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Language and the Language and the Development of Development of

Consciousness: Degrees of Consciousness: Degrees of DisembodimentDisembodiment

Helena Hong Gao & Philip David ZelazoHelena Hong Gao & Philip David Zelazo

Department of PsychologyDepartment of Psychology

University of TorontoUniversity of Toronto

Lecture 11 7 Dec., 2005Lecture 11 7 Dec., 2005

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Required readingRequired readingss:: Gao, H. H. & Zelazo, P. D. (to appear 2005). Gao, H. H. & Zelazo, P. D. (to appear 2005).

Language, Consciousness, and Embodiment. In W. Language, Consciousness, and Embodiment. In W. F. Overton and U. Mueller (eds.), F. Overton and U. Mueller (eds.), Body in mind, Body in mind, mind in body: Developmental perspectives on mind in body: Developmental perspectives on embodiment and consciousness.embodiment and consciousness. Lawrence Lawrence Erilbaum Associates, INC., Publishers. Erilbaum Associates, INC., Publishers.

Seitz, Jay A. (2000). The bodily basis of thought. Seitz, Jay A. (2000). The bodily basis of thought. New Ideas in PsychologyNew Ideas in Psychology. Vol 18(1). pp. 23-40 . Vol 18(1). pp. 23-40

Recommended readings:Recommended readings: Zlatev, Jordan. (2004). Embodiment, Language Zlatev, Jordan. (2004). Embodiment, Language

and Mimesis.  In T. Ziemke, J. Zlatev and R. and Mimesis.  In T. Ziemke, J. Zlatev and R. Frank, Frank, Body, Language and Mind: Vol 1: Body, Language and Mind: Vol 1: Embodiment.Embodiment. Berlin. Berlin.

Johnson, Mark. (1987). The Body in the Mind: The Johnson, Mark. (1987). The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning. Chicago: University of Bodily Basis of Meaning. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Chicago Press.

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Embodiment vs. Embodiment vs. disembodimentdisembodiment

Child development is simultaneously a process of Child development is simultaneously a process of embodiment and a process of disembodiment.embodiment and a process of disembodiment.

Embodiment occurs as the child grows physically Embodiment occurs as the child grows physically and becomes enmeshed in an ever-expanding web and becomes enmeshed in an ever-expanding web of social and physical interactions with the of social and physical interactions with the environment. environment.

But at the same time, aspects of psychological But at the same time, aspects of psychological development, including the development of development, including the development of language, allow the child to disengage from the language, allow the child to disengage from the flow of sensorimotor processing via increasingly flow of sensorimotor processing via increasingly complex forms of cognitive mediation. complex forms of cognitive mediation. This cognitive mediation allows the child imaginatively This cognitive mediation allows the child imaginatively

to transcend time and space—to be disembodied. to transcend time and space—to be disembodied.

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The Levels of The Levels of Consciousness Model Consciousness Model

(Zelazo, 2004)(Zelazo, 2004) Children are increasingly able to Children are increasingly able to

reflect on their own conscious reflect on their own conscious experiences (e.g., from just seeing experiences (e.g., from just seeing something, to knowing that they are something, to knowing that they are seeing something, to knowing that seeing something, to knowing that they know this, and so on) they know this, and so on)

Consequently, to formulate and use Consequently, to formulate and use increasingly complex sets of rules increasingly complex sets of rules for regulating their behavior. for regulating their behavior.

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Examples of Disembodiment in Children’s Behavior

Examples of age-related changes in Examples of age-related changes in children’s ability to disengage from a children’s ability to disengage from a compelling construal of a situation. compelling construal of a situation. E.g., In children’s pretend play children E.g., In children’s pretend play children

become more likely, over the course of the become more likely, over the course of the second year, to perform pretend actions second year, to perform pretend actions (e.g., talking on the telephone) with (e.g., talking on the telephone) with pretense objects (e.g., a spoon) that bear pretense objects (e.g., a spoon) that bear little physical resemblance to the real little physical resemblance to the real objects, and they also become more likely to objects, and they also become more likely to perform pretend actions without objects perform pretend actions without objects altogether (e.g., Ungerer, Zelazo, Kearsley, altogether (e.g., Ungerer, Zelazo, Kearsley, & O’Leary, 1981). & O’Leary, 1981).

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Similar changes continue into the preschool Similar changes continue into the preschool years (Overton & Jackson, 1973; O’Reilly, years (Overton & Jackson, 1973; O’Reilly, 1995). 1995).

