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Information Architecture for the World Wide Web

A seminar for Access 98October 3, 1998Saskatoon, Saskatchewan

Presented byLouis RosenfeldArgus Associates, Inc.

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Introduction

Speaker Background

Principal of Argus Associates (Ann Arbor, Michigan), specializing in information architecture design.

Projects for wide variety of clients including: AT&T, Barron’s, Borders, Chrysler, Dow, SIGGRAPH, UMI, Vanguard. Also libraries: CDL, Library of Michigan, State Library of Iowa, Bates College Library, University of Michigan Library.

Regular contributor to Web Review and Internet World magazines.

Co-author, Information Architecture for the World Wide Web (O’Reilly & Associates, 1998).

Background in information and library science (University of Michigan MILS, 1990). (Ph.D. burnout.)

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Introduction

Session Goals

Define information architecture and explain its importance.

Explore concepts and component systems.Review some examples/case studies.Discuss the relationship between information

architecture and library and information science.

Answer questions.

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Introduction to Information Architecture

What is it?“The application of organization, navigation,

labeling and indexing systems to support both browsing and searching in the online environment.”

In Web context, focus on sites, not pages.Information retrieval rather than data retrieval.Not a science, but a good companion to usability

engineering.

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Introduction to Information Architecture

Why is it important?User’s perspective• Inability to find information is a major

complaint.• Information needs vary (known item,

subject).• Preferences vary (precision, recall).• Expertise varies (searching, browsing).

Producer’s perspective• Cost of finding information.• Cost of not finding information.• Maintenance costs.• Political costs.

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Introduction to Information Architecture

Why is it difficult?Information systems perform poorly when there

are:• Heterogeneous content and formats.• Broad subject domains.• Multiple audiences and goals.

Information retrieval is based on language.• Rarely one right answer (relevance is

subjective).• Language is ambiguous. Example: pitch

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Introduction to Information Architecture

Ambiguity of language (“pitch”)Homographs (same word, different meanings)• To throw (baseball).• Persuasive line of talk (sales).• Tone determined by frequency of vibration

(music).Synonyms (different words, similar meanings)

• Pitch (of a roof)• Slope• Inclination• Slant• Incline

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Introduction to Information Architecture

How we can make it easier to find information?Simplify the problem.

• Identify and partition homogeneous content.• Take on narrower subject domains.• Address the major needs of the major

audiences.Follow the 80/20 rule.

• 80% of information needs can often be fulfilled by 20% of the content your site makes available.

• Many sites contain lots of content, but address the needs of no more than 50% of users.

80%

20% 20%

80%Information Needs Content

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Organization Systems

Definitions

Organization structures• The shape of the information space.• The types of relationships between content

areas or items.• e.g. hierarchies, databases, hypertext.Organization schemes• Pathways for intellectual access.• e.g. by author, by topic, by audience.

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Organization Structures

How should my site’s information be structured?Types of organization structures.• Hierarchies; useful for the top levels of a site.• Databases; organize large bodies of homogeneous

content with predictable relationships.• Hypertext; complement the other structural types.• Combinations; often make the most sense within a

site.

hierarchy

database

hypertext

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Organization Structures

Should my site be broad/shallow, or narrow/deep?Research

• Miller (1956) found that users’ short-term memories may be constrained to his “magic number” of 7+/-2.

• Larson and Czerwinski (1998).• Excellent summary of the literature.• Favors balance: (structured) breadth and

depth.• 512 nodes (1. 16x32 2. 32x16 3. 8x8x8)http://www.research.microsoft.com/users/marycz/chi981.htm

But this discussion is wrong or, at least, incomplete.• Depends on the type and size of site. • Depends on audience.• Depends on nature and quality of classification

scheme.

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Organization SchemesHow should my site’s information be organized?

Exact organization schemes.• By name, alphabetically (e.g., white pages).• By geography (e.g., atlas).• By chronology (e.g., timeline).

Characteristics.• Neat and easy to maintain.• Everything has a place (one right answer).• Extremely useful for users who know exactly

what they’re looking for.Example.

• Internet Movie Database (http://us.imdb.com/search).

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Organization SchemesHow should my site’s information be organized?

Ambiguous organization schemes.• By topic (e.g., bookstore, yellow pages).• By task (e.g., buy, find, contact).• By audience (e.g., home, small business,

government).Characteristics.

• Messy and full of overlap.• Hard to implement and maintain.• Extremely useful for users who don’t know

exactly what they’re looking for (subject searching, associative learning).

