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How do scientists do science ?How do scientists do science ?Click the links below to access the activities:

Activity 1

Linus Pauling

Science journals

Review process

Activity 2

Karlowski’s study

Attitudes of scientists

Activity 3

Experimental and non-experimental studies

Role-play

Extension activity

Images of science

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Who was Linus Pauling?Who was Linus Pauling?

Linus Pauling, born in 1901, is one of only a few people to have been awarded two Nobel Prizes

His first degree was in chemical engineering followed by two Ph.D’s, in chemistry and mathematical physics.

In the mid-1930s, he was interested in the complicated molecules in living organisms (biochemistry).

He lost the competition with Watson and Crick in trying to reveal the structure of DNA.

Activity 1:Activity 1: How scientists publish their How scientists publish their work?work?

© The Nobel Foundation.

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Who was Linus Pauling?Who was Linus Pauling?

In 1954 Linus Pauling was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his research into the how chemicals bond together.

This helps us to understand the structure of complex molecules such as proteins

© The Nobel Foundation.

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It is sometimes It is sometimes difficultdifficult to classify to classify a scientist into a certain discipline.a scientist into a certain discipline.

Was Linus Pauling a chemist or a biologist?

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Linus PaulingLinus Pauling

believed that taking a high dose of vitamin C regularly could prevent colds

published his hypothesis about vitamin C in a book Vitamin C and the Common Cold, in 1970

his book led to more research into the effects of vitamin C by scientists

became deeply interested in the the biochemistry of vitamins

© The Nobel Foundation.

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11

papers

Science

What are you doing?

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papers

Science

I am finding if there is any research about the effect of vitamin C on the common cold.

Didn't Pauling write a book claiming that vitamin C can treat colds?

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3.

A:

B: Why?

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papers

Science

Yes. But his claim is not yet accepted by the most scientists.

Why?

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3.

A:

B: Why?

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papers

Science

Results must be reviewed by other scientists. Oh! I’ve found them. There are lots of studies investigating his idea.

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Among scientists, results and interpretations are published in

“journals” so that all scientists in the world can get information about what

has been discovered.

Why is it important to publish the Why is it important to publish the findings to fellow scientists?findings to fellow scientists?

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Has Pauling’s hypothesis about preventing colds by using vitamin C been generally accepted by scientists

What makes scientists begin to accept a hypothesis?

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Can you name some Can you name some science journals?science journals?

They are published periodically so that scientists can publish their work in them.

Our public libraries collect many of them.Try to search for some of them in a library

catalogue at home!

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Enter “Science periodicals”

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Some famous science journalsSome famous science journals

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a new finding

The process by which scientific The process by which scientific knowledge is …knowledge is …

submit to a science journal

Read by other scientists

Further research may be done

Editorial board

Reviewers

Findings published

Reviewers Reviewers

Editorial board

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If the article is rejected by If the article is rejected by one journalone journal

The scientist may revise the paper and submit it to other journals.

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The The peer reviewpeer review sys system provides a comtem provides a comparatively fair judgeparatively fair judgement about a new sment about a new s

cientific findingcientific finding

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2. Does vitamin C cure colds?

Activity 2: Is vitamin C a cure for colds?Activity 2: Is vitamin C a cure for colds?

Consume extra vitamin C if there is a cold

(Supplementary capsule)

Study conducted by Karlowski and his colleagues:

1. Does vitamin C prevent colds?

Two questions: Consume vitamin C

regularly (Maintenance capsule)

Lower incidence of Lower incidence of colds?colds?

Severity and length of colds Severity and length of colds decrease?decrease?

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Volunteers are divided into four groups:

Group 1

Group 3

Group 2

Group 4

3 g vitamin C

3 g vitamin C

3 g vitamin C

3 g vitamin C

get a coldget a cold

get a coldget a cold

placebo

placebo

placebo

placebo

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Group Maintenance capsule Supplementary capsule

1 Control ( 安慰劑 ) (Lactose)

Control

2 Control 3 g Vitamin C

3 3 g Vitamin C Control

4 3 g Vitamin C 3 g Vitamin C

Summary

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What is a placebo?What is a placebo?

