222–3religious objections to,

249–52smallpox, 169–72yellow fever, 220

van Leeuwenhoek, Antonie, 54–5

variolation, 171–2, 174, 188

Vashisht, Neetu, 296Veale, Henry, 3vegetables, 57Vermont epidemic, 16–17, 56Viant, John, 150victims, of polio, 27,

42–53, 284–5viraemic phase, 28viral infections, 69–70viral meningitis, 39viruses, 84

Coxsackie, 272

enteroviruses, 4, 36, 84–5, 89, 271–2

filterable, 17, 23, 24, 56, 69, 71, 72

replication of, 90RNA, 84, 267–72transmission of, 89

virus microscope, 74, 86vitamin C, 85, 163–5Voroshilova, Marina, 240,

242Vulpian, Alfred, 21

WWalshe, F. M. R., 147Warm Springs, 122–3,

124, 127, 288–9see also Roosevelt Warm

Springs Institute for Rehabilitation

Watson, James D., 83, 127, 286

Webster, Noah, 55Weissmuller, Johnny, 26Weller, Thomas, 107–8,

195, 286, 287, 288Wernstedt, Wilhelm, 105West, Jim, 262Western Samoa, 92West Nile fever, 36–7Weston, B.A. Astley,

113–14white matter, 19–20white mice, 107whooping cough, 2,

115–16

Wickman, Ivar, 4, 13–17, 21, 54, 71, 91

Williams, Joan, 227Williams, Alwyn, 227Willowbrook School,

237–8, 301Wilson, G. S., 87Winchell, Walter, 204, 211Wistar, Caspar, 229, 257Wistar Institute, 228–9,

259, 261Wofinden, R. C., 114Woolley, J. G., 67–8Workman, William, 211World Health Organisation

(WHO), 27, 264, 290, 293–4, 304

World War II, 125, 193, 265Wright, Jesse, 160Wyeth, 204, 216

XX-ray diffraction, 82–3

Yyellow fever, 23, 55, 78–9,

87, 220Yemen, 264Youngner, Julius, 195,

198, 208, 212

ZZaire, 229Zhdanov, Viktor, 241,

287, 302Zimbabwe, 251–2