11

CH 11: Looking at the CH 11: Looking at the Past and Across Past and Across

CulturesCultures

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WHAT IS HISTORICAL-WHAT IS HISTORICAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH (HCR)?COMPARATIVE RESEARCH (HCR)?

HCR places historical time and/or cross-HCR places historical time and/or cross-cultural variation at the center of analysiscultural variation at the center of analysis

HCR looks at how a specific mix of diverse HCR looks at how a specific mix of diverse factors come together in time and place to factors come together in time and place to produce a specific outcome (e.g., war, produce a specific outcome (e.g., war, social movement, migration, etc.)social movement, migration, etc.)

HCR makes “big” comparisons, of units HCR makes “big” comparisons, of units like nation-states, societies, cultures, to like nation-states, societies, cultures, to see how they are similar and differentsee how they are similar and different

HCR examines social processes across HCR examines social processes across several cultural or historical settingsseveral cultural or historical settings

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What research questions are What research questions are suitable for HCR?suitable for HCR?

““Big questions” about macro-level change over Big questions” about macro-level change over time (across historical eras) or in two or more time (across historical eras) or in two or more sociocultural contextssociocultural contexts

When the goal is to understand/explain When the goal is to understand/explain macro-macro-level level eventsevents• e.g., a terrorist attack, a nation going to war, sources of e.g., a terrorist attack, a nation going to war, sources of

racism, large-scale immigration, religious conflict, urban racism, large-scale immigration, religious conflict, urban decay, etc.decay, etc.

Do people who immigrate form attachments to Do people who immigrate form attachments to their new country or stay connected across their new country or stay connected across international borders?international borders?

What about the questions that drive the article, What about the questions that drive the article, “Nannies, Maids and Sex Workers in the New “Nannies, Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy”?Economy”?

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CONCEPTUALIZATIONCONCEPTUALIZATION

Write down all the concepts you can Write down all the concepts you can recall from “Nannies, Maids, and Sex recall from “Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy” Workers in the New Economy” • Sort concepts into groups, classify themSort concepts into groups, classify them

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Concepts can be grouped in Concepts can be grouped in various ways, for example:various ways, for example:

social structuressocial structures social processessocial processes social relationssocial relations social actorssocial actors activitiesactivities eventsevents social contexts/locations/populationssocial contexts/locations/populations

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Concepts can also be arranged on a Concepts can also be arranged on a continuum, from specific to universalcontinuum, from specific to universal

universal conceptsuniversal concepts apply across apply across social settings, historical time, and social settings, historical time, and cultureculture

specific conceptsspecific concepts apply only to apply only to particular social settings, historical particular social settings, historical eras, or cultureseras, or cultures

Many concepts fall between these Many concepts fall between these extremesextremes

(Neumann, pp. 299-(Neumann, pp. 299-300)300)

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H-C research uses a blend of H-C research uses a blend of research techniquesresearch techniques

traditional history, field research, traditional history, field research, interviews, content analysis, existing interviews, content analysis, existing statistics, etc.statistics, etc.

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““Nannies, Maids, and Sex Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Workers in the New

Economy”Economy”

Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russell Hochschild, in Rothenberg, Russell Hochschild, in Rothenberg,

Ed., Ed., Beyond Borders: Thinking Beyond Borders: Thinking Critically About Global IssuesCritically About Global Issues, ,

2006.2006.

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With globalization, women are on With globalization, women are on the move as never beforethe move as never before

There’s growing migration of millions There’s growing migration of millions of women from poor countries to rich of women from poor countries to rich ones, where they serve as nannies, ones, where they serve as nannies, maids and sex workersmaids and sex workers

Lacking help from male partners, many Lacking help from male partners, many women have succeeded in “male women have succeeded in “male world” careers only by turning over world” careers only by turning over care of children, elderly parents, and care of children, elderly parents, and homes to women from the Third Worldhomes to women from the Third World

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The female underside of The female underside of globalizationglobalization

