1 “green based” planning that integrates urban

“GREEN BASED” PLANNING THAT INTEGRATES URBAN AGRICULTURE INTO ELDORET MIXED LANDSCAPE IN RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE.

Fifth Urban Research Symposium 2009

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“GREEN BASED” PLANNING THAT INTEGRATES URBAN AGRICULTURE INTO ELDORET MIXED LANDSCAPE IN RESPONSE TO CLIMATE

CHANGE.

Mr. Samuel Emasit Okalebo, Dr. Benjamin Mwasi, Dr. Rose Musyoka, Prof. Nancy Karanja, Prof. Gachene Charles and Dr. Shem Mwasi

School of Environmental Studies, Moi University, P.O. Box 3900, Eldoret, KenyaCorresponding author: [email protected]

SUMMARYAccording to the NEMA Kenya, Kenya is a net carbon dioxide sink. However her urban centres are net greenhouse gases emitters, whose vulnerabilities vary spatially and over time. The key anthropogenic green house gas contributors in urban areas are energy, industrial, wastes and agricultural sectors. The best adaptation approach is to increase green biomass, in spite of land degradation, water stresses and population pressure that are limiting. Unoccupied spaces in the urban spaces such as between buildings, roadsideand buffer zones could be planted with trees and other crop covers. The paperdemonstrates that there is a window of opportunity to transform the mixed usedagricultural landscape of Eldoret town towards a low carbon footprint.

Key words: urban landuse, ecosystems, urban agriculture, climate change



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“GREEN BASED” PLANNING THAT INTEGRATES URBAN AGRICULTURE INTO ELDORET MIXED LANDSCAPE IN RESPONSE TO

CLIMATE CHANGE.

I INTRODUCTIONOver 80% of Kenya’s population depends on agriculture; therefore climate is a major driving force in the socio-economic activities. Climate has influenced the safety of life, property, disease outbreaks, food security, water availability, industrial performance. Over 70% of the natural disasters that have affected Kenya are climate related such as the 1984, 1999 & 2000 droughts, 1997, 1998 & 2005 floods. (Awour et al, 2008). At risk are urban dwellers in the low and middle-income cadre from the direct and indirect impacts of climate change (Satterthwaite et al, 2007). According to the Kenya Red Cross, outbreaks of water borne diseases have been observed in the past. Therefore a good understanding and interpretation of the climatic events couldenhance disaster management preparedness and reduce the negative impacts. In a study commissioned by the Kenya Government to estimate the GHG’s emissions methane emitted from the agricultural activities was ranked highest followed by the energy sector and other gases such as N2O mainly from the energy sector. Table 1gives a summary of the GHG emissions from the anthropogenic activities in Kenya

Table 1: Summary of GHG emissions from anthropogenic activities in Kenya in 1994

Gas Type (in Gigagrammes - Gg) SectorCO2 CH4 N2O NOx CO NMVOC

Energy 4522 148 1.3 46.7 1645.3 -Industry 990.1 - - 1.5 5.6 6.0Agriculture - 576 - - - -Land use/Forestry -28261 11 0.1 2.7 9.4 -Wastes - 15 - - - -Total -22751 750 1.4 50.9 1660.3 6.0Source: NEMA, 2005

Urbanization f increases flood risks due to compacted surfaces, paved and roofed areas which yield more runoff than vegetated land. Motorized transport is by far the most dominant and major source of GHG’s in urban areas too. Urban planning is still engrossed on the high-density European-style city that gets its food and resources from somewhere else (Holmgren, 2007). The multidisciplinary urban planning in Kenya focuses on building developments and infrastructure taking into consideration integration of different urban living patterns, hydrological functioning, energy capture and organic waste cycling processes. The Kenyan construction industry has a growth rate of 8%per annum and contributes about 40% of the CO2 emissions while 60% of the rest of emissions come from burning of waste – residential, commercial, industrial and municipal waste.

Kenya’s urban settlements reflect a cumulative history of colonialism, segregation and duality, based on urban methods that segregate zones of production, commerce and residence exclusively (Fig 1). This has contributed to the high thermal mass which has in turn developed heat islands. The grid-like street layouts that have been



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adopted have encouraged strong winds. The cultural preference for corrugated iron sheets as a building material especially in informal settlements has further influenced thermal comfort inside dwellings. The separation of residential and commercial zones has necessitated intensive transport which consequently builds up the GHG emissions. The prevalence of water-borne, respiratory and insect-vector diseases has been on a steady rise due to climate change. (Satterthwaite et al, 2007). Therefore there is need for proper designed-based solutions for sustainable healthcare. Ebenezer Howard (1980s) the inventor of the garden city concept demonstrated an ecosystem approach to land management within urban planning in more sustainable configurations will maximize the liveability and long-term health of urban environment (Ward, 1992). Chapin and Kaiser (1979) proposed five urban models namely ecological model, new urbanism, collaborative/communicative model, just city perspective and new life models that could be adopted to shape the different ways land uses and urban forms have emerged. But of particular concern is complex web of inputs and outputs that connect a city to its hinterland-urban metabolism that has impacted on the climate. Contemporary Kenyan urban metabolisms are linear, in contrast to the cyclical metabolisms seen in natural ecologies which have proven their resilience through agesand adoption of an ecosystem approaches offers opportunities for integrating climate change adaptive strategies that would maintain urban habitats as well as contributingto the good livelihoods of urban inhabitants.

