1 natural selection and species interactions “nature has given women so much power….” - samuel...
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Natural Selection and Species Interactions
“Nature has given women so much power….”- Samuel Johnson
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The Great Leap Forward
• Starting in 1958, Mao Zedong, leader of the Communist Party of China, initiated a series of policies to transform the country into a modern, industrialized, communist society.
• One of the first actions taken was known as the Four Pests Campaign. This campaign sought to eliminate rats,
flies, mosquitoes, and sparrows.
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The Four Pests Campaign
• Masses of people were mobilized to eradicate the Eurasian Tree Sparrow.
• Tactics included: Banging pots and pans,
preventing the birds from landing, until they were exhausted.
Tearing down nests. Shooting them from the sky
using guns and sling shots.
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“Everyone come and fight sparrows.”
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Unintended Consequences
• The sparrows were hunted because they ate grain seeds; reducing crop yields.
• By April of 1960, Chinese leaders came to realize that the sparrows also ate a large number of pest insects, including locusts.
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Unintended Consequences
• The government made a series of other poor agricultural decisions at this time, including: Ordering farmers to increase the density of
their planting by 6 times, believing that the same species of plant would compete with itself.
Deeper plowing of the soil, which brought up sand and rocks instead of more topsoil.
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The Great Famine
• The locust plague, overplanting, and overplowing combined with a severe drought.
• The number of victims is unknown, but estimated between 20-43 million.
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Ecosystems: Everything is Connected
• Components of an ecosystem: Biotic Factors – Living and
once living parts of an ecosystem.
- Ex: Plants, animals, dead matter, waste
Abiotic Factors – Nonliving parts of an ecosystem.
- Ex: Water, rocks, light 7
• An ecosystem is all of the organisms living in an area.
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Organization of Life and the Environment
• Organism – An individual living thing.• Species – A group of organisms able to
breed and fertile offspring.• Population - All members of a species that
live in the same area at the same time.• Biological Community - All populations living
and interacting in an area.• Ecosystem - A biological community and its
physical environment.• Biosphere – All ecosystems in the entire
Earth.
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Ecosystem Organization
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What lives where, and why?
• Habitat – Where an organism lives Every organism a range of factors it can
survive in. Ex: Temperature, precipitation, etc.
• Critical Factor - Single factor that is the most critical in determining how species are distributed – who lives in what habitat.
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Tolerance Limits
Tolerance Limits - Minimum and maximum levels beyond which a particular species cannot survive or reproduce.
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Adaptation
• Adaptation – A trait that allows a species to survive more easily and reproduce.
• Evolution - Inheritance of specific genetic traits that control adaptations, giving a species an advantage in an environment.
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Natural Selection
• Natural Selection - Describes process where better competitors survive and reproduce more successfully.
• Caused by: Random mutations