1 mendelelian genetics copyright cmassengale a tale of two families copyright cmassengale2 modes of...
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A Tale of Two Families
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Modes of inheritance are the rules explaining the common patterns of inheritance.
Huntington’s Disease and Cystic Fibrosis demonstrate two important modes of inheritance.
HD is autosomal dominant and CF is autosomal recessive.
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Gregor Gregor MendelMendel
(1822-1884)(1822-1884)
Responsible Responsible for the Laws for the Laws governing governing
Inheritance Inheritance of Traitsof Traits
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Gregor Johann MendelGregor Johann MendelAustrian monkAustrian monkStudied the Studied the inheritanceinheritance of of traits in traits in pea plantspea plantsDeveloped the Developed the laws of inheritancelaws of inheritanceMendel's work Mendel's work was not recognized was not recognized until the turn of until the turn of thethe 20th century 20th century
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Gregor Johann MendelGregor Johann MendelBetween Between 1856 1856 and 1863,and 1863, Mendel Mendel cultivated and cultivated and tested some tested some 28,000 pea plants28,000 pea plantsHe found that He found that the plants' the plants' offspring retained offspring retained traits of the traits of the parentsparentsCalled theCalled the ““Father of Father of Genetics"Genetics"
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Site of Site of Gregor Gregor MendelMendel’’s s experimentexperimental garden al garden in the in the Czech Czech RepublicRepublic
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Mendel stated Mendel stated that physical traits that physical traits are inherited as are inherited as ““particlesparticles””Mendel did not Mendel did not know that the know that the ““particlesparticles”” were were actually actually Chromosomes & Chromosomes & DNADNA
Particulate InheritanceParticulate Inheritance
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Genetic TerminologyGenetic Terminology
TraitTrait - any characteristic - any characteristic that can be passed from that can be passed from parent to offspring parent to offspring HeredityHeredity - passing of - passing of traits from parent to traits from parent to offspring offspring GeneticsGenetics - study of - study of heredity heredity
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Types of Genetic Types of Genetic CrossesCrossesMonohybrid cross Monohybrid cross - - cross cross
involving a single traitinvolving a single traite.g. flower color e.g. flower color Dihybrid crossDihybrid cross - - cross cross involving two traits involving two traits e.g. flower color & plant e.g. flower color & plant heightheight
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Punnett SquarePunnett Square
Used to help Used to help solve solve genetics genetics problemsproblems
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Designer Designer ““GenesGenes””
AllelesAlleles - - two forms of a two forms of a gene gene (dominant & recessive)(dominant & recessive) DominantDominant - - stronger of two genes stronger of two genes expressed in the hybrid; expressed in the hybrid; represented byrepresented by aa capital letter (R)capital letter (R) RecessiveRecessive - - gene that shows up gene that shows up less often in a cross; represented less often in a cross; represented by aby a lowercase letter (r)lowercase letter (r)
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More TerminologyMore Terminology
GenotypeGenotype - - gene gene combination for a traitcombination for a trait (e.g. RR, Rr, rr) (e.g. RR, Rr, rr) PhenotypePhenotype - - the physical the physical feature resulting from a feature resulting from a genotypegenotype (e.g. red, white) (e.g. red, white)
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Genotype & Phenotype in Genotype & Phenotype in FlowersFlowers
Genotype of alleles:Genotype of alleles:RR = red flower= red flowerrr = yellow flower= yellow flower
All genes occur in pairs, so All genes occur in pairs, so 22 allelesalleles affect a characteristic affect a characteristic
Possible combinations are:Possible combinations are:
GenotypesGenotypes RRRR RRrr rrrr
PhenotypesPhenotypesRED RED RED RED YELLOWYELLOW
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GenotypesGenotypesHomozygousHomozygous genotype - gene genotype - gene
combination involving 2 combination involving 2 dominant or 2 recessive genes dominant or 2 recessive genes (e.g. RR or rr);(e.g. RR or rr); also called also called pure pure HeterozygousHeterozygous genotype - gene genotype - gene combination of one dominant & combination of one dominant & one recessive allele (one recessive allele (e.g. Rr);e.g. Rr); also calledalso called hybridhybrid
