1 i know what general area, but i’m not sure of my research question?
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I know what general area, but I’m not sure of my research question?
A good research question:
Defines the investigation Sets boundaries Provides direction
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If you are finding it a challenge to generate a research topic you can:
Hone in on your passions Use your curiosity Look for inspiration from the creative arts Develop ‘right brain’ skills such as
concept mapping
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Is a systematic inquiry designed to develop knowledge about issues of importance to the nursing profession, including nursing practice, education, administration, and informatics.
1. Research design2. Conduction Measure of risk Temporal relationship between
exposure and disease Cost of study Population size Best when Problems
安居木
EXPOSED NOT EXPOSED
DISEASE DEVELOPS
DISEASE DOES NOT DEVELOP
DISEASE DEVELOPS
DISEASE DOES NOT
DEVELP
AND
START WITH:
THEN FOLLOW TO SEE IF
Design of cohort study
Were exposed Were exposedWere not exposed
Were not exposed
HAVE THE DISEASEDO NOT HAVE THE DISEASESTART WITH
THEN DETERMINE EXPOSURE HISTORY
NON-EXPOSED PEOPLEAND
EXPOSED PEOPLE
PEOPLE WITH THE DISEASE
PEOPLE WITHOUT THE DISEASEAND
IN A CASE-CONTROL STUDY
GROUPS COMPARED
GROUPS COMPARED
‘CASES ‘ ‘CONTROLS’
NON-EXPOSED PEOPLEAND
EXPOSED PEOPLE
PEOPLE WITH THE DISEASE
PEOPLE WITHOUT THE DISEASEAND
IN A CASE-CONTROL STUDY
DETERMINE THE PROPORTIONS EXPOSED IN:
DETERMINE INCIDENCE RATES OF DISEASE IN:
CASES CONTROLS
Cohort study Case-control study
Measure of riskRelative riskOdds ratio
Odds ratio
Temporal sequence
Easy to establish Sometimes hard
Multiple association
Possible to study associations of an exposure with several disease
Possible to study associations of a disease with several exposures or factors
Time and cost required
Long and expensive Relatively short and inexpensive
Population size Relatively large Relatively small
Potential biasAssessment of outcome
Assessment of exposure
Best whenExposure is rare, and disease is frequent among exposed
Disease is rare, exposure is frequent among the diseased
Cohort studyCohort study Case-control studyCase-control study
ProblemProblems s
Selection of non-Selection of non-exposed exposed comparison group comparison group often difficult;often difficult;
Changes over time Changes over time in criteria and in criteria and
methodsmethods
Selection of Selection of appropriate controls appropriate controls often difficult;often difficult;
Incomplete Incomplete information on information on exposureexposure
Exposed
Not Exposed
Develop Disease
A
Do not Develop
Disease AB
C
C
B
Develop Disease
A
C
B
Do not Develop
Disease A
CB
Exposed to A
Not Exposed
To A
Exposed to A
Not Exposed
To A
B BBB
C CCC
Disease No Disease
cases Controls
To test, refine and advance the knowledge on which improved education, clinical judgment, and cost-effective, safe, ethical nursing care rests.
FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE – viewed as the person who first elevated nursing to the status of a PROFESSION, as presented in her first book NOTES ON NURSING (1859)
Believed in the importance of “naming nursing” by the use of observed data to support the need for health-care reforms.
Methodical Data gathering
1923 – Committee for the Study of Nursing Education Studied
educational preparation of nurse teachers, administrators, public health nurses and the clinical experiences of nursing students.
Gold Mark Report – identified many inadequacies in the educational backgrounds of the group studied and concluded that advanced educational preparation was essential.
ASSUMPTION POSITIVIST PARADIGMOntologic (what is the nature of reality?)
Reality exists; there is a real world driven by real natural courses
Epistemologic (How is the inquirer related to those being researched?)
The inquirer is independent from those being researched; findings are not influenced by the researcher
Axiologic (What is the role of Values in the inquiry?)
Values and biases are to be held in check; objectivity is sought
Methodologic (How is knowledge obtained?)
Deductive process, emphasis on discrete, specific concepts; fixed design, tight controls over context, emphasis on measured, quantitative information; statistical analysis; seeks generalization
ASSUMPTION NATURALISTIC PARADIGM
Ontologic (what is the nature of reality?)
Reality is multiple and subjective, mentally constructed by individuals
Epistemologic (How is the inquirer related to those being researched?)
The inquirer interacts with those being researched; findings are creation of the interactive process
Axiologic (What is the role of Values in the inquiry?)
Subjectivity and values are inevitable and desirable
Methodologic (How is knowledge obtained?)