The policies in Kenya for sound environmental management and sustainable use of resources and appropriate responses to climate change are articulated in a number of official documents such as the Sessional Paper No.2 of 1997 on the Industrial Transformation to the Year 2020 in Kenya. Environment Management and Coordination Act, the Factories and Other Places of Work Act (Cap. 514), the Local Government Act (Cap. 265) Public Health Act (Cap.242) and the Finance Act of 1994/95. The sector specific policies relevant to adaptation and mitigation of climate change include those for agriculture, forestry, population, energy, water and industrialization. The Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) of 1999 is framework legislation with provisions for economic incentives, enforcement mechanisms, protection and conservation of the environment, environmental quality standards including issues relating to emissions, impact assessment and modalities for implementing international treaties, conventions and agreements.



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Figure 1: Ecosystems cum transport network of Kenya.

Voi

Wote

Lamu

Embu

Meru

Kitui

Kwale

ChukaNyeri

Thika

Ngong

Njoro

Narok

BometKisii

Wajir

Usenge

Mwingi

KilifiTaveta

SaganaNakuru

Kisumu

Isiolo

Kitale

Lodwar

Moyale

Muranga

Garissa

Malindi

Mombasa

Namanga

Kajiado

NAIROBI

Kericho

Maralal

Nanyuki

Bungoma Eldoret

Mandera

Naivasha

Londiani

Kilgoris

Homa Bay

RumurutiKakamega

Marsabit

Nyahururu

Lokitaung

Kapenguria

Source: Adapted from Kenya GIS Atlas by World Bank

II MATERIALS AND METHODS

The research was conducted through literature review, using journals, books, past theses and internet on the state of urban agriculture and climate, provided insights in urban agriculture A reconnaissance survey around the town focusing open spaces, the potential of urban agriculture, was recorded while interviews with the selected government departments representatives such as Uasin Gishu District physical planner, Director of Environment at Eldoret Municipal Council, North Rift Red Cross disaster manager, Chief meteorological officer (Kapsoya weather station) and peers who contributed largely towards articulation of the pertinent issues found in Eldoret.Peer review between University of Nairobi and Moi University members of staff via internet and focussed group discussions helped document the pertinent issues. SWOT analysis was conducted for all resources, highlighting the emerging opportunities.

2.1 STUDY AREA (ELDORET TOWN, KENYA)

Eldoret Town is located in the high-agricultural potential highlands of Uasin Gishu District in Rift Valley Province. It lies at an altitude of 2,085 metres above sea leveland traverses latitude 00 31’North and longitude 35016’ East. It is located about 312



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km northwest of Nairobi on the main Kenya-Uganda highway. The town has since grown over years and has become one of the most important and fastest growing agricultural, commercial and industrial towns in Kenya with an average growth rate of7-8% per annum (Fig. 2)

Figure 2: Administrative delineation of Eldoret from a global perspective to town level.

Source: Uasin Gishu physical planning Department.



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19751977197919811983198519871989199119931995199719992001200320052007

Years

0

200

400

600

800

Valu

e

Rainfall AverageMinimum Temperature AverageMaximum Temperature AverageAnnual mean relative humidity (R.H.)Annual mean cistern level pressure (millibars)Annual mean wind run (km)

Eldoret Weather variables from 1975 to 2008

III RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The results are presented in three sections namely the biophysical characteristics assessment, socio-economic characteristic and agricultural landscape of Eldoret.

3.1 CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICSEldoret receives bimodal rainfall which falls between the months of April and May. There is a dry spell in June followed by increasing rainfall in July and August andtails off in September and October. A long dry period of 4 to 5 months then follows. The average day temperatures are 240C with average night temperatures being 100C. Being in the tropics, most days are sunny with a mean sunshine of 7.7 hours. Figure 4below shows a graphical representation of the various weather elements from 1975 to 2008.

Figure 3: Average weather parameters for Eldoret from 1975 to 2008.

Source: Eldoret, Kenya Meteorological Station, Kapsoya



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A summary of the recurrent countrywide climate related disasters that have occurred over the past three decades in Kenya is shown in Table 2. The disaster preparedness manager for the Kenya Red cross – North Rift valley branch revealed, that Eldoret has no records of climate related disasters linked to deaths and/or property losses.

Table 2: Climate based disasters that have occurred in Kenya according to the Kenya Red Cross.

Disaster type When it is/was experienced Established incidence rate or return period

El-Nino 1947, 1961 and 1997 Approximately 5 years Floods Frequently (almost annually) unpredictableTsunami 2006 UnpredictableDrought 2005/6 Every 4-5 yearsHunger/Famine Every year Every year

Source: Awuor et al., 2008.

Human health is likely to be affected by various climate change-related health factors, including the altered distribution of some infectious diseases and disease vectors (IPCC 2008). The above trends in climate change-related exposures will increase malnutrition and consequent disorders; increase the number of people suffering from death, disease, and injury from heat waves, floods, storms, fires and droughts; and continue to change the range of some infectious disease vectors. Since 1988, there has been an increase in the number of malaria outbreaks in the Kenyan highlands, where malaria was previously rare (Minakawa et al. 2006). Research shows that the survival rate of Anopheles gambiae (the vector of malaria) in the Kenyan highlands is higher in deforested areas than in forested ones (Minakawa et al. 2006).