The results of a study may be affected if the subject knows which treatment group they belong to.

Therefore, the control group will also take a capsule, but with no vitamin C inside so that the subjects cannot guess their

treatment.

The capsule with no vitamin C inside is known as the placebo. In this experiment, lactose powder was used as

the placebo (Why was it a bad idea?).

The psychological state of a person usually affects their health.

e.g. People who think they are ill might really get ill.

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Problems: Some participants tasted the capsule and

identified which group they belonged to The subjects decided whether they had

caught a cold, it was not checked by a doctor The number of colds was reported by the

subjects, not assessed by observations.

Can you find any problems in the experimental design?

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The researchers found out that…The researchers found out that…

• About half of the subjects guessed which treatment group they were in.

• They simply bit the capsule and tasted it. Vitamin C tastes sour while the control pill (lactose) tastes sweet!

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If you were the researchers, what If you were the researchers, what would you do if you discover the same would you do if you discover the same

problem? problem?

The researchers examined the results separately for subjects who guessed and who did not guess the treatment.

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ResultsResults

What can you conclude from these What can you conclude from these results?results?

People who did not guess the treatment

0

2

4

6

8

1 2 and 3 4

Group no.

Ave

rage

leng

th o

f co

lds

(Day

s)

People who guessed the treatment

0

2

4

6

8

1 2 and 3 4

Group no.A

vera

ge le

ngth

of

cold

s(D

ays)

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Conclusion:Conclusion:

Vitamin C cannot prevent a cold Vitamin C cannot prevent a cold nor reduce the severity of colds.nor reduce the severity of colds.

But, is the conclusion definite?But, is the conclusion definite?

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Some scientists argued that Some scientists argued that vitamin C can cure colds in vitamin C can cure colds in

much higher dosage.much higher dosage.

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What can you observe about the attitude of scientists and What can you observe about the attitude of scientists and the nature of science from this study of vitamin C?the nature of science from this study of vitamin C?

Scientists criticize each other’s work. Scientists criticize each other’s work.

Scientists are flexible. Scientists are flexible. They re-evaluateThey re-evaluate and modify their methods.and modify their methods.

They do not necessary followed a strictly They do not necessary followed a strictly planned way of doing research.planned way of doing research.

Scientific knowledge is sometimes Scientific knowledge is sometimes inconclusive. inconclusive.

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Activity 3: Activity 3: Are experiments essential in Are experiments essential in developing scientific knowledge?developing scientific knowledge?

What is an experiment?What is an experiment?

Have you done a REAL experiment? Give examples.

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Is the study in Japan an experiment?

Explain.

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Prospective study Prospective study

An observational study in which a group of people are interviewed or tested for risk

factors (e.g., nutrient intake)

The people are then followed up afterwards to examine them for disease or

health

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What factors could affect the results of What factors could affect the results of the study in Japan?the study in Japan?

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Which method is better?Which method is better?

You are a group of scientists who are planning to investigate some health issues.

Decide which approach you will use in your research.

You have to prepare a 5-minute presentation to other scientists to explain the reason for

choosing such an approach.

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Are experiments essential in the Are experiments essential in the development of scientific knowledge?development of scientific knowledge?

Experimental and non-Experimental and non-experimental studies are both experimental studies are both

valuable in sciencevaluable in science

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Scientists work in

universities

Scientists are male

Science is done in western

countriesScientists

work aloneScience is done

only within a subject

discipline

Are these your images of science?

Extension activity: Investigations about vitamin CExtension activity: Investigations about vitamin C

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Name and volume of the journal

Title of the paper

Names of author(s)

Where do the author(s) work?

Let’s look at some real research papers!Let’s look at some real research papers!While reading the papers, While reading the papers, see whether these images see whether these images

are true!are true!

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Some of the areas of science involved in Some of the areas of science involved in research about vitamin Cresearch about vitamin C

ChemistryBiology

Medical scienceFood science

Agriculture

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Science is done by westerners.

Scientists work alone.

Scientists are male.

Scientists work in universities.

Science is done only within a subject discipline.

people from all around the world

collaborate.

do not necessarily work in universities.

are not all men.

Most scientific research is “multi-disciplinary”.