Millions of women from poor Millions of women from poor countries in the south migrate to do countries in the south migrate to do the “women’s work” of the north – the “women’s work” of the north – work that affluent women are no work that affluent women are no longer able or willing to dolonger able or willing to do

Migrant women often leave their own Migrant women often leave their own children back home, in the care of children back home, in the care of grandmothers, sisters, and sisters-in-grandmothers, sisters, and sisters-in-lawlaw

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The pattern of female migration reflects The pattern of female migration reflects a “worldwide gender revolution”a “worldwide gender revolution”

In both rich and poor countries, fewer In both rich and poor countries, fewer families can rely solely on a male families can rely solely on a male breadwinnerbreadwinner

In the U.S., the earning power of most In the U.S., the earning power of most men has declined since 1970, and men has declined since 1970, and many women have gone to work to many women have gone to work to make up the differencemake up the difference

So who will take care of the So who will take care of the children, the sick, the elderly?children, the sick, the elderly?

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Hypothesis: Hypothesis: The lifestyles of the First World are The lifestyles of the First World are made possible by a global transfer made possible by a global transfer of the services associated with a of the services associated with a wife’s traditional role—child care, wife’s traditional role—child care,

homemaking, and sex—from poor homemaking, and sex—from poor countries to rich ones.countries to rich ones.

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To generalize and perhaps To generalize and perhaps oversimplify:oversimplify:

In an earlier phase of imperialism, In an earlier phase of imperialism, northern countries extracted natural northern countries extracted natural resources and agricultural products from resources and agricultural products from lands they colonizedlands they colonized

Today, while still relying on Third World Today, while still relying on Third World countries for agricultural and industrial countries for agricultural and industrial labor, the wealthy countries also seek to labor, the wealthy countries also seek to extract something harder to measure and extract something harder to measure and quantify, that can look very much likequantify, that can look very much like love.love.

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Historical precedents for the Historical precedents for the globalization of traditional female globalization of traditional female

servicesservices In the ancient Middle East, the women of In the ancient Middle East, the women of

populations defeated in war were routinely populations defeated in war were routinely enslaved and to serve as household workers and enslaved and to serve as household workers and concubines for the victorsconcubines for the victors

Among the Africans brought to North America as Among the Africans brought to North America as slaves in the 16slaves in the 16thth – 19 – 19thth centuries, about 1/3 were centuries, about 1/3 were women & children, and many became concubines women & children, and many became concubines and domestic servantsand domestic servants

1919thth century Irishwomen–and rural century Irishwomen–and rural Englishwomen-- migrated to English towns and Englishwomen-- migrated to English towns and cities to work as domestics in homes of growing cities to work as domestics in homes of growing upper middle classupper middle class

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The The feminization of migrationfeminization of migration From 1950 – 1970, men predominated in labor From 1950 – 1970, men predominated in labor

migration to northern Europe from Turkey, migration to northern Europe from Turkey, Greece, and North AfricaGreece, and North Africa• Since then, women have been replacing menSince then, women have been replacing men• In 1946, women were fewer than 3% of the Algerians In 1946, women were fewer than 3% of the Algerians

and Moroccans living in France; by 1990, they were and Moroccans living in France; by 1990, they were more than 40%more than 40%

Overall, half of the world’s 120 million legal and Overall, half of the world’s 120 million legal and illegal migrants are now believed to be womenillegal migrants are now believed to be women

Patterns of international migration vary from Patterns of international migration vary from region to region, but women migrants from a region to region, but women migrants from a surprising # of sending countries actually surprising # of sending countries actually outnumber men, sometimes by a wide margin outnumber men, sometimes by a wide margin (See pp. 533-534)(See pp. 533-534)

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Composition of household workforce in Composition of household workforce in US has changed with the life chances US has changed with the life chances

of different ethnic groupsof different ethnic groups In late 19th century, Irish and German immigrants In late 19th century, Irish and German immigrants

served the northern upper and middle classes, served the northern upper and middle classes, then left for factories as soon as they couldthen left for factories as soon as they could

