Contents • v

1 > Introduction to Psychology 2 COPING WITH DISASTER 3

PSYCHOLOGISTS AT WORK 4The Subfi elds of Psychology 4Working at Psychology 6

A SCIENCE EVOLVES 7The Roots of Psychology 8Founding Mothers of Psychology 10Psychology Today 11Key Issues in Psychology 13Psychology’s Future 15

THE RESEARCH PROCESS IN PSYCHOLOGY 15The Scientifi c Method 15Theories: Broad Explanations 16Hypotheses: Testable Predictions 16Psychological Research Methods 17Descriptive Research 17Experimental Research 19

RESEARCH CHALLENGES 21The Ethics of Research 22Should Animals Be Used in Research? 23Experimental Bias 24

2 > Neuroscience and Behavior 30 BRAIN DIET 31

NEURONS: THE BASIC UNITS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 33

Structure of the Neuron 33How Neurons Fire 34Bridging the Gap Between Neurons 35Neurotransmitters: Chemical Couriers 37

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: LINKING NEURONS 38Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems 39Evolution of the Nervous System 41Behavioral Genetics 42

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: HORMONES AND GLANDS 43

THE BRAIN 43Spying on the Brain 43The Central Core: Our “Old Brain” 45The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core 47The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain” 47The Adaptable Brain 49Two Brains or One? 50Human Diversity and Brain Lateralization 51The Split Brain: Exploring the Two Hemispheres 52Controlling Your Heart—and Mind—Through Biofeedback 53

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vi • PSYCHSMART

3 > Sensation & Perception 58 MET ONCE, RECOGNIZED FOREVER 59

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION: TWO SIDES OF THE SAME COIN 60

SENSING THE WORLD AROUND US 60Absolute Thresholds 61Difference Thresholds 62Sensory Adaptation 63

VISION: SHEDDING LIGHT ON THE EYE 64Illuminating the Eye 64Color Vision and Color Blindness 68

HEARING AND THE OTHER SENSES 70Sensing Sound 70Smell and Taste 72The Skin Senses: Touch, Pressure, Temperature, and Pain 73How Our Senses Interact 75

PERCEPTION: CONSTRUCTING OUR IMPRESSIONS OF THE WORLD 77

The Gestalt Laws of Organization 78Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing 79Perceptual Constancy 79Depth Perception 80Perceptual Illusions 81Culture and Perception 82

4 > States of Consciousness 86 OUT OF CONTROL 87

SLEEP AND DREAMS 88The Stages of Sleep 88REM Sleep: The Paradox of Sleep 90Why Do We Sleep and How Much Sleep Is Necessary? 90The Function and Meaning of Dreaming 92Sleep Disturbances 94Circadian Rhythms 95

HYPNOSIS AND MEDITATION 96Hypnosis: A Trance-Forming Experience? 96Meditation: Regulating Our Own Consciousness 97Cross-Cultural Routes to Altered States of Consciousness 98

DRUG USE: THE HIGHS AND LOWS OF CONSCIOUSNESS 99

Stimulants: Drug Highs 101Depressants: Drug Lows 103Narcotics 105Identifying Drug and Alcohol Problems 107

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Culture • vii Contents • vii

7 > Thinking, Language, and Intelligences 162

EUREKA! 163

THINKING AND REASONING 164Mental Images 164Concepts 164Algorithms and Heuristics 165Solving Problems 166Creativity and Problem Solving 171

LANGUAGE 173Grammar: The Rules of Language 173Language Development 174Theories of Language Acquisition 176

INTELLIGENCE 177Theories of Intelligence 178Measuring Intelligence 181Variations in Intellectual Ability 186Group Differences in Intelligence 187Nature, Nurture, and IQ 188

5 > Learning 110 I WAS A BLACKBERRY ADDICT 111

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 112What Is Classical Conditioning? 113How Do Conditioning Principles Apply to Human Behavior? 114Extinction of a Conditioned Response 116Generalization and Discrimination 116

OPERANT CONDITIONING 117How Operant Conditioning Works 117Behavior Analysis and Behavior Modifi cation 125

COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO LEARNING 126Latent Learning 127Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation 128Violence in Television and Video Games: Does the Media’s Message Matter? 129Does Culture Infl uence How We Learn? 130

6 > Memory 136 REMEMBERING IT ALL 137

THE FOUNDATIONS OF MEMORY 138Sensory Memory 139Short-Term Memory 140Long-Term Memory 142Long-Term Memory Modules 142Semantic Networks 144The Neuroscience of Memory 144