3.2 TOPOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Eldoret could be described as a river valley town, with land rising from the Sosiani river valley both northwards and southwards. It rises to 1800m above sea level in the extreme northwest and 2120m above sea level in the extreme southeast. The northern part is marked by a steep slope. Geologically, Eldoret falls under the tertiary volcanic period. The rocks are mainly of alkaline type including basalts, phonolites, nephelinites, trachytes, alkali rhyolites and their pyroclastial equivalents. The rock formations indicate that the rock slopes, run along the escarpment and most of the volcanic effusion was by way of vents and fissures. The soils are the red to strong-brown friable clays with laterite horizon and grey mottled clays. There are a number of gulleys that have appeared due to the extensive soil erosion over the years. Mining for murram and building stones is commonly found on unoccupied hills.

3.3 URBAN LANDUSE CHARACTERISTICSEldoret town developed as a result of activities of European settlers in the Uasin District during the colonial period specifically in 1909. Over the years the municipal boundaries have been extended from the initial 25km2 to 50 km2 in 1974 and 147.9 km2 in 1988. In January 1959 Eldoret was elevated to the status of Municipal Council



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by legal notice No. 515 of 1958. There are four forms of land ownership in Eldoret namely; municipal land, government land, Kenya Railways Corporation land and private land in the form of freehold or leasehold... It is an important storage, processing and distribution centre for agricultural produce from its hinterland and neighbouring agricultural areas. The town plays a significant role in the wholesale and retail trade in agricultural commodities, and sales and servicing of farm tools and machinery and other agricultural inputs. It offers administrative services, banking services and entertainment. Today Eldoret is a major dynamic regional administrative, commercial, educational and industrial centre. The town has a vibrant informal sector that offers employment to many of its residents. Indeed, during the period between 1994 and 1999 Eldoret recorded the highest wage employment growth rate in the country, which was attributed to increased activities in the manufacturing and construction sectors.

Rapid industrial growth, particularly up to the early 1990s, attracted development, as the town was transformed into an industrial centre offering employment opportunities in various industrial concerns including textile, dairy, cereal, vegetable oil manufacturing, wattle tanning, and steel works. Industrial growth was favoured by: the availability of basic infrastructure including the power and water supplies necessary for industrial performance, existence of other supportive services and facilities such as financial institutions and banks, as well as the availability of a variety of raw materials from the town’s rich agricultural hinterland, namely wheat, maize and milk. Ombura (1999) noted that Eldoret had conflicting land uses such as mixing of heavy industrial manufacturing and processing plants with residential areas and overdeveloped plots. Using remote sensing data he further noted that unplanned agriculture especially of grain growing and grazing covered up to 64.4% of total land cover. A comparative study on the land use allocations for major urban centres in Kenya namely Nakuru, Kisumu, Eldoret, Thika, Nanyuki, Nyeri, Kitale, Isiolo, Nyahururu, and Navisha was conducted in 2004 by Ministry of Lands, shows subtle differences. However of particular note is that an average of 57% of allocations is towards residential units, which planners should develop climate change adaptation measures.

3.4 HYDROLOGICAL FUNCTIONING

Potable water for Eldoret comes from Moiben Dam from Elgeyo Marakwet watershedand Sosiani watershed waterworks whose tributaries of Ellegerini and Endoroto managed by the Eldoret Water and Sewerage Company (ELDOWAS). ELDOWAS has an extensive water treatment plant, water and sewerage distribution system as well as a sewerage treatment works. However the rate of physical development has superseded the provision of potable water especially in informal settlements. The informal settlers have to pay dearly for water usually available at water taps points in the areas. Liquid waste disposal in the informal settlement is normally by pit latrines while water wells close by supplement the sources of water. Studies conducted in Langas slum show that this has reduced the quality of well water due to increased nutrient levels (Kiplagat 2006) and presence of microbes like E. coli. There is plenty of public hue and cry over the highly polluted River Sosiani which serves as the main source of domestic water for families living downstream in residential areas as shown



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in photo 1. Human settlements such a Kapsoya a site and service scheme, has had deteriorating physical infrastructure as shown in photo 2.

Table 3: Land use allocation percentages in various centres in 2004.

Nakuru Kisumu Eldoret Thika Nanyuki Nyeri Kitale Isiolo Nyahururu Naivasha AverageResidential - 0 53.3 60.2 78.8 87.8 54.1 35.4 7.5 47.2 5807 63.4 57.64% of Low Density 35% 24% 51% 18% 45.50% 59.30% 40.40% 18.80% 29.40% 16% 28%% of Medium Density 20% 12.70% 39.90% 52.60% 24.80% 19.20% 19% 37.60% 47.60% 29.90% 30%% of High Density 45% 63.30% 55% 45.50% 29.70% 21.50% 40.60% 43.70% 23% 54.10% 42%Industrial - 1 5.4 28.1 6.2 5 13 7.2 9.4 3.1 9.2 3.4 8.7Educational - 2 9.9 3.2 5.4 2 6.7 12.2 20.3 13.4 13.2 7.9 9.4Recreation - 3 9.2 3.8 1.1 0.7 1.2 18.8 5 2.2 2 8.3 5.1Public purpose - 4 14.3 1.6 5.4 2.5 14.1 14.6 13.1 34.9 10.7 10.7 12.2Commercial - 5 4.9 2 2.7 1.3 5.9 11.7 3 27.9 4.9 1.6 6.8Public utilities - 6 3.1 1.4 0.5 0.6 5.1 0.2 11.5 11.8 13 2.7 3.8Total Area (Zone 0-6) 7506 2490 5458 6065 1081 608 1378 485 1217 3276Population 1999 231262 322734 197449 106707 49330 101238 86282 32684 37412 158678Town density = Population/Total Area

30.8 129.6 36.2 17.6 45.6 166.5 62.6 67.4 30.7 48.4 63.5

Growth Rate per annum 3.1 5.1 5.5 4.3 5 0.8 4.3 5.4 7.7 12.1

Population increase 1999-2004

38722 299151 33034 2824 9660 2679 16602 5626 7326 26569

Growth Rate % 1999-2004 16.7 9.3 16.7 2.6 19.6 2.6 19.2 17.2 19.6 16.7

Source: Ministry of Lands, 2005

Photo 1: River Sosiani around hospital quarters area.