Examples.• Amazon (http://www.amazon.com).• Dell (http://www.dell.com).

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Labeling Systems

The basics.

Symbols that represent concepts.Types:

• Labels within navigation systems.• Titles and headings.• Links.• Index terms (keywords).• Icons (visual representations of information).

Nielsen & Sano study (

http://www.sun.com/sun-on-net/uidesign/sunweb/)

Strive for:• Clarity (for intended audiences)• Predictability• Consistency

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Labeling Systems

Where should I get my labels?

Existing site.• Don’t throw out the baby with the bath

water.Other Web sites.

• Check out the competition.Existing content.

• Does your organization already have a labeling system?

Controlled vocabularies and thesauri.• Example: LIV/Legislative Indexing

Vocabulary (http://lcweb.loc.gov/lexico/liv/brsearch.html).

Your site’s users and subject experts.• Focus groups, query analysis, user testing.

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Navigation Systems

Types of navigation systems.

Global (site-wide) navigation.Local (sub-site) navigation.Contextual navigation.Supplementary navigation.

• Tables of contents / Site maps.• Indexes.

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Navigation Systems

What makes for a successful navigation system?Navigation systems need to:

• Provide context. (Where am I?)• Provide flexibility (Where can I go?)• Make sense (Separate global and local

systems)• Avoid competing with content.

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Navigation Systems

What supplementary navigation type is best?Table of Contents / Site Map

• Reflects site’s organization system (mental model).

• Good for subject searching.Index

• Flattens organization system (greater granularity).

• Supports known-item searching.• May provide multiple browsable indexes.

Examples. • Eli Lilly (http://www.lilly.com/).• Adobe (

http://www.adobe.com/misc/siteindex.html).• Henry Ford Health System (

http://www.henryfordhealth.org/sea/index.htm).

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QueryQuery SearchInterface

SearchInterface

Searching Systems

Searching involves more than an engine.

SearchEngine

SearchEngine ContentContent ResultsResults

QueryLanguage

QueryLanguage

QueryBuilders

QueryBuilders

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Searching Systems

What do I need to know about searching?It’s a problem.

• Users frequently choose searching.• They’re frequently disappointed.

Provide search tips.• Explain what is being searched and how.• Best to show by example.

Support iterative, integrated searching and browsing.• Employ a “no-dead ends” policy.• Use search zones.

Example.• Microsoft

http://search.microsoft.com/default.asp?SPath=&SName=

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The Obligatory Tips

“Top-down” IA in a nutshell.

Organization Systems: answer the “80%” questions; use the reference interview as a model.

Navigation Systems: support alternative navigational approaches.

Labeling & Indexing Systems: match the language of users with the language of content.

Searching Systems: avoid apples and oranges by focussing on narrow domains, homogeneous content and format, fewer audiences.

What’s this “top-down” stuff?...

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“Bottom-Up” Information Architecture

A New Flavor of Information Architecture?Top-Down Bottom-Up“50,000 foot view” atomic vieworganize (new) sites organize (existing) contentmission, goals, audience content and applicationshierarchical model database modelprecise placement document-level modeling, linking,

indexing static HTML XML and/or database-driven

technologies

Relationship between “top-down” and “bottom-up” IA:• Each approach informs the other (iterative

design).• Top-down often drives overall site.• Bottom-up often drives content-rich subsites.

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“Bottom-Up” Information Architecture

Where librarians will increasingly make a difference.Case study: “Large Telco’s” inbound call center

(8,000 operators) using intranet of 6,000 semi-structured documents.

Bottom-up process:• Develop content model and document templates.• Develop rules for content component linking.• Develop controlled vocabularies and apply to

content components.• Training and documentation.Benefits:• Eliminates the need for users to print or memorize

important information.• Reduces time spent searching; keeps customers

happy.• Reduces staff training, frustration, and turnover.

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Information Architecture and Library and Information ScienceHow do they relate?

Does IA = LIS? Information retrieval? Usability engineering?

Does it matter? The demand for IA and LIS skills in the marketplace is exploding.• In terms of jobs.• In terms of dollars.• In terms of environments: libraries to

corporate intranets to… dashboards?

Please help me knock the chip I have on each shoulder.

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Argus Associates

Contact Information

Louis Rosenfeld (lou@argus-inc.com)

Argus Associates, Inc.221 North Main Street, Suite 200Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104 USA734.913.0010 (voice)734.213.8082 (fax)info@argus-inc.comhttp://argus-inc.com