RECALLING LONG-TERM MEMORIES 145Retrieval Cues 145Levels of Processing 146Explicit and Implicit Memory 147Flashbulb Memories 148Constructive Processes in Memory 149

FORGETTING: WHEN MEMORY FAILS 154Why We Forget 154Proactive and Retroactive Interference 155Memory Dysfunctions 157

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viii • PSYCHSMART

8 > Motivation and Emotion 192 FALLING OFF THE DIET WAGON 193

EXPLAINING MOTIVATION 194Instinct Approaches 194Drive-Reduction Approaches 195Arousal Approaches 195Incentive Approaches 196Cognitive Approaches 197Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 197Applying Motivation Approaches 198

HUMAN NEEDS AND MOTIVATION 199Hunger and Eating 199Sexual Motivation 204The Needs for Achievement, Affi liation, and Power 208Measuring Achievement Motivation 209

UNDERSTANDING EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCES 210The Functions of Emotions 210Determining the Range of Emotions 210The Roots of Emotions 211Cultural Differences in Expressions of Emotion 214

9 > Development 218 TWICE-BORN BABY 219

NATURE AND NURTURE 220Developmental Research Techniques 222

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 223Basic Genetics 223Earliest Development 223

INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD 226The Extraordinary Newborn 226Infancy Through Middle Childhood 229Development of Social Behavior 229

ADOLESCENCE 238Physical Changes 239Moral and Cognitive Development 240Adolescent Social Development 241

ADULTHOOD 245The Peak of Health 246Adult Social Development 246Growing Old 248Adjusting to Death 252

10 > Personality 256 WHO IS THE REAL MADOFF? 257

WHAT IS PERSONALITY? 258

PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY 258

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: Mapping the Unconscious Mind 259The Neo-Freudian Psychoanalysts 262

TRAIT APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY 264Allport’s Trait Theory 264Factor Analysis 264The Big Five Factors of Personality 265Evaluating Trait Approaches to Personality 266

LEARNING APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY 266

Skinner’s Behaviorist Approach 266Social Cognitive Approaches 266Evaluating Learning Approaches to Personality 268

BIOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY 268

HUMANISTIC APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY 269

Rogers and the Need for Self-Actualization 269Evaluating Humanistic Approaches 271

COMPARING APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY 271

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ASSESSING PERSONALITY 271Self-Report Measures of Personality 272Projective Methods 273Behavioral Assessment 274

11 > Health Psychology: Stress, Coping, and Well-Being 278

NEVER A MOMENT’S REST 279

STRESS AND COPING 280The Nature of Stressors: My Stress Is Your Pleasure 281Coping with Stressors 283

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ILLNESS AND STRESS 286

The AS, BS, and DS of Coronary Heart Disease 286Psychological Aspects of Cancer 288Depression 289Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) 289Smoking 290

PROMOTING HEALTH AND WELLNESS 292Stress Management 292The Correlates of Happiness 295

12 > Psychological Disorders and Treatment 300

LILY 301

DEFINING AND DIAGNOSING ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR 302

Perspectives on Abnormality: From Superstition to Science 302Classifying Abnormal Behavior: The DSM 303

MAJOR CATEGORIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 305

Anxiety Disorders 305Mood Disorders 308Schizophrenia 311Personality Disorders 313Other Disorders 315Psychological Disorders in Perspective 315The Social and Cultural Context of Psychological Disorders 317

TREATMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 318

Psychotherapies 319Behavioral Approaches to Therapy 321Cognitive Approaches to Therapy 323Humanistic Therapy 324Interpersonal Therapy 325Group Therapy and Family Therapy 326Evaluating Psychotherapy 326Biomedical Therapy 327

13 > Social Psychology 334 A GIFT OF LIFE 335

ATTITUDES AND SOCIAL COGNITION 336Persuasion: Changing Attitudes 336Social Cognition: Understanding Others 339

SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUPS 343Conformity: Following What Others Do 344Compliance: Submitting to Direct Social Pressure 345

STEREOTYPES, PREJUDICE, AND DISCRIMINATION 347

The Foundations of Prejudice 348Measuring Prejudice and Discrimination: The Implicit Association Test 348Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination 349

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SOCIAL BEHAVIOR 349

Liking and Loving: Interpersonal Attraction and the Development of Relationships 350Aggression and Prosocial Behavior 351

Contents • ix

GLOSSARY 361

REFERENCES 371

ENDNOTES 421

CREDITS 422

NAME INDEX 425

SUBJECT INDEX 435

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