Photo 2: Blocked stormwater drainage channels along a typical street.

The informal artisans popularly called ‘Jua Kali’ are among water polluters throughdischarge of used oil, grease, discarded filters and burning of old rubber tyres whose blockages affect the open drains leading to flooding especially in the slums, flat and swampy areas (Photo 3). The anti-malarial canal discharge points have become point



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sources for water pollution that ultimately affects the overall turbidity, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). The direct effects of instantaneous voluminous stormwater runoff are subtly felt in the town since the town is considered upstream. Annual flash floods appear downstream around Budalangialong River Nzoia where River Sosiani joins have been affected. A green based approach used in Kisumu Town, (Photo 4) can go a long way towards alleviation and control of excessive soil erosion.

Photo 3: Blocked anti-malarial drains leading to River Sosiani.

Photo 4: Green reinforcement of stormwater drains/canals.

3.5 SOCIO ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICSThe population growth in Eldoret has been attributed to natural growth, rural-urban immigration from rural areas, municipal extension and rapid industrial growth. According to the Central bureau of statistics, (CBS, 2006) over the decades the population has increased from 8193 in 1948 to over 300,000 in according to the Physical Planning Department of Uasin Gishu offices (Figure 5).



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Figure 4: Population of Eldoret.

POPULATION GROWTH OF ELDORET

0

50000

100000

150000

200000

250000

CENSUS YEAR

POPU

LATI

ON

NU

MB

ERS

Series1 8193 19605 18196 50503 111882 197449

1948 1962 1969 1979 1989 1999

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics. Government of Kenya, (2006)

The urban population is ethnically heterogeneous and composed of a myriad of tribes with diverse cultural backgrounds that are manifested in terms of groupings and settlement. Tribal conflicts have erupted such as the post-election violence in December 2007, where many settlements in the hinterland were abandoned for internally displaced camps (Figure 6). These socio-politic conflicts coupled with climate change impacts have threatened food security in the country.

Figure 2: Internally displaced Persons (IDP) camp in ASK Agricultural showground,Eldoret 2008.

Source: www.Reliefweb.com

3.6 ROAD NETWORK CHARACTERISTICSOut of the approximately 150 km2 area of Eldoret municipality, roads cover about 240 km out of which 63.6 kilometres are classified roads whose maintenance responsibility lies with the Ministry of Public works. Over the years motorized transport has increased with rising economic activity resulting in increased road-related pollution. Mwangi, (2008) conducted transport related studies in Eldoret and



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identified problems associated with road network to include encroachment of road reserves, uneven road surfaces, potholes, traffic jams and fuel lead deposition along the materials and vegetation on the road verges. The raising levels of dust from earth and murram roads especially over the dry spells cause respiratory diseases as well as damage properties through deposition of dust.

3.7 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

By 2005 it was estimated that residents of Eldoret generated on average 6012 tonnes of solid waste per day and the composition was 60% biodegradable (Kiplagat, 1999)see table 4. Most of this waste is collected in bins, and picked from collection points,by refuse vehicles, which dispose it in open dumpsites (photo 6) and/or incinerated. This uncontrolled landfill is a big source of methane. The efficiency and effectiveness of these waste handling is collapsing due to increasing affluence levels, growing population, collapse of waste collection infrastructure and poor management (Okalebo, 2008; Kiplagat 1999; Lwenya, 2002). This poses risks to human and animal health is a source of water, land and air pollution as well as an eyesore to the town.

Photo 4: Huruma dumpsite

There is however a paradigm shift in the handling of waste towards the 4Rs that is reduce, reuse, recycle and recover. Reecon Engineers have developed a new model of incinerator that is very useful in institutions (Photo 7). Photos 8 and 9 show simplified modes of waste treatment being adopted in Kisumu City which are under consideration for adoption by Eldoret Municipal council. A majority of residents have modified their frontyards into either home-based enterprise to supplement their urban livelihoods.



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Table 4: Estimated solid waste generated in Eldoret municipality in 2005.

Source: Eldoret Municipal Council, Department of Environment.

CATEGORY ITEM TONNAGE PER MONTH SUMDomestic waste 317801people x 0.5 kg per person 240 tons 240Commercial waste Wholesale market 240 tons

Karanja and vizm 160 tonsKihuga square 40 tonsWest market 40 tonsHuruma 40 tons

840Industrial waste Coca cola 80 tons

CPC 120 tonsKen Knit 32 tonsSteel mills 32 tons

264Institutional waste Medical training college 16 tons

Faculty of health science 12 tonsChepkoilel campus 20 tonsEldoret polytechnic 20 tonsRVTI 16 tonsMoi Girls 20 tonsMemorial Hospital 8 tonsEldoret Hospital 8 tonsOther institutions 10 tonsOther schools 8 tons

1386012

72144TOTAL REFUSE PRODUCED PER YEAR

ESTIMATED SOLID WASTE PRODUCTION COMPOSITION FOR ELDORET, 2005

SUB TOTAL

SUB TOTAL

SUB TOTALTOTAL REFUSE PRODUCED PER MONTH



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Photo 7: Prototype of waste incinerator developed by Reecon Contractors,

Kenya.