Inductive process; emphasis on entirely of some phenomenon, holistic; emerging interpretations grounded in participants’ experiences; flexible design; context-bound; emphasis on narrative information
Qualitative analysis
Uses deductive reasoning Systematic Uses control Uses measurements Researchers gather empirical evidence
(objective in nature) Information gathered is usually (but not
always) quantitative/numerical Uses statistical analysis Cannot be used to answer moral or
ethical questions
NATURALISTIC METHOD – attempt to deal with the issue of human complexity by exploring it directly. Investigations place a heavy emphasis on
understanding the human experience as it is lived.
Uses inductive reasoning Used for theory development Approach is flexible Always takes place in the field Concurrent collection and analysis of data Gathers rich and in-depth information
(subjective in nature) Report is written in narrative form Involves small group of people or subjects Cannot be used to answer moral or
ethical questions
People who are being studied Quantitative – subjects,
study participants, respondents
Qualitative – informants, key informants, study participants
Sample – composed of the people being studied
Person who undertakes the research Quantitative – researcher,
investigator, scientist Qualitative – researcher,
investigator
Research Settings – specific places where data collection occurs Quantitative – laboratory
setting, (sometimes) field settings Example: Pierce and
Clancy (2001) studied the effects of hypoxia on diaphragm activity in anesthetized rats.
Qualitative – naturalistic setting/field Example: Carlisle (2000)
studied the search for meaning in the care giving experience among informal carers of people living with HIV and AIDS. The researcher gathered in-depth information from carers in their homes and in HIV/AIDS org.
Theory – systematic, abstract explanation of some aspect of reality
Example: Nightingale’s Environmental Nursing Theory
Conceptual Frameworks/Models – interrelated concepts or abstractions assembled together in a rational scheme by virtue of their relevance to a common theme.
Example: Betty Neuman's Health Care Systems Model
Pieces of information obtained in the course of investigation
Research directions are not always at the full discretion of the researcher. Practicalities include:
Appropriateness of the topic Your ability to get supervisory support Funding opportunities and commitments
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An ‘angle’ for your research can come from insights stemming from:
personal experience theory observations contemporary issues engagement with the literature
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Narrowing, clarifying, and even redefining your questions is essential to the research process.
Forming the right ‘questions’ should be seen as an iterative process that is informed by reading and doing at all stages.
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Attraction to opposite sex
School ridicule
Peers
Media
Parents
Diet ads
You’reso pretty!!
Desire to be popular
Do parents teach their daughters that worth is dependent
on external beauty?
Compliments
Thin TV Stars Magazine
Models
Poor Self Image in Young Girls
Size of ‘stars’is newsworthy
Weight obsessed mother
You look so nice in that!
Do young girls have an unrealistic perception of normal?
Hypotheses are designed to express relationships between variables. If this is the nature of your question, a hypothesis can add to your research
If your question is more descriptive or explorative, generating a hypothesis may not be appropriate
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A hypothesis may not be appropriate if: You do not have a hunch or educated guess
about a particular situation You do not have a set of defined variables. Your question centres on phenomenological
description (see Chapter 9) Your question centres on an ethnographic study
of a cultural group (see Chapter 9) Your aim is to engage in, and research, the
process of collaborative change (see Chapter 10)
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Is the question right for me?
Will the question hold my interest? Can I manage any potential
biases/subjectivities I may have?
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Is the question right for the field?
Will the findings be considered significant? Will it make a contribution?
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Is the question well articulated?
Are the terms well-defined? Are there any unchecked assumptions?
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O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage. Chapter Three 42
Is the question doable?
Can information be collected in an attempt to answer the question?
Do I have the skills and expertise necessary to access this information? If not, can the skills be developed?
Will I be able to get it all done within my time constraints? Are costs likely to exceed my budget? Are there any potential ethics problems?
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O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage. Chapter Three 44
O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage. Chapter Three 45
O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage. Chapter Three 46
Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, 2003
Copyright ©2004 BMJ Publishing Group Ltd.
Thompson, C. et al. Evid Based Nurs 2004;7:68-72
The cognitive continuum.
Are plans that tell a researcher
how data are to be collected, from whom data are to be collected, how data will be analyzed to answer
specific research questions.
Quantitative research is a formal, objective, systematic process in which numeric data are used.
Qualitative research is a systematic approach used to describe and promote understanding of human experiences such as pain
United States:
Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (AHCPR)
Department of Health & Human Services
http://www.ahcpr.gov/
Developed many clinical guidelines to direct the EBM movement.
Does the question get the tick of approval from those in the know?
Does my supervisor think I am on the right track?
Do ‘experts’ in the field think my question is relevant/ important/ doable?
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