As these changes occur, there are As these changes occur, there are complementary changes in children’s ability to complementary changes in children’s ability to resist responding on the basis of the actions resist responding on the basis of the actions suggested by the real objects (e.g., putting the suggested by the real objects (e.g., putting the spoon into one’s mouth) (Elder & Pederson, spoon into one’s mouth) (Elder & Pederson, 1978; Pederson, Rook-Green, & Elder, 1981). 1978; Pederson, Rook-Green, & Elder, 1981).

Vygotsky (1978) described this type of Vygotsky (1978) described this type of development as a change in the relative development as a change in the relative influence of “object properties” versus influence of “object properties” versus “meaning.” “meaning.”

Examples of Disembodiment in Children’s Behavior

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The general development pattern—from The general development pattern—from stimulus-dependent to cognitively stimulus-dependent to cognitively controlledcontrolled

E.g., A-not-B task E.g., A-not-B task In the A-not-B task (Piaget, 1954; Marcovitch & Zelazo, In the A-not-B task (Piaget, 1954; Marcovitch & Zelazo,

1999), 9-month-old infants watch as an object is hidden 1999), 9-month-old infants watch as an object is hidden conspicuously at one of two or more locations, and then conspicuously at one of two or more locations, and then they retrieve it. When the object is then hidden at a new they retrieve it. When the object is then hidden at a new location, 9-month-olds are likely to search for it at the location, 9-month-olds are likely to search for it at the first location, as if the context elicits a prepotent first location, as if the context elicits a prepotent response.response.

E.g., The dimensional change card sort (DCCS) (Frye, E.g., The dimensional change card sort (DCCS) (Frye, Zelazo, & Palfai, 1995; Zelazo et al., 2003). Zelazo, & Palfai, 1995; Zelazo et al., 2003).

In this task, children are shown two target cards (e.g., a In this task, children are shown two target cards (e.g., a blue rabbit and a red car) and asked to sort a series of blue rabbit and a red car) and asked to sort a series of bivalent test cards (e.g. red rabbits and blue cars) bivalent test cards (e.g. red rabbits and blue cars) according to one dimension (e.g. color). Then, after according to one dimension (e.g. color). Then, after sorting several cards, children are told to stop playing sorting several cards, children are told to stop playing the first game and switch to another (e.g., shape, ‘Put the first game and switch to another (e.g., shape, ‘Put the rabbits here; put the boats there.’). Regardless of the rabbits here; put the boats there.’). Regardless of which dimension is presented first, 3-year-olds typically which dimension is presented first, 3-year-olds typically continue to sort by that dimension despite being told the continue to sort by that dimension despite being told the new rules on every trial (e.g., Zelazo et al., 2003). new rules on every trial (e.g., Zelazo et al., 2003).

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Linguistic Linguistic DisembodimentDisembodiment

Gradually, however, linguistic meaning comes to Gradually, however, linguistic meaning comes to dominate sensorimotor experience, as Vygotsky (e.g., dominate sensorimotor experience, as Vygotsky (e.g., 1978) and Luria (e.g., 1961) described. 1978) and Luria (e.g., 1961) described.

An example comes from a recent study of 3- to 5-year-An example comes from a recent study of 3- to 5-year-olds’ flexible understanding of the adjectives “big” olds’ flexible understanding of the adjectives “big” and “little” (Gao, Zelazo, & Debarbara, 2005). and “little” (Gao, Zelazo, & Debarbara, 2005). When shown a medium sized square together with a larger When shown a medium sized square together with a larger

one, 3-year-olds had little difficulty answering the question, one, 3-year-olds had little difficulty answering the question, “Which one of these two squares is a “Which one of these two squares is a bigbig one?” However, one?” However, when the medium square was then paired with a smaller one, when the medium square was then paired with a smaller one, and children were asked the same question, only 5-year-olds and children were asked the same question, only 5-year-olds reliably indicated that the medium square was now the big reliably indicated that the medium square was now the big one.one.

This example shows an age-related increase in children’s This example shows an age-related increase in children’s sensitivity to linguistic meaning when it conflicts with sensitivity to linguistic meaning when it conflicts with children’s immediate experience, and it reveals that children’s immediate experience, and it reveals that interpretation becomes decoupled, to some degree, from interpretation becomes decoupled, to some degree, from stimulus properties. stimulus properties.