Photo 8: Composting at Jomo Kenyatta Arena, Kisumu.

Photo 9: Sorting out bay at Jomo Kenyatta Arena, Kisumu

4.0 AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE OF ELDORET

Farming is a well-known and widespread activity in urban areas on parcels of land with alternative competing uses, often practiced by vulnerable groups, street people, orphans, refugees, internally displaced, widows and widowers, rural immigrants, of whom the majority are women. Though the laws, both national and local, tend to restrict urban agriculture this practice is tolerated in the town (Foeken et al 2000).Most laws and by-laws are archaic and do not support design and activities that take place now in cities of the developing countries (UNCHS 1996). The draft national land policy of 2006 discloses that the Government of Kenya provides limited extension services to UPA farmers Some local governments in the Sub-Saharanregion have made significant progress in incorporating UPA in their urban development plans, and that others are now beginning to rise to the challenge. The Nakuru Strategic Plan in Kenya is an example of a changing approach to UPA where it is designated as a zoned land use. Towards the north and east of the EMC, arable agriculture based on wheat, barley and maize is superseded by cattle and sheep ranching due to increasing aridity (Satellite photos: www.googleearth.com). Mugalavai (2008) conducted a socioeconomic study on the urban agriculture of Eldoret where she observed horticultural crops are most common due to availability of nearby markets. Observations around the town and its environs reinforce the significance of agriculture due to the presence of cattle dips, agricultural experimental farm and soil and water services being taken to maintain the ecological equilibrium of the region. Livestock production in the area embraces dairy and beef cattle, sheep,



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goats, pigs, rabbits and poultry. Mugalavai further observed that urban agriculture is practiced among all cadres of people, the rich and the poor alike. Abstracts of her findings are found in Table 5 below. She concluded that recognition of urban agriculture by the policy makers will stimulate further production and ensure food security.

Table 4: Summary of the socio-economic profile related to practice of urban agriculture in Eldoret.

OPTION ONE OPTION TWO OPTION THREE OPTION FOURHOUSING CHARACTERISTICS

1Status of place of stay in Eldoret Slum Area 45% Middle income 22% High income 33%

2 Owner of House Self 18% Spouse 17%Private landlord 33%

3 Type of House Permanent 11%Semi permanent 30% Temporary 59%

4 Person paying rent No rent paid 50% Self 25% Spouse 25%

5 Number of rooms in house One room 30% 2 rooms 30% 3 rooms 17%More than 3rooms 17%

6Do you stay at place of production/selling Yes 60% No 37%

7How far is place of stay from place of work Stay there 63%

Less than half km 11% About 1km

8 Mode of transport to work Stay at site 63%Walking or cycling 17%

LAND USE CHARACTERISTICS

99 Size of land used for Urban agriculture 1/8 acre or less 55%

More than 1/8 of an acre 45%

10Who owns the land/space you use Employer 45%

Leased by employer 15% Municipal land 46%

11Is the land you use for UA paid for? Yes 33% No 67%

12 Do you own rural land? No land 67% 1/8 to 1/4 acre 17% 1/2 to 3/4 acre 11%More than one acre 5%

13Distance of land owned from Eldoret No land 45% Within Eldoret 20%

Less than 50km 10% 50-100km 11%

14 Frequency of land visit No land 45% Every month 17%At least once a year 25%

I stay on my land 13%

15 Reasons for land visit No land 45% To visit family 38% To farm 17%

ANIMAL OWNERSHIP

16 Type of animal No animals 56% Cattle 27% Fish 9% Others 8%

17 Number of animals No animals 5%

Next to house in which we live 17%

More than 50m from house 27%

18 Animal waste disposal No animals 56% Used on farm 38% Other 6%WATER AVAILABILITY AND USE

19 Does water dry up? Yes 20% No 80%

20 Source of water in drought Never dries up 44%Fetch from elsewhere 19% Do not bother 37%

21 Source of water Tap water 52% Wells 44% Rivers 60% Rain 40%

INCOME GENERATION

22 Types of activities done None 19% Self employed 42%Wage employment 19%

Permanent $ pensionable

23 Average monthly income None 13%1000 - 2000 Kshs 10% 2001 - 3000 19% 3001 - 4000 29%

24Importance of activity to household None 11%

Major income provider 47% Provides half 26%

Provides less than half 16%

25Importance of activity to individual None 11%

Major income provider 52% Provides half 21%

Provides less than half 16%

URBAN AGRICULTURE CHARACTERISTICS

26 Length of years working in UAZero to one year 30% 1-2 years 16%

More than two years 54%

27 Status in UA Self employed 47% Employee 41% Employer 41%



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28 Type of work before UAEmployed and retrenched 16%

Employed and retired 13%

Self employed in informal sector 37%

First employment in UA 34%

29Do you do the actual production/sell Yes 69% No 31%

31 Person in charge of supervision Owner 78% Employee 12%32 Gender of person in charge Male 52% Female 48%33 Duration of working time 10 - 12 hours 49% 8-9 hours 38% 6-7 hrs 13%

34 Amount of working time spentMost of working time 78%

Half of my working time 22%

MODE OF PRODUCTION AND SELLING

35Description of mode of production/selling Site selling 28% Hawking 20% Vending 30% Deliveries 22%

36 Time spent to organize selfAbout half an hour 32% About an hour 24% 2 to 3 hours 30%

More than 3 hours 14%

Source: Mugalavai, 2008

The photos below show some of the urban agriculture practices in Eldoret town that include diversion of burst water pipes (Photo 10) for irrigation maximising on water use. Photo 11 shows a simple greenhouse built out of rudimentary materials of clear plastic paper and timber frames. Road side forestry on the verge of roads as shown in photo 12 is not only aesthetically pleasing but a source of wood and agricultural products. Photo 13 shows the banana cultivars planted at the frontyard of a home. It is common to identify fruit trees planted at the frontyards in a number of homesteads in Eldoret.

