1: americans struggle with postwar issues in 1919, inflation, wage cuts, and layoffs caught up with...
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1: AMERICANS STRUGGLE WITH POSTWAR ISSUES
In 1919, inflation, wage cuts, and layoffs caught up with workers. The country witnessed over 3,600 strikes.
A major strike in Seattle led by the radical Industrial Workers of the World (Wobblies) led newspapers across the nation to claim the intent of the strike was to start a “Bolshevik Revolution” (The “Bolshevik Revolution” was begun by VLADIMIR I. LENIN in Russia. Followers were known as COMMUNISTS [economic and political system based on a single-party government ruled by a dictator]) in the U.S. Negative public opinion from the strike contributed to the destruction of the IWW shortly afterward.
Followers were known as COMMUNISTS [economic and political system based on a single-party government ruled by a dictator]) in the U.S. Negative public opinion from the strike contributed to the destruction of the IWW shortly afterward.
In Boston, underpaid and over worked
policemen gained little public sympathy when
they went on strike. Looters took advantage,
sacked the city, bringing it to near anarchy.
THE RED SCARE
A “EUROPEAN ANARCHIST” STALKS LADY LIBERTY.
Many feared anarchism Many feared anarchism or Bolshevism would or Bolshevism would seize the United seize the United States.States.
During this period, During this period, "alien" residents were "alien" residents were targeted and deported.targeted and deported.
The First Amendment The First Amendment rights of Americans rights of Americans were sometimes were sometimes supplanted as the supplanted as the country succumbed to country succumbed to anti-communist anti-communist hysteria.hysteria.
The Governor of Massachusetts, CALVIN
COOLIDGE, called the state national guard to
restore order. The public, in Massachusetts
and around the country, welcomed Coolidge’s
anti-union assurance that “there is no right to
strike against the public safety by anybody,
anywhere anytime.”
Coal Miners Strike, led by JOHN L. LEWIS, was in protest for low wages. Workers would eventually receive a 27% wage increase.
Labor unrest was only one of the ingredients that mixed a nativist fear in 1919 that became known as the RED SCARE. (Red refers to the color of the Bolshevik flag)
A communist revolution in the United States was extremely unlikely, but fearful Americans faced a flurry of ‘TERRORIST ACTS’, most notably 38 bombs mailed to prominent individuals. (Holmes, Palmer, Rockefeller, etc.)
Fear, anger and uncertaintyled swiftly to a hunt for terrorists by ATTORNEY GENERAL MITCHELL PALMER. In January 1920, Palmer ordered a series of raids that resulted in 6,000 ‘SUBVERSIVES’arrested.
Most were immigrant Jews, Slavs associated with unionism. Some had communist and socialist connections, about 500 were deported.
Anti-foreign hysteria did get a final jolt with thearrest of NICOLA SACCO AND BARTOLOMEOVANZETTI. They were practicing ANARCHISTS (one who does not believe in any form of government) from Italy, who were arrested for robbery and murder in Massachusetts.
At their trial, their anarchism was used as evidence against them – evaded the draft, voiced anti-Americanism, owned guns –etc. they were sentenced and executed.
Nativist sentiment against radicals and immigrants expanded in the 1920s. In the early 1920s, industrialists no longer needed new “cheap” factory workers. Protestants were particularly alarmed about immigrants because of immigrant CATHOLICISM, Judaism , OR ATHEISM.
•In the 1920s Congress passed a series of immigration acts that set quotas on immigration into the U.S. The quotas favored NATIONAL ORIGINS NATIONS. For example, the JOHNSON-REID ACT of 1924 gave quota preference to nations based on the immigrants to the U.S. before 1890. Under this act Britain was allowed to send in 63,000 immigrants to Russia’s 2,000. These acts clearly favored old immigrant Protestant nations over new immigrants and Eastern European cultures.
In the wake of the world war, the Red Scare and the Progressive movement, Americans wanted to simply return to ‘normalcy.’ The election of 1920 defined the term.
EMERGENCY QUOTA ACT OF 1921 created a quota system (established the maximum number of immigrants who were allowed into the United States from each foreign country). No quota was set on MEXICAN IMMIGRANTS.