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Linguistic Ambiguity Linguistic Ambiguity

Linguistic ambiguity can occur both Linguistic ambiguity can occur both at the lexical level at the lexical level (e.g., homonyms such as (e.g., homonyms such as bearbear and and bare;bare;

nightnight and and knightknight) ) and at the sentence level and at the sentence level (e.g., idiomatic expressions such as, (e.g., idiomatic expressions such as,

“A cult is not a religion. A cult is “A cult is not a religion. A cult is a a different kettle of fishdifferent kettle of fish entirely.”). entirely.”).

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Recognizing and resolving ambiguity Recognizing and resolving ambiguity involves reflecting on language per se—it involves reflecting on language per se—it involves metalinguistic understanding involves metalinguistic understanding

For example, in order to recognize and For example, in order to recognize and resolve the ambiguity in the spoken,resolve the ambiguity in the spoken, ““AtAt night night, she practices at becoming the best , she practices at becoming the best

knightknight in the land in the land,” ,” one first has to notice that one first has to notice that night night and and knightknight

sound identical [nait]. sound identical [nait]. Further reflection yields an appreciation of Further reflection yields an appreciation of

the phonological ambiguity the phonological ambiguity in relationin relation to to other aspects of semantic meaning. other aspects of semantic meaning. For example, it allows one to appreciate the For example, it allows one to appreciate the

dependency between the preposition dependency between the preposition at at and the and the appropriate interpretation of [nait]. appropriate interpretation of [nait].

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Metalinguistic understanding develops Metalinguistic understanding develops during the preschool years (and during the preschool years (and beyond)beyond)

Robinson, Goelman, and Olson (1983) found that even 5-year-olds Robinson, Goelman, and Olson (1983) found that even 5-year-olds tended to confuse what was meant with what was said when they tended to confuse what was meant with what was said when they heard ambiguous verbal messages.heard ambiguous verbal messages. In one study, the experimenter and child sat on opposite sides an opaque In one study, the experimenter and child sat on opposite sides an opaque

screen, and each had their own set of cards, which varied along two screen, and each had their own set of cards, which varied along two dimensions (e.g., large/small and red/blue flowers). They then played a dimensions (e.g., large/small and red/blue flowers). They then played a game in which they took turns choosing a card from their set and game in which they took turns choosing a card from their set and describing the card in such a way that the other player could choose the describing the card in such a way that the other player could choose the identical card from his or her set. When acting as the speaker, the identical card from his or her set. When acting as the speaker, the experimenter sometimes intentionally provided ambiguous descriptions. experimenter sometimes intentionally provided ambiguous descriptions. For example, the experimenter might tell the child, “Pick up the red For example, the experimenter might tell the child, “Pick up the red flower,” forcing the child to choose between the big red flower and the flower,” forcing the child to choose between the big red flower and the small red flower. The child generally chose one of the red flowers (e.g., small red flower. The child generally chose one of the red flowers (e.g., the big red flower), and then he or she was asked to make a judgment the big red flower), and then he or she was asked to make a judgment about what was said. The child either heard a disambiguated version of about what was said. The child either heard a disambiguated version of the original utterance (e.g., “Did I say ‘the big red flower’?”), a verbatim the original utterance (e.g., “Did I say ‘the big red flower’?”), a verbatim repetition of the original utterance (e.g., “Did I say ‘the red flower’?”), or repetition of the original utterance (e.g., “Did I say ‘the red flower’?”), or an incorrect version of the original utterance (e.g., “Did I say ‘the blue an incorrect version of the original utterance (e.g., “Did I say ‘the blue flower’?”).flower’?”).

5-year-olds rejected the incorrect version 81% of the time and 5-year-olds rejected the incorrect version 81% of the time and accepting the verbatim repetition 76% of the time. However, they accepting the verbatim repetition 76% of the time. However, they incorrectly accepted the disambiguated version 60% of the time, incorrectly accepted the disambiguated version 60% of the time, suggesting that they did not understand that the two utterances suggesting that they did not understand that the two utterances expressed different intentions. expressed different intentions.

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Linguistic understanding is closely tied to Linguistic understanding is closely tied to understanding one’s own and others’ mental understanding one’s own and others’ mental states (Pratt & Grieve, 1984; Rowe & Harste, states (Pratt & Grieve, 1984; Rowe & Harste, 1986).1986). Consider, for example, children’s developing Consider, for example, children’s developing

understanding of ironic and sarcastic understanding of ironic and sarcastic expressions. expressions.