Black women replaced them, accounting for 60% of Black women replaced them, accounting for 60% of all domestics in the late 1940s, and dominated the all domestics in the late 1940s, and dominated the field until other occupations opened upfield until other occupations opened up

West coast maids were disproportionately Japanese West coast maids were disproportionately Japanese American until that group found better optionsAmerican until that group found better options

Today, ethnicity of workforce varies by region: Today, ethnicity of workforce varies by region: Chicanas in the Southwest, Caribbeans in New Chicanas in the Southwest, Caribbeans in New York, native Hawaiians in Hawaii, whites, mostly York, native Hawaiians in Hawaii, whites, mostly rural, in Maine rural, in Maine ((Ehreneich, “Maid to Order: The Politics of Other Women’s Work” Ehreneich, “Maid to Order: The Politics of Other Women’s Work”

Harper's, 4/1/2000)

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The globalization of women’s work is The globalization of women’s work is NOT a simple synergy of needs among NOT a simple synergy of needs among

womenwomen

Fails to account for failure of First World Fails to account for failure of First World governments to meet the needs created by governments to meet the needs created by women’s entry into workforcewomen’s entry into workforce• The American and—to a lesser degree—European The American and—to a lesser degree—European

welfare state has become a “deadbeat dad”welfare state has become a “deadbeat dad”• US does not offer public child care, nor insure US does not offer public child care, nor insure

paid family and medical leavepaid family and medical leave Omits the role of men, who still do less than Omits the role of men, who still do less than

their “fair share” of domestic worktheir “fair share” of domestic work• Often leaving working women with a “second Often leaving working women with a “second

shift”shift”

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Push factors not so simple eitherPush factors not so simple either Female migrants are not the most Female migrants are not the most

impoverished, so absolute poverty not a impoverished, so absolute poverty not a push factorpush factor• They are typically more affluent and better educated than They are typically more affluent and better educated than

male migrantsmale migrants• Such women are likely to be enterprising and adventurous Such women are likely to be enterprising and adventurous

enough to resist the social pressures to stay home and accept enough to resist the social pressures to stay home and accept their lot in lifetheir lot in life

Noneconomic factors also influence Noneconomic factors also influence decision to migratedecision to migrate• To escape expectation to care for elderly family members, to To escape expectation to care for elderly family members, to

give paychecks to husband or father, to defer to an abusive give paychecks to husband or father, to defer to an abusive husbandhusband

• A practical response to divorce or need to raise children as A practical response to divorce or need to raise children as single mothersingle mother

Other factors may make men of poor countries less desirable as Other factors may make men of poor countries less desirable as husbands (e.g., unemployment and related social problems such as husbands (e.g., unemployment and related social problems such as alcoholism and gambling)alcoholism and gambling)

1919

Globalization of child care & housework brings Globalization of child care & housework brings independent women of the world togetherindependent women of the world together

–but not as sisters & allies with common goals–but not as sisters & allies with common goals

Instead they come together across a great divide Instead they come together across a great divide of privilege and opportunityof privilege and opportunity

A global relationship has formed that in some A global relationship has formed that in some ways mirrors the traditional relationship between ways mirrors the traditional relationship between the sexesthe sexes• The First World takes on a role like that of the The First World takes on a role like that of the

old-fashioned male in the familyold-fashioned male in the family• Poor countries take on a role like that of the Poor countries take on a role like that of the

traditional woman within the familytraditional woman within the family A division of labor feminists critiqued when it was A division of labor feminists critiqued when it was

“local” has now, metaphorically speaking, gone “local” has now, metaphorically speaking, gone globalglobal

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What is Unique about HCR?What is Unique about HCR?