As a result of the Red Scare, bigoted groups formed such as the KU KLUX KLAN (its membership sharply increased as a result of the Red Scare and nativism, but its power declined once its criminal activity and racial violence became exposed)
Feelings were reinforced by the beliefs of the EUGENICS MOVEMENT, a science that lent authority to racist
theories and reinvigorated the nativist argument for strict immigration control
•Emphasized that human inequalities were INHERITED
•Warned against breeding the “UNFIT” OR “INFERIOR”
•Supported by political, intellectual, and cultural figures such as WOODROW WILSON AND HENRY CABOT LODGE
II: THE HARDING PRESIDENCY
Democrats – JAMES COX – OHIO (Governor)
Republican – WARREN HARDING – OHIO (Senator)
Issues: the Democrats viewed the election as one last chance to vote for the League of Nations. A vote for Coxwould signal for Congress to approve the treaty.
Warren Harding ran on the campaign slogan: “RETURN TO NORMALCY” and he won in a landslide. Return to Normalcy became a mandate to turn away from Progressive activism and foreign involvement. “Normalcy” described American’s desire to:
Return to its beloved policy of ISOLATIONISM
Forget about spreading democracy or chasing grand schemes of world peace
Forget about fixing the ills of society and move away from reform and progressive movements
Concentrate on their own individual problems and be left alone
Scandals shook his administration as some of the members of Harding's OHIO GANG, a group of close Harding friends and associates:accepted BRIBES, pocketed TAXPAYERS' MONEY, sold government jobs and PARDONS, and wereinvolved in scandals such as the TEAPOT DOMESCANDAL OF 1923. It involved Harding’s Secretary of the Interior ALBERT B. FALL, who leased government oil reserves at Teapot Dome, Wyoming in exchange for kickbacks. Fall would be sentenced to one year in prison; the FIRST CABINET MEMBER TO GO TO PRISON
People were extremely cynical of the world situation and war results. They were pessimistic and distrustful, with a return to normalcy, it was assured that the U.S. was to return to its policy of isolation – but the policy ‘had’ to be modified to deal with the post-war new world order. Examples of the U.S. modifying its isolationism policy to adjust its foreign policy include:• Forget about spreading democracy or chasing grand schemes of world peace•Forget about fixing the ills of society and move away from reform and progressive movements•Concentrate on their own individual problems and be left alone
• The WASHINGTON NAVAL CONFERENCE OF 1921 was an international conference called by the U.S.
• to address the powers interest in the PACIFIC. The Washington Naval Conference resulted in several treaties between the Nine Powers that attended.
Agreements included:
• Respect for China’s territorial integrity
• Respect each other’s rights over island possessions
• Declare a ten year “holiday” on military ship construction
CHARLES EVANS HUGHES, Secretary of State, urged that no more warships be built for ten years.
The Washington Naval Conference is accredited with ‘slowing’ hostilities between the ‘powers’ in the Pacific. In 1921, the United States again stepped out of the policy of Isolationism concerning the payment of Germany’s war debt. Germany owed Britain and France war reparations for damages according to Article 232 of the Treaty of Versailles. Britain and France borrowed money from the U.S. to help fight the war – to make the ‘collectable process’ more difficult, Germany was BANKRUPT and POLITICALLY UNSTABLE.
American CHARLES DAWES headed a committee to work out an international plan to enable Germany to afford to pay its war debts. The Dawes Plan cycle:
The U.S. would loan Germany money to rebuild and pay reparations to Britain and France
The money Britain and France were paid would be paid to the U.S. for war debts
The cycle created a movement of money that eased tensions
In 1929, the Dawes plan was replaced with the YOUNG PLAN to further lower German reparations. The U.S. again stepped out of isolationism with the signing of the KELLOGG-BRIAND PACT OF 1928 – the act was pushed by post-war peace movements in the United States and France.
U.S. Secretary of State Frank Kellogg and French foreign minister Aristide Briand drafted the document as an international agreement not to use war as an instrument of national policy except in defense. (62 nations signed)
•The purpose of the policy was to essentially ‘OUTLAW WAR’ to prevent a recurrence of the carnage of World
War I.
No one really believed that the harsh TREATY of Versailles solved the issues that brought the world to warin 1914.