Appreciating irony and sarcasm requires the Appreciating irony and sarcasm requires the coordination of two different perspectives on coordination of two different perspectives on the same linguistic utterance.the same linguistic utterance.

Milosky and Ford (1997) found that the rate Milosky and Ford (1997) found that the rate of recognition of sarcasm was rather low of recognition of sarcasm was rather low even in school age children: Sarcasm was even in school age children: Sarcasm was recognized by 6-year-olds 30% of the time recognized by 6-year-olds 30% of the time and by 9-year-olds 50% of the time. and by 9-year-olds 50% of the time.

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According to Mehrabian (1967; see also According to Mehrabian (1967; see also Mehrabian & Ferris, 1967; Mehrabian & Mehrabian & Ferris, 1967; Mehrabian & Wiener, 1967), 55% of our communication Wiener, 1967), 55% of our communication consists of body language, 38% is consists of body language, 38% is expressed through tone of voice, and only expressed through tone of voice, and only 7% is communicated through words. That 7% is communicated through words. That is, a large proportion of verbal input is is, a large proportion of verbal input is actually decoded or interpreted with the actually decoded or interpreted with the help of non-linguistic input such as facial help of non-linguistic input such as facial expressions, gestures or body language, expressions, gestures or body language, and setting. and setting.

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Children’s ability of integrating all Children’s ability of integrating all linguistic perspectives via metalinguistic linguistic perspectives via metalinguistic awareness is explained by Tamasello awareness is explained by Tamasello (2000) as “powerful skills of: (2000) as “powerful skills of:

(i) intention-reading and cultural (i) intention-reading and cultural learning, learning,

(ii) analogy making, (ii) analogy making, (iii) structure combining” (Tamasello, (iii) structure combining” (Tamasello,

2000: 235). 2000: 235).

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language can play a causal role in language can play a causal role in helping one to ascend to a higher level helping one to ascend to a higher level

of consciousnessof consciousness (Zelazo, 2004)(Zelazo, 2004) E.g, Jacques, Zelazo, Lourenco, and Sutherland (2005) E.g, Jacques, Zelazo, Lourenco, and Sutherland (2005)

presented 4- and 5-year-olds with the Flexible Item Selection presented 4- and 5-year-olds with the Flexible Item Selection Task (FIST). Task (FIST).

Four-year-olds generally perform well on Selection 1 but Four-year-olds generally perform well on Selection 1 but poorly on Selection 2, indicating that they have difficulty poorly on Selection 2, indicating that they have difficulty thinking about the pivot item in more than one way—they have thinking about the pivot item in more than one way—they have difficulty disengaging from their initial construal of the item. difficulty disengaging from their initial construal of the item.

However, when children were asked to label the basis of their However, when children were asked to label the basis of their initial selection (e.g., when they were asked, “Why do those initial selection (e.g., when they were asked, “Why do those two pictures go together?”), their performance on Selection 2 two pictures go together?”), their performance on Selection 2 improved substantially. This was true whether children improved substantially. This was true whether children provided the label themselves or whether the experimenter provided the label themselves or whether the experimenter generated it for them. generated it for them.

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This tree structure depicts two This tree structure depicts two incompatible perspectives on a incompatible perspectives on a situation—a perspective (s1) defined situation—a perspective (s1) defined by rules A and B and a perspective by rules A and B and a perspective (s2) defined by rules C and D. The (s2) defined by rules C and D. The perspectives are incompatible perspectives are incompatible because the same antecedent because the same antecedent conditions (or aspects of the conditions (or aspects of the situation) lead to different situation) lead to different consequents, and hence are to be consequents, and hence are to be treated differently, depending on treated differently, depending on the perspective. So, for example, the perspective. So, for example, rule A indicates that consequent 1 rule A indicates that consequent 1 (c1) should follow antecedent 1 (a1) (c1) should follow antecedent 1 (a1) whereas rule C connects a1 to c2. In whereas rule C connects a1 to c2. In the FIST, 4-year-olds typically adopt the FIST, 4-year-olds typically adopt one perspective (e.g., s1), and have one perspective (e.g., s1), and have difficulty disengaging from it and difficulty disengaging from it and considering it in contradistinction to considering it in contradistinction to the other. When the perspective is the other. When the perspective is labeled, however, children are labeled, however, children are obliged to adopt the position at the obliged to adopt the position at the top of this hierarchy—they are top of this hierarchy—they are obliged to step back from the thing obliged to step back from the thing labeled and reflect on it—and from labeled and reflect on it—and from this position, the alternative this position, the alternative perspective (e.g., s2) is easier to perspective (e.g., s2) is easier to access. access.

