1. learning objectives 1.history of dna 2.meaning and structure of dna 3.dna in eukaryotes and...
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Learning Objectives
1. History of DNA
2. Meaning and structure of DNA
3. DNA in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes
4. Exam questions
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Keywords1. Pellet – thick sediment formed at the bottom of the tube during
centrifuge
2. Supernatant – the rest of the organelles suspended above the pellet
3. Helicase – an enzyme that separates nucleic acid duplexes into their component strands
4. Eukaryotes - an organism consisting of a cell or cells in which the genetic material is DNA in the form of chromosomes contained within a distinct nucleus.
5. Prokaryotes - a microscopic single-celled organism which has neither a distinct nucleus with a membrane nor other specialized organelles
6. Semi-conservative replication (on last slide)
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History of DNA• Fredrick Griffith’s (he was a medical doctor) experiment
–
1. 1928 – experiment with bacteria using streptococcus Pneumonia on mice
2. Used a rough strain (has a rough appearance) – mouse lived
3. Used a smooth strain – mouse died
4. Heat-killed smooth strain – mouse lived
5. Rough strain with heat killed smooth strain – mouse died.
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What did this tell him?• ‘transforming factor’
• Something was being transformed from dead smooth strain to live rough strain
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Avery, McCarthy, Macleod
• 1930’s and 40’s Avery and co. found it was DNA
• They used enzymes that broke down
• RNA, Proteins, DNA
• DNA was transforming factor
• People rejected this as DNA was too simple of a molecule, and thought it was proteins that was transferred.
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DNA or Proteins
• Hershy – Chase experiment
• They used bacteriophages
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Hershy – Chase experiment
• Bacteriophage is a virus that infects a bacteria. It injects its hereditary material in and hijacks the bacteria to make more viruses.
• Used red dye for sulphur – (only found in proteins, not DNA)
• Used green dye for Phosphorus, which is only found in DNA
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Result
• Centrifuged both samples
This tube that had the green dye in the pellet, therefore proving that DNA is
transferred.
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Watson – Crick
• Discovered the structure of DNA
• Got the Nobel prize
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DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid
This chemical substance is present in the nucleusof all cells in all living organisms
DNA controls all the chemical changes which take place in cells
The kind of cell which is formed, (muscle, blood,nerve etc) is controlled by DNA
The kind of organism which is produced (buttercup,giraffe, herring, human etc) is controlled by DNA
DNA 2
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DNA is a very large molecule made up of a long chain of sub-units
The building blocks of DNA are called nucleotides
Each nucleotide is made up of 3 parts
a nitrogenous base
a sugar
a phosphate group
DNA molecule 3
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Why is it called nitrogenous base?
• The sugar molecule has lots of nitrogen's on it
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Nitrogen base
• 2 different types of nitrogenous base
• Purine – has guanine and cytosine
• Pyrimidine – has adenine and thymine
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Ribose is a sugar, like glucose, but with only fivecarbon atoms in its molecule
Deoxyribose is almost the same but lacks one oxygen atom
Both molecules may be represented by the symbol
Ribose & deoxyribose 4
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The most common organic bases are
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
The bases 5
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The deoxyribose, the phosphate and one of the bases
adenine
deoxyribose
PO4
Combine to form a nucleotide
Nucleotides 6
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A molecule of DNA is formed by millions of nucleotides joined together in a long chain
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
sugar-phosphate backbone
+ bases
Joined nucleotides 7
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In fact, the DNA usually consists of a double strand of nucleotides
The sugar-phosphate chains are on the outsideand the strands are held together by chemical bonds between the bases
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PO4
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2-stranded DNA 9
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The bases always pair up in the same way
Adenine forms a bond with Thymine
and Cytosine bonds with Guanine
Bonding 1 10
Adenine Thymine
Cytosine Guanine
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PO4
PO4
PO4
thymine
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
adenine
cytosine
PO4
guanine
Bonding 2 11
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PO4
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Pairing up 12
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The paired strands are coiled into a spiral called
A DOUBLE HELIX
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sugar-phosphatechain
bases
THE DOUBLE HELIX
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A DIY model ofpart of a DNA molecule
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Before a cell divides, the DNA strands unwind and separate
Each strand makes a new partner by addingthe appropriate nucleotides
The result is that there are now two double-stranded DNA molecules in the nucleus
So that when the cell divides, each nucleus contains identical DNA
This process is called replication
replication 16
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PO4
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The strands separate
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PO4
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Each strand builds up its partner by adding the appropriate nucleotides
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The sequence of bases in DNA forms the Genetic Code
A group of three bases (a triplet) controlsthe production of a particular amino acid in the cytoplasm of the cell
The different amino acids and the order in which they are joined up determines the sort of protein being produced
Genetic code 1 19
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Ser-Cyst-Val-Gly-Ser-Cyst Ala Val Val-Cyst-Ser-Ala-Ser-Cyst-Gly
Val- Cyst-Ala-Ala-Ser-Gly
This is a small, imaginary protein molecule showing how a sequence of 5 different amino acids could determine the shape and identity of the molecule
Each amino acid (Serine, Cysteine, Valine, Glycine and Alanine) is coded for by a particular triplet of bases
Genetic code 2 20
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For example
Cytosine
Adenine Codes for Valine
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
Adenine (A)
Codes for Alanine
Thymine
Coding 21
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This is known as the triplet code
Each triplet codes for a specific amino acid
CGA - CAA - CCA - CCA - GCT - GGG - GAG - CCA -
Ala Val Gly Gly Arg Pro Leu Gly
Ala Val Gly Gly Arg Pro Leu Gly
The amino acids are joined together in the correct sequence to make part of a protein
Triplet code 22
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The proteins build the cell structures
They also make enzymes
The DNA controls which enzymes are made andthe enzymes determine what reactions take place
The structures and reactions in the cell determinewhat sort of a cell it is and what its function is
So DNA exerts its control through the enzymes
DNA and enzymes 23
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A sequence of triplets in the DNA molecule may code for a complete protein
Such a sequence forms a gene
There may be a thousand or more bases in one gene
Genes 24
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Question 1
Which of the following are components of nucleotides?
(a) deoxyribose
(b) amino acids
(c) phosphate
(d) enzymes
(e) organic bases
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Question 2
Which of the following represent a correct pairing of bases?
(a) adenine with thymine
(b) adenine with guanine
(c) thymine with adenine
(d) guanine with cytosine
(e) thymine with thymine
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Question 3
DNA molecules are formed from
(a) organic bases
(b) amino acids
(c) deoxyribose
(d) nucleotides
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Question 4
Which of the following are organic bases?
(a) Valine
(b) Guanine
(c) Thymine
(d) Serine
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Question 5
Replication of DNA occurs
(a) During cell division
(b) before cell division
(c) at any time
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Question 6
A nucleotide triplet codes for
(a) a protein
(b) an amino acid
(c) an enzyme
(d) an organic base
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Answer
CORRECT
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Answer
INCORRECT
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Exam Questions
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Answer
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Semi-conservative replication• Semi-conservative replication is a process that is used
when making a new copy of a DNA molecule. The double helix enzyme known as DNA helicase untwists the DNA and breaks the H-bonds between the bases.
• Nucleotides then pair up with complimentary bases – DNA Polymerase link these bases together
• Each of the new DNA molecule is made up of one old strand and one new strand – hence the name semi-conservative replication.