While in San Francisco onvacation in 1923, Hardingdied from an EMBOLISM.
VICE PRESIDENT CALVIN COOLIDGE took office.
III: THE BUSINESS OF AMERICA
A.Reserved and frugal, Coolidge aligned himself with business. He believed in “THE CHIEF BUSINESS OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE IS BUSINESS”. He became famous during the BOSTON POLICE STRIKE OF 1919.
. He acknowledged the importance of business by saying, “THE MAN WHO BUILDS A FACTORY BUILDS A TEMPLE.”
Coolidge believed that the free enterprise system should flourish. For this to happen and business reach its potential, regulation of business must be minimal:
“Government must be limited” in business affairs. Coolidge also believed that a small limited government was more efficient.
Under limited government the FREE ENTERPRISE SYSTEM would thrive, give more power to CORPORATIONS and PROFITS would increase.
The impact of TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS during the 1920s had a profound effect on the availability of new consumer products for the American people. The two most technological advances were:
The perfection of the ASSEMBLY LINE by Henry Ford; Ford created his SOCIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT, set requirements that workers employed by Henry Ford had to meet.
The prophecy of THOMAS EDISON that predicted “happy electrified homes would free women . . .”
Henry Ford, the innovator of MASS PRODUCTION put America on wheels.
By installing a conveyor belt system, or “assembly line,”
Ford automobile production produced a car every 93 minutes as opposed to 14 hours.
The cost per car dropped from $850 to $300.
The rugged, cheap, and black “Model T” became the symbol of the new era.
With the mass production of the automobile, other industries surged. GLASS, STEEL, OIL, RUBBER AND CEMENT industries were directly affected.
•NEW ROAD SYSTEMS bypassed some towns and created others. Example: Route 66 from Chicago to Los Angeles
As stated, the impact of ELECTRICITY changed the lives of every American. The ability of Thomas Edison to “change night into day” and the ‘fear’ that the electrical current presented in the 1880s was over come in the 1920s.
Vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, washing machines, irons and radios began to extend across the nation and engulf America in a baptism of CONSUMERISM. Many consumers in the 1920s began to feel confident that they could buy now and pay later, so many bought on the INSTALLMENT PLAN.
In the frenzy of consumerism, progressive gains were stifled in areas of workplace bread and butter issues. A ‘CLOSED SHOP’ is a business where only union members could be employed. The nation’s business sector was elated by the court’s support.
Industries hired professional managers, began hiring people with managerial training from business schools (MANAGERIAL REVOLUTION), and practiced WELFARE CAPITALISM (practice where companies began allowing workers to buy stock, participate in profit sharing, receive benefits such as medical care and pensions) helped industrial workers prosper.
Some unions did manage to add another bread and butter issue to appease members. Since the fear of missing a paycheck was the top concern of the worker, health care plans created by companies were cheap and doable.
Influenced by the passage of the 19th amendment giving women the right to vote, Congress also addressed the health care for the first time by passing the SHEPPARD-TOWNER ACT OF 1921. The Sheppard-Towner Act or Maternity Act was focused on reducing ‘maternal and infant mortality.’ The act was significant because:
It encourage states to develop programs to serve women’s health at lower income levels
It was the nation’s first federally funded social welfare program
The group that faired the worse during the 1920s was the FARMERS. Their failure to enjoy the economic boom of the 1920s was a result of the traditional reasons.
IV. MISCELLANEOUS:
A. AIRLINE INDUSTRY
•Inventions by GLENN CURTISS made possible the airline industry in the 1920s
•Airline industry did not grow at same rate as automobile industry, because they were thought of as DANGEROUS NOVELTIES.
•CHARLES LINDBERGH flew first solo flight across Atlantic Ocean in 1927 in the “SPIRIT OF ST. LOUIS.”
•KELLY ACT - authorized postal officials to contract with private airplane operators to carry mail; first flew between Washington, D.C., and New York.
•In 1926 the aviation industry received federal aid for building airports with the passage of the AIR COMMERCE ACT
B. Raised the tax on imports to the highest level ever (60 percent) - designed to protect American businesses from foreign competition:
FORDNEY-McCUMBER TARIFF.