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Cultural differences in the development Cultural differences in the development of understanding of abstract mental of understanding of abstract mental terms like thinkterms like think

For instance, questions such as, For instance, questions such as, “What do you think of a peacock? Is “What do you think of a peacock? Is it a big bird or a small bird?” can be it a big bird or a small bird?” can be normally answered in English in the normally answered in English in the following two ways:following two ways:

(a) “I think it is a big bird.”(a) “I think it is a big bird.” (b) “I don’t think it is a big bird”(b) “I don’t think it is a big bird”

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In Mandarin, possible responses differ:In Mandarin, possible responses differ:

(c) Wo renwei ta bu shi yi zhi da niao.(c) Wo renwei ta bu shi yi zhi da niao.I think it not be one classifier big bird.I think it not be one classifier big bird.I don’t think it is a big bird.I don’t think it is a big bird.

(d) Wo juede ta bu shi yi zhi da niao.(d) Wo juede ta bu shi yi zhi da niao. I feel it not be one classifier big bird.I feel it not be one classifier big bird. I don’t feel that it is a big bird.I don’t feel that it is a big bird.

(e) Wo xiang ta bu shi yi zhi da niao.(e) Wo xiang ta bu shi yi zhi da niao. I think/guess/imagine/anticipate/gather/infer it I think/guess/imagine/anticipate/gather/infer it

not be onenot be one classifier big bird.classifier big bird. I guess that it is not a big bird.I guess that it is not a big bird.

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In Swedish:In Swedish: (f) Jag tror inte, att det är någon stor fågel. (f) Jag tror inte, att det är någon stor fågel. ((trortror: :

same as the English same as the English thinkthink in in aa)) (g) Jag tycker inte, att det är någon stor fågel. (g) Jag tycker inte, att det är någon stor fågel.

((tyckertycker: indicating an imaging aspect): indicating an imaging aspect) (h) Jag anser inte, att det är någon stor fågel. (h) Jag anser inte, att det är någon stor fågel. ((anseranser: :

indicating a conclusive reasoning aspect)indicating a conclusive reasoning aspect) (i) Jag skulle inte tro, att det är någon stor fågel. (i) Jag skulle inte tro, att det är någon stor fågel.

((skulle skulle inte inte trotro: indicating that the result of reasoning : indicating that the result of reasoning can be claimed to be true)can be claimed to be true)

(j) Jag har svårt att föreställa mig, att det är någon (j) Jag har svårt att föreställa mig, att det är någon stor fågel. stor fågel. ((har svårt att föreställa mighar svårt att föreställa mig: expressing : expressing one’s feeling of difficulty in visualizing or depicting a one’s feeling of difficulty in visualizing or depicting a scene as an answer)scene as an answer)

(k) Såvitt jag förstår, är det inte någon stor fågel. (k) Såvitt jag förstår, är det inte någon stor fågel. ((såvitt jag förstårsåvitt jag förstår: indicating one’s own : indicating one’s own understanding, which might be different from understanding, which might be different from others’)others’)

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ConclusionConclusion

The notion that children’s interpretations The notion that children’s interpretations become more influenced by language (i.e., become more influenced by language (i.e., increasing linguistic relativity) as the relation increasing linguistic relativity) as the relation between thought and language becomes between thought and language becomes increasingly reciprocalincreasingly reciprocal

The suggestion that the mechanism whereby The suggestion that the mechanism whereby this complex, reciprocal relation develops is one this complex, reciprocal relation develops is one of disembodiment, through the development of of disembodiment, through the development of levels of consciousness (Zelazo, 2004). levels of consciousness (Zelazo, 2004).

Disembodiment, or psychological distancing as a Disembodiment, or psychological distancing as a result of an ascent through levels of result of an ascent through levels of consciousness, puts children in a position that consciousness, puts children in a position that allows them both to be more sensitive to various allows them both to be more sensitive to various influences on their interpretations and to exert influences on their interpretations and to exert greater control over these interpretations. greater control over these interpretations.

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Online papers on consciousnessOnline papers on consciousness: : http://consc.net/online.htmlhttp://consc.net/online.html