Photo 10: An undeveloped plot where cultivation of cabbages, tomatoes and kales.

Photo 11: A greenhouse constructed at the backyard of a plot.

Photo 12: Propagation of a tree nursery along the main road verge

Photo 13: Cultivation of bananas at the front yard.

4.1 REGENERATIVE URBAN AGRICULTURE PRACTICES FOR ELDORET



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Urban agriculture is so much intertwined in the general functioning of the town. Whereas urban agriculture in Eldoret has been largely focused towards agribusiness and its salient features of the agro ecosystems have been downplayed. It is clear from the climate change impact assessment above that there is need for adaptation in the following forms in Eldoret:

(i) “hardening up” of the infrastructure systems, including storm-drainage systems, water supply and treatment plants

(ii) protection or relocation of solid waste management facilities, energy generation and distribution systems

(iii) hydro-geological consolidation works(iv) promote the waste reuse and recycling and raising public awareness(v) fuel technology improvements with alternative fuels from biomass, wind

and solar energy.

Developed countries have embarked on green energy technologies however the greening of Kenyan urban centres through urban agriculture and urban forestry is the best strategy. This paper attempts to qualify regenerative ecological approaches in planning of related urban as summarized in the Table 6 and Figure 7 below:

Table 6: Regenerative ecological approaches to be applied in urban agriculture.

Regenerative Practices GHG objectives Additional benefitsCROPSConservation tillage and reduced field pass intensity

Sequestration, emission reduction Improves soil, water and air quality. Reduces soil erosion and fuel use.

Efficient nutrient management Sequestration, emission reduction Improves water quality. Saves expenses, time and labour

Crop diversity through rotations and cover crops

Sequestration Reduces erosion and water requirements. Improves soil and water quality

Intercropping with leguminous crops

Sequestration, Fix nitrogen reducing the need for chemical fertilizers, build soil organic matter, better pest and disease management

ANIMALSManure management Emission reduction On-farm sources of biogas fuel and

possibly electricity for large operations, provides nutrients for crops

Rotational grazing and improved forage

Sequestration, emission reduction Reduces water requirements. Helps withstand drought. Increases long-term grassland productivity

Feed management Emission reduction Reduces quantity of nutrients. Improves water quality. More efficient use of feed.

Sustainable stocking Emissions reduction Prevent soil degradation and erosion, conservation of water

APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGIESPlanting cover crops, hedgerows, trees and other vegetation.

Sequestration Aesthetics, windbreaks, improved water percolation, vertical farming, reduced soil erosion,

Generating energy from agricultural solid waste

Emission reduction Economically independent, costs reduction,

Organic farming Emissions reduction, sequestration Agricultural water efficiency, operation efficiency, prevent burning of crop residues,



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Forestry Sequestration Biodiversity improvement, product diversification, additional income, fodder, aesthetics, shade effect, Substitute for energy-intensive materials,

Community participation Sequestration Integrated waste management plans, Ownership and custody,

Irrigation and water management Emissions reduction Food security, hydrological management,

Shelter design Emissions reduction, Resilience to extreme weather events, allow for species movement

Source: NRCS.http://soils.usda.gov/surve/global_climate_change.html

Figure 6: Improved nutrient cycling in regenerative sustainable urban agriculture.

Source: Modified from Holmgren 2007

Algal basin

fertigation

Diverse c rops

manure, cropsresidues, food

remains, paper, etc& waste water

Biogasdiges ter

Richfertili zers

water

chicken,ducks ,geese

Horti culture(Greenhouses )

Diary cows,goats, sheep,

rabbits

Horticultural harvests

Meat and dairyharvests

Biogas

purified water

Fish Pond(Aquaculture)

Solar panels' M ore t han 65% ofCO 2e m it te d is from thetransport sec tor e spec iall y motoriz ed t ra nsport,

which is the larg est c onsumer of pe tro le umprod uct s in Ken ya.'

'methane produced by energy sector (148 Gg) whileother GHGsemitted were N 2O (1.4 Gg)'

Combined Heat and Power Generation* Combined heat and power generati on sys tem* Food process ing* Methane purification and compression for mobile uses* Connection to power gri d

CARBON CREDITS TO TRANSPORTSECTOR

CARBON CREDITS TO ENERGY SECTOR

fish harvest

poultry harvest

Savings on fertil izers& Pes tic idescrops harvest

Hydrogen generation for fuel use* Thermocatalytic conversion* H ydrogen storage* H ydrogen fuel cell for transport.

* levels of reuse/recycling of solid* wast ewater reus e and aerobictreatment* decentralized compost ing forcompost manure shall enrich thenutrient cyc le* reduced landf ill space requirements* reduct ion of the burning of wastethat rel ease noxious gases as NO x,SOx and CO x.

CARBON CREDITS TO WASTE SECTOR

'waste generation has increased considerablydue to rapid increase i n human populat ion,indust rial development, and consumpt ionpatterns. Most of the waste is organic whichwhen it degrades, produces CH4 and CO2.'