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Genes and Environment Genes and Environment Determine CharacteristicsDetermine Characteristics
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Why peas,Why peas, Pisum Pisum sativumsativum??Can be grown in a Can be grown in a
small areasmall area Produce Produce lots of lots of offspring offspring Produce Produce purepure plants when allowed plants when allowed to to self-pollinateself-pollinate several generations several generations Can be Can be artificially artificially cross-pollinatedcross-pollinated
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Reproduction in Flowering Reproduction in Flowering PlantsPlants
Pollen contains spermPollen contains spermProduced by the stamenProduced by the stamen
Ovary contains eggsOvary contains eggsFound inside the flowerFound inside the flower
Pollen carries sperm to Pollen carries sperm to the eggs for fertilizationthe eggs for fertilization
Self-fertilizationSelf-fertilization can can occur in the same occur in the same flowerflower
Cross-fertilizationCross-fertilization can can occur between occur between flowersflowers
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MendelMendel’’s s Experimental Experimental
MethodsMethodsMendel Mendel hand-pollinatedhand-pollinated flowers using a flowers using a paintbrushpaintbrush
He could He could snip the snip the stamensstamens to prevent to prevent self-pollinationself-pollination
Covered each flower Covered each flower with a cloth bagwith a cloth bag
He traced traits He traced traits through the through the several several generationsgenerations
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How Mendel BeganHow Mendel BeganMendel Mendel produced produced purepure strains by strains by allowing allowing the plants the plants to to self-self-pollinatepollinate for for several several generatiogenerationsns copyright cmassengale
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Eight Pea Plant TraitsEight Pea Plant Traits
Seed shapeSeed shape --- Round --- Round (R)(R) or Wrinkled or Wrinkled (r)(r)
Seed ColorSeed Color ---- Yellow ---- Yellow (Y)(Y) or Green or Green ((yy))
Pod ShapePod Shape --- Smooth --- Smooth (S)(S) or wrinkled or wrinkled ((ss))Pod ColorPod Color --- Green --- Green (G)(G) or Yellow or Yellow (g)(g)Seed Coat ColorSeed Coat Color ---Gray ---Gray (G)(G) or White or White (g)(g)Flower positionFlower position---Axial ---Axial (A)(A) or Terminal or Terminal (a)(a)Plant HeightPlant Height --- Tall --- Tall (T)(T) or Short or Short (t)(t)
Flower color Flower color --- --- Purple Purple (P)(P) or white or white ((pp))
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Did the observed ratio match the theoretical ratio?Did the observed ratio match the theoretical ratio?
The theoretical or expected ratio of The theoretical or expected ratio of plants producing round or wrinkled plants producing round or wrinkled seeds is seeds is 3 round :1 wrinkled3 round :1 wrinkled
Mendel’s observed ratio was 2.96:1Mendel’s observed ratio was 2.96:1
The discrepancy is due to The discrepancy is due to statistical statistical errorerror
The The larger the samplelarger the sample the more the more nearly the results approximate to nearly the results approximate to the theoretical ratiothe theoretical ratio
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Generation Generation ““GapGap””Parental PParental P11 Generation Generation = the parental = the parental
generation in a breeding experimentgeneration in a breeding experiment..
FF11 generation generation = the first-generation = the first-generation offspring in a breeding experiment. offspring in a breeding experiment. (1st (1st filial generation)filial generation)
From breeding individuals from the PFrom breeding individuals from the P11 generationgeneration
FF22 generation generation = the second-generation = the second-generation offspring in a breeding experiment. offspring in a breeding experiment. (2nd filial generation)(2nd filial generation)
From breeding individuals from the FFrom breeding individuals from the F11 generationgeneration
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Following the Following the GenerationsGenerations
Cross 2 Cross 2 Pure Pure
PlantsPlantsTT x ttTT x tt
Results Results in all in all
HybridsHybridsTtTt
Cross 2 Cross 2 HybridsHybrids
getget3 Tall & 1 3 Tall & 1
ShortShortTT, Tt, ttTT, Tt, tt
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Trait: Seed ShapeTrait: Seed Shape