1)1) Builds on Limited and Indirect EvidenceBuilds on Limited and Indirect Evidence2)2) Interprets the Meaning of Events in Interprets the Meaning of Events in

ContextContext-Supracontext awareness-Supracontext awareness-Coherence imposition-Coherence imposition-Capacity overestimation-Capacity overestimation

3)3) Integrates the Micro and Macro LevelsIntegrates the Micro and Macro Levels4)4) Uses Specific and Transcultural, Uses Specific and Transcultural,

Transhistorical ConceptsTranshistorical Concepts

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HOW TO DO A HCR RESEARCH HOW TO DO A HCR RESEARCH STUDYSTUDY

Acquire the necessary backgroundAcquire the necessary background Conceptualize the issueConceptualize the issue Locate and evaluate the evidenceLocate and evaluate the evidence Organize the evidenceOrganize the evidence Synthesize and develop conceptsSynthesize and develop concepts Write the reportWrite the report

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RESEARCHING THE PASTRESEARCHING THE PAST

Historians:Historians: See collection of See collection of

historical evidence as historical evidence as central goal in itselfcentral goal in itself

Interpret data in light Interpret data in light of other historical of other historical eventsevents

Are not overly Are not overly concerned about concerned about developing theorydeveloping theory

Social researchers:Social researchers: See collection of See collection of

historical evidence as historical evidence as secondarysecondary

Want to extend or Want to extend or build theory or apply build theory or apply social concepts to new social concepts to new situationssituations

Use historical Use historical evidence as a means evidence as a means to an end – to to an end – to explain/understand explain/understand social relationssocial relations

Historians and social researchers study the past in different waysHistorians and social researchers study the past in different ways

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Types of Historical EvidenceTypes of Historical Evidence

Primary sourcesPrimary sources Running recordsRunning records RecollectionsRecollections Secondary sourcesSecondary sources

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Primary sources and their limitationsPrimary sources and their limitations

primary sourcesprimary sources: sources created in the : sources created in the past and that survived to the presentpast and that survived to the present• presentismpresentism: the fallacy of looking at past : the fallacy of looking at past

events from the point of view of today and events from the point of view of today and failing to adjust for a very different contextfailing to adjust for a very different context

• ethnocentrism: as applied in comparative : as applied in comparative research, the fallacy of looking at the research, the fallacy of looking at the behaviors, customs, and practices of people in behaviors, customs, and practices of people in other cultures narrowly from your culture’s other cultures narrowly from your culture’s point of viewpoint of view

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Evaluating primary sourcesEvaluating primary sources

After locating documents, you must After locating documents, you must evaluate them with external and evaluate them with external and internal criticisminternal criticism• external criticismexternal criticism: evaluating the : evaluating the

authenticity of primary source materialsauthenticity of primary source materials• internal criticisminternal criticism: evaluating the : evaluating the

credibility of information in primary credibility of information in primary source materialssource materials

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Running records and their limitationsRunning records and their limitations

Running records: ongoing files or Running records: ongoing files or statistical documents that an statistical documents that an organization such as a school, organization such as a school, business, hospital, or government business, hospital, or government agency maintains over timeagency maintains over time

Limitations:Limitations:1)1) organizations do not always maintain themorganizations do not always maintain them

2)2) organizations do not record information organizations do not record information consistently over timeconsistently over time

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Recollections and their limitationsRecollections and their limitations

recollectionsrecollections: a person’s words or writings : a person’s words or writings about past experiences created by the about past experiences created by the person some time after the experiences person some time after the experiences took placetook place• oral historyoral history: interviews with a person about his : interviews with a person about his

or her life and experiences in the pastor her life and experiences in the past Limitation: because memory is imperfect, Limitation: because memory is imperfect,

recollections and oral histories can be recollections and oral histories can be distorted pictures of the past in ways distorted pictures of the past in ways primary sources are notprimary sources are not

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Secondary sources and their limitationsSecondary sources and their limitations

secondary sourcessecondary sources: specific studies : specific studies conducted by specialist historians who conducted by specialist historians who may have spent many years studying a may have spent many years studying a narrow topic. Other researchers use these narrow topic. Other researchers use these secondary data as sources. secondary data as sources.

Limitations:Limitations:• Holes or gaps in the historical record and few Holes or gaps in the historical record and few

studies on your topicstudies on your topic• Inaccurate historical accountsInaccurate historical accounts• Biased interpretationsBiased interpretations