OPPORTUNITIE STemporary user ri g ht s, Com muni ty garde ns , E xten sion and c red it

fa ci li ti es, Fa rm ers' m arket s, Agroindust rie s

TA RGETS

• non-const ructed municipal or state-owned land areas earmarked for futureindustr ial or housing development, butcould temporarily be used for urbanagriculture;• protected land areas or green spaces - mainly municipal tenure (urbanparks, planted roadsides, public squares, green areas, r iver margins, andflood zones) ;• public or pri vate i nstitutional land (belonging to comm ercial enterprisesand social i nstitutionss uch as school s, churches or hos pitals);• vacant or underutilised private household plots;• urban water bodies.

pro-poor poverty reduction through the integrati on of disadvantaged groups- street people, orphans , refugees, internally, d ispl aced, w idows(widowers), rural imm igrants of whom the majorityare wom en.

MULTIPLIER EFFECT OF IMPROVED SUSTAINABLE URBAN AGRICULTURE

CONCEPTUAL FR AMEWORK

wormsCompost



19

UNCHS-HABITAT (1996) calls for new directions in the planning of human settlements in response to conditions and trends of climate change. It is important to recognize the potential of underutilized urban land that is available in Eldoret as shown in the figure 7 below. The Ministry of Lands in Physical planning handbook 2008 has made a major stride towards stipulating guidelines on incorporating urban agriculture into urban centres. In line with this Table 7 demonstrates the various vacant/undeveloped lands that could be rehabilitated.

Figure 7: Categories of vacant land in Eldoret municipality.

Source: Author

PRIVATE

PUBLIC

BUILT

COLLECTIVE (CLUSTER)

COOPERATIVE

INDIVIDUAL PLOTS


COOPERATIVE

INDIVIDUAL PLOTS

PUBLIC

PRIVATE

PRIVATE/PRIVATE

SQUATTER

VACANT

VERTICAL GARDENT/BALCONY

FRONT/BACK YARD

VERTICAL GARDENT/BALCONY

FRONT/BACK YARD

UNDER UTILIZEDURBA N LAND

(GREEN BUILDINGS)Residential housesOffice and commercial bu ild ingsIndustriesPubl ic service o ffices

Industria l landEducationa l landCommercial zones e.g marketsPubl ic amenity

HillslopesRiparian reservesFloodpla insEscarpment

Kenya Railway wayleaveKenya Pipel ine wayleaveKenya Power & Lighting wayleaveRoad Reserve and EdgesDefferred landMalaria drainsWetlandsSwamps



20

Table 5: Potential areas for expanded urban agricultural integration in urban areas.

UTILITYTransport buffer zones

Sewerage FacilityDrainage wayleavesAnti-malarial wayleavesBuilding clearanceSeptic tank clearanceSewerline

Capacity of power line Way Leave21 KV 10 m33 KV 20m40 KV 20m66 KV 30m132 KV single circuit towers 50m132 KV double circuit towers 60m

Communication

Communication Masts (Radio, Telephone).

Oil tanks and pipelines

Railway reserve

Rivers

30m reserve on either sides of the pipeline must be kept. Proposed oil tanks should be 10m away from any settlements. For existing oil tanks/terminals a buffer of 50 metres must be provided.

A buffer of 30m to be reserved on either side of the railway line.

It is defined as the land on each side of water course as defined. Has a minimum of 2m or equal to the full width of the river as measured between the banks of the river course up to a maximum of 30m (Seasonal and perennial rivers).

3mElectricity power lines

Minimum space of 0.4ha and 0.25 acres may be provided for the telephone exchange and booster respectively. NB Satellite earth stations should have at least 5 acres.

A buffer of 60 metres radius to be reserved or as may be prescribed by the accredited authority (Communication communication of Kenya, National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) and Radiation Protection Board) from time to time.

3m and 4.5m4m1.5m, 2.5m and 7.5m6m

PERMISSIABLE BUFFER ZONES10-30 metres green belts on either side or urban ring roads and bypasses and green beltsPreferred Wayleave

Source: Physical planning handbook 2008 Edition

Green based planning needs to be employed to using improved standards, regulations and zoning techniques. Figure 9 shows is a tentative zoning concept for Eldoret that could be incorporated to the traditional zoning plan.



21

Figure 3: Proposed agricultural landscaping zoning concept for Eldoret.

AGRICULTURAL ZONE SUPPORT TARGET AREASPrecision agriculture zone In this demonstration zone all

production processes such as irrigation, fertilization etc are monitored and managed by a nerve centre equipped with GPS, GIS and Remote sensing technologies, hydroponics and greenhouse technologies.

Eldoret Agricultural showground (ASK), Chepkoilel Campus – Moi university science park

Flower producing zone Technologically supported by the Horticultural Crops Development authority and Ministry of Agriculture

Chepkoilel zone, Ziwa area

Tree nursery zone Technologically supported by the Kenya Forest Service and Kenya Forest Research Institute

Along roadside verges, anti-malarial drain canals, flood zones

Aquaculture zone Technologically supported by the Kenya marine and fresh water research institute

Along stormwater drainage canals, anti-malarial drains, dykes, dams, swamps

Livestock raising zone Technologically supported by the Ministry of Livestock for improved breeding and rearing

Centre around the abattoir (slaughter house), Uasin Gishu Veterinary centre, Selected residential area

Agricultural product-processing zone

Technologically supported Ministry of Trade and Industry

Moi international airport, Industrial area, markets, home based cottage industries.

Crop zone Technologically supported by Ministry of Agriculture.

Vacant plots both private and public, buffer zones, deferred land use areas

Agro-tourism Supported by the Ministry of Tourism and Kenya Tourism Development Authority, Kerio Valley Development Authority, School of Tourism, Moi University

Niche specialized agricultural units such as Ampath, homestays at farms.

Source: Created by Okalebo S.E.



22

Figure 4: OVERALL MODELLING CONCEPT TOWARDS A LOW CARBON ELDORET TOWN.

Soil and LandManagement

Land-CoverChange

Land-Use Emissions

Control Policies

Data:EconomicTechnologicalDemographicEnvironmental

AtmosphericConcentrations

Greenhouse GasesOzone PrecursorsSulfate Aerosols

Emissions:Greenhouse GasesOzone PrecursorsSulphate Aerosols

Changed Climate

Land Cover

Impacts:EcosystemsAgrosystemsSea-Level Rise

INPUT INTEGRATED MODELS OUTPUT

Al ga l ba s in

fer ti ga ti on

Di ve r se c ro p s

m an ur e, crop sre sid ue s, fo od

re ma ins, pa pe r, et c

& wast e wate r

B i o ga s

di ge s te r

Rich

fert

ilize

rs

w a te r

ch ic ke n ,

d uc ks ,g ee s e

Ho rt icu lt u re

(G re e nho us e s)

D ia ry c o w s,

go at s ,s h ee p ,rab b it s

Ho r tic u ltu r al har v es ts

Me a t an d d a iry

ha rv es ts

Bi og a s

pu ri fied w a te r

Fish Po n d

(A q ua c ul tu re )

fis h h ar ve s t

po u ltr y h ar ve s t

Sa v in gs o n f er til iz er s

& Pe s tic id e s

cr op s h ar v es t

wor m s

Co m p os t

' M o re t ha n 6 5% o fC O 2e m it te d is f ro m t he

tr an s po r ts e ct or e s pe c ia lly m o t or iz ed tra n sp o rt ,

wh ic h is t he l a rg es t co n su m e r of p et ro le u mp ro d uc ts i n K en y a. '

'methan e p ro d u ce d b y e ne rg y s ec to r ( 14 8 G g ) whi le

ot he r G H G s emi tt ed w e re N2O ( 1 .4 G g )'

Co m b in e d Hea t an d P o w er G e n er at io n

* Co m b i n e dh ea t an d p o w er g e ne r at io n sy s te m* Fo o d p ro ce s sing

* Met ha n e p ur if ic at io n a nd c o m p re ss io n fo r m o b il e u s es

* Co n n ec ti on t o p ow e r g rid

CA R B O N C RE D I TS T O T R AN S P O RT

SE C TO R

C A RB O N C R E D IT S T O E N E R GY SE C T O R

Hy d ro g en g e n er at io n fo r fu e l us e

* Th e rm o c at a lyt i c c o nv e rs io n* Hyd ro g en st or ag e

* Hyd ro g en fu el c el lf o rt ra n sp o rt .

Terrestrial CarbonCycle

Initial Climate,Soil and Land

Cover

Cimate and OtherFeedbacks

NaturalVegetation

Potential CropProductivity

Terrestrial Environment System (TES)

Urban Land Use System

Energy-Industry-TransportSystem

Biofuels

Agricultural Demand

PRIVATE

PUBLIC

BUILT


COOPERATIVE

IN DIVIDUAL PLOTS


COOPERATIVE

IN DIVIDUAL PLOTS

PUBLIC

PRIVATE

PRI VATE/PRIVATESQUATTER

VACANT

VERTICAL GARDENT/BALCO NY

FRONT/BACK YARD

VERTICAL GARDENT/BALCO NY

FRONT/BACK YARD

UNDER UTILIZEDURBAN LAND

Source: Modified Terrestrial Environmental system that incorporates Figures 6 and 7 towards a modification of climate.



23

5.0 CONCLUSION

The study has revealed that the effect of climate variability is felt in all sectors of the urban economy. There is definitely need to urban landscape rehabilitation to capitalize on the biosequestration of urban agriculture and urban forestry for Eldoret. Through this regenerative green based approach a domino effect will be realized in the overall environment of the urban centre especially in residents’ livelihoods. An organic agronomic approach is socially and culturally acceptable to the majority of inhabitants who have African heritage. Secondly it is cost effective with an easy public outreach for a developing nation. Third, regenerative sustainable urban agriculture involve the majority of stakeholders who are the pubic, making them active players in climate change adaptation rather than leave it entirely on the hands of policy makers and governments. Fourth, the making of eco-neighbourhoods can be stimulated through adoption of community based and/or local authority based urban agriculture projects and programmes. Street based or block based agricultural projects such as integrated solid waste recycling depots can foster cohesiveness and interaction. Fifth, presently rain-fed agriculture is declining in peripheral rural Uasin Gishu district; the adopted new practices have the capacity of diffusing to the poor, technology-scared rural folks.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to extend my sincere thanks to advisors Dr. Mwasi B., Dr. Musyoka R., Prof. Karanja N., Prof. Gachene, Dr. Mwasi S. for their time and effort in helping me to develop a research product. They provided excellent scientific guidance pertaining to their specialities. I wish to thank Uasin Gishu District Physical Planning Office, Eldoret, the Kapsoya Meteorological Station, Eldoret, Kenya Red Cross, Eldoret Municipal Council and School of Environmental Studies, Moi University for allowing me to conduct the research and support. Finally to the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) travel grant to enable participation in the Fifth Urban Research Symposium, 2009.

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1 “green based” planning that integrates urban

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