Alleles: Alleles: RR – Round – Round rr – Wrinkled – Wrinkled
Cross: Cross: RoundRound seedsseeds xx Wrinkled Wrinkled seedsseeds
RRRR xx rr rr
PP11 Monohybrid Cross Monohybrid Cross
R
R
rr
Rr
RrRr
Rr
Genotype:Genotype: RrRr
PhenotypePhenotype: RoundRound
GenotypicGenotypicRatio:Ratio: All alikeAll alike
PhenotypicPhenotypicRatio:Ratio: All alike All alikecopyright cmassengale
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PP11 Monohybrid Cross Monohybrid Cross ReviewReviewHomozygous dominant x Homozygous dominant x
Homozygous recessiveHomozygous recessiveOffspringOffspring allall HeterozygousHeterozygous (hybrids)(hybrids)Offspring calledOffspring called FF11 generation generation
Genotypic & Phenotypic ratio Genotypic & Phenotypic ratio isis ALL ALIKEALL ALIKE
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Trait: Seed ShapeTrait: Seed Shape
Alleles: Alleles: RR – Round – Round rr – Wrinkled – Wrinkled
Cross: Cross: RoundRound seeds seeds xx Round Round seedsseeds
RrRr xx Rr Rr
FF11 Monohybrid Cross Monohybrid Cross
R
r
rR
RR
rrRr
Rr
Genotype:Genotype: RR, Rr, RR, Rr, rrrr
PhenotypePhenotype: Round Round && wrinkled wrinkled
G.Ratio:G.Ratio: 1:2:11:2:1
P.Ratio:P.Ratio: 3:1 3:1copyright cmassengale
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FF11 Monohybrid Cross Monohybrid Cross ReviewReviewHeterozygous x heterozygousHeterozygous x heterozygousOffspring:Offspring:
25% Homozygous dominant25% Homozygous dominant RRRR50% Heterozygous50% Heterozygous RrRr25% Homozygous Recessive25% Homozygous Recessive rrrrOffspring calledOffspring called FF22 generation generationGenotypic ratio isGenotypic ratio is 1:2:11:2:1Phenotypic RatioPhenotypic Ratio is 3:1 is 3:1
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……And Now the Test And Now the Test CrossCross
Mendel then crossed a Mendel then crossed a purepure & a & a hybridhybrid from his from his FF2 2 generationgeneration
This is known as an This is known as an FF22 or test cross or test cross
There are There are twotwo possible testcrosses: possible testcrosses:Homozygous dominant x HybridHomozygous dominant x HybridHomozygous recessive x HybridHomozygous recessive x Hybrid
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Trait: Seed ShapeTrait: Seed Shape
Alleles: Alleles: RR – Round – Round rr – Wrinkled – Wrinkled
Cross: Cross: RoundRound seedsseeds xx Round Round seedsseeds
RRRR xx Rr Rr
FF22 Monohybrid Cross (1 Monohybrid Cross (1stst))
R
R
rR
RR
RrRR
Rr
Genotype:Genotype: RR, RR, RrRr
PhenotypePhenotype: RoundRound
GenotypicGenotypicRatio:Ratio: 1:11:1
PhenotypicPhenotypicRatio:Ratio: All alike All alike
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Trait: Seed ShapeTrait: Seed Shape
Alleles: Alleles: RR – Round – Round rr – Wrinkled – Wrinkled
Cross: Cross: WrinkledWrinkled seedsseeds xx Round Round seedsseeds
rrrr xx Rr Rr
FF22 Monohybrid Cross (2nd) Monohybrid Cross (2nd)
r
r
rR
Rr
rrRr
rr
Genotype:Genotype: Rr, rrRr, rr
PhenotypePhenotype: Round & Round & WrinkledWrinkled
G. Ratio:G. Ratio: 1:11:1
P.Ratio:P.Ratio: 1:1 1:1copyright cmassengale
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FF22 Monohybrid Cross Monohybrid Cross ReviewReviewHomozygous x Homozygous x
heterozygous(hybrid)heterozygous(hybrid)Offspring:Offspring:50% Homozygous 50% Homozygous RR or rrRR or rr50% Heterozygous50% Heterozygous RrRrPhenotypic RatioPhenotypic Ratio is 1:1 is 1:1Called Called Test CrossTest Cross because the because the offspring have offspring have SAMESAME genotype genotype as parentsas parents
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Practice Your CrossesPractice Your Crosses
Work the PWork the P11, F, F11, and , and both Fboth F22 Crosses for Crosses for each of the other each of the other
Seven Pea Plant TraitsSeven Pea Plant Traits
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Results of Monohybrid Results of Monohybrid CrossesCrosses
InheritableInheritable factors or genesfactors or genes are are responsible for all heritable responsible for all heritable characteristics characteristics
PhenotypePhenotype is based on is based on GenotypeGenotype Each traitEach trait is based onis based on two genestwo genes, ,
one from the mother and the one from the mother and the other from the fatherother from the father
True-breeding individuals are True-breeding individuals are homozygous ( both alleles)homozygous ( both alleles) are are the samethe same
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Law of DominanceLaw of Dominance
In a cross of parents that are In a cross of parents that are pure for contrasting traitspure for contrasting traits, , only one form of the trait will only one form of the trait will appear in the next generation.appear in the next generation.
All the offspring will be All the offspring will be heterozygous and express heterozygous and express only the only the dominant trait.dominant trait.
RR x rr RR x rr yieldsyields all Rr (round all Rr (round seeds)seeds)
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Law of SegregationLaw of Segregation
During the During the formation of formation of gametesgametes (eggs or sperm), the (eggs or sperm), the two allelestwo alleles responsible for a responsible for a trait trait separateseparate from each other. from each other.
Alleles for a trait are then Alleles for a trait are then "recombined" at fertilization"recombined" at fertilization, , producing the genotype for producing the genotype for the traits of the offspringthe traits of the offspring.
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Law of Independent Law of Independent AssortmentAssortment
Alleles for Alleles for differentdifferent traits are traits are distributed to sex cells (& distributed to sex cells (& offspring) independently of offspring) independently of one another.one another.
This law can be illustrated This law can be illustrated using using dihybrid crossesdihybrid crosses. .
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Dihybrid CrossDihybrid Cross
A breeding experiment that tracks A breeding experiment that tracks the the inheritance of two traitsinheritance of two traits..
Mendel’s Mendel’s “Law of Independent “Law of Independent Assortment”Assortment”
a. Each pair of alleles segregates a. Each pair of alleles segregates independentlyindependently during gamete during gamete formationformation
b. Formula: 2b. Formula: 2nn (n = # of heterozygotes) (n = # of heterozygotes)
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Question:Question:How many gametes will be produced How many gametes will be produced
for the following allele for the following allele arrangements?arrangements?
Remember:Remember: 22nn (n = # of heterozygotes) (n = # of heterozygotes)
1.1. RrYyRrYy
2.2. AaBbCCDdAaBbCCDd
3.3. MmNnOoPPQQRrssTtQqMmNnOoPPQQRrssTtQq
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Answer:Answer:1. RrYy: 21. RrYy: 2nn = 2 = 222 = 4 gametes = 4 gametes
RY Ry rY ryRY Ry rY ry
2. AaBbCCDd: 22. AaBbCCDd: 2nn = 2 = 233 = 8 gametes = 8 gametes
ABCD ABCd AbCD AbCdABCD ABCd AbCD AbCd
aBCD aBCd abCD abCDaBCD aBCd abCD abCD
3. MmNnOoPPQQRrssTtQq: 23. MmNnOoPPQQRrssTtQq: 2nn = 2 = 266 = = 64 gametes64 gametes
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Dihybrid CrossDihybrid CrossTraits: Seed shape & Seed colorTraits: Seed shape & Seed colorAlleles:Alleles: R round
r wrinkled Y yellow y green
RrYy x RrYy
RY Ry rY ryRY Ry rY ry RY Ry rY ryRY Ry rY ry
All possible gamete combinationsAll possible gamete combinationscopyright cmassengale
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Dihybrid CrossDihybrid Cross
RRYY
RRYy
RrYY
RrYy
RRYy
RRyy
RrYy
Rryy
RrYY
RrYy
rrYY
rrYy
RrYy
Rryy
rrYy
rryy
Round/Yellow: 9
Round/green: 3
wrinkled/Yellow: 3
wrinkled/green: 1
9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio
RYRY RyRy rYrY ryry
RYRY
RyRy
rYrY
ryry
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Dihybrid CrossDihybrid Cross
Round/Yellow: 9Round/green: 3wrinkled/Yellow: 3wrinkled/green: 1
9:3:3:1
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Test CrossTest CrossA mating between an individual of A mating between an individual of
unknown genotype unknown genotype and a and a homozygous homozygous recessiverecessive individual. individual.
Example:Example: bbC__ bbC__ x x bbccbbcc
BB = brown eyesBB = brown eyesBb = brown eyesBb = brown eyesbb = blue eyesbb = blue eyes
CC = curly hairCC = curly hairCc = curly hairCc = curly haircc = straight haircc = straight hair
bCbC b___b___
bcbc
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Test CrossTest Cross
Possible results:Possible results:
bCbC b___b___
bcbc bbCc bbCc
C bCbC b___b___
bcbc bbCc bbccor
c
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Summary of Mendel’s lawsSummary of Mendel’s laws
LAWLAW PARENT PARENT CROSSCROSS OFFSPRINGOFFSPRING
DOMINANCEDOMINANCE TT x ttTT x tt tall x shorttall x short
100% Tt 100% Tt talltall
SEGREGATIONSEGREGATION Tt x TtTt x Tt tall x talltall x tall
75% tall 75% tall 25% short25% short
INDEPENDENT INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENTASSORTMENT
RrGg x RrGgRrGg x RrGg round & round & green x green x round & round & greengreen
9/16 round seeds & green 9/16 round seeds & green pods pods
3/16 round seeds & yellow 3/16 round seeds & yellow pods pods
3/16 wrinkled seeds & 3/16 wrinkled seeds & green pods green pods
1/16 wrinkled seeds & 1/16 wrinkled seeds & yellow podsyellow pods
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Single-gene Inheritance in Humans1. A Mendelian trait is caused by a single
gene.2. Mendelian human conditions are
considered more rare than multifactorial ones
3. Mendelian inheritance in humans is more complex than in model organisms such as pea plants.
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Eye color
The inheritance of eye color is an example of a single gene trait
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Modes of Inheritance
Modes of inheritance – rules explaining common patterns of inheritance
Genes may be autosomal or on a sex chromosome
Alleles can be dominant or recessvie
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Criteria for an autosomal dominant trait:1. Males & females can be affected; male to male transmission can occur2. Both transmit the trait with equal frequency3. Successive generations are affected.4. Transmission stops after a generation where no one is affected.
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Criteria for an autosomal recessive trait1. Males & females can be affected2. Both can transmit the gene, unless it causes death before reproductive age3. The trait can skip generations4. Parents of an affected individual are heterozygous or have the trait.
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Modes of inheritance, cont.
1. Blood relatives that have children together have a much higher risk of having a child with a rare recessive disorder.
2. Marriage between relatives introduces consanguinity, literally meaning “shared blood” However genes are not passed in blood
3. Punnett squares apply Mendel’s first law to predict recurrence risks of inherited disorders or traits.
4. A Mendelian trait applies anew to each child.
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On the Meaning of Dominance & Recessiveness
At the biochemical level, recessive disorders often result from alleles that cause a loss of function or loss of a normal protein
Dominant disorders can result from production of an abnormal protein that interferes with the function of a normal protein or imparts a gain of function.
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Recessive disorders
Recessive orders tend to be more severe producing symptoms earlier than dominant disorders
Disease causing recessive alleles remain in populations because heterozygotes pass them to future generations.
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Dominant disordersIf a dominant mutation that harms early in life
arises people who have the allele are too ill or don’t survive long enough to reproduce
The allele becomes rare in the population unless it arises anew by mutation
Dominant disorders that do not appear until adulthood or drastically disrupt health, remain in the population until after a person has reproduced.
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Pedigree AnalysisPedigree charts depict family relationships
and transmission of inherited traits.Squares represent males and circles
represent females.Horizontal lines indicate parents, vertical
lines show generations, and elevated lines depict siblings.
Symbols for heterozygotes are half-shaded, and for an individual with a particular phenotype, completely shaded
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Pedigrees Then and Now
Pedigrees have been in use since antiquity.
They have been used throughout history to show family relationships, particularly royal bloodlines.
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Pedigrees Display Mendel’s Laws
Pedigrees can reveal mode of inheritance, and can suggest molecular information, carrier status, and input from other genes and the environment.
Interpretation of pedigrees can be inconclusive when more than one mode of inheritance can explain the pattern seen.
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Solving Genetics ProblemsList genotypes and phenotypes
for the traitDetermine the genotypes of the
parentsPossible gametesPossible genotypes of offspringRepeat for successive
generations
Independent Events
The probability of simultaneous independent events = the product of the probability of each event
Example: If both parents are heterozygous (Bb)) what is
the probability that they will produce a BB child?
Probability of a sperm with B allele = ½Probability of a ova with B allele = ½Probability of a BB child is ½ X ½ = ¼
Dependent Events
The probability of dependent events = the sum of probability of each event
Example•Parents are heterozygous for a trait, R.
•What is the chance that their child carries at least one dominant R allele?
•Probability of child carrying RR = ¼•Probability of child carrying Rr = ½
•Probability of child carrying R_ = ¼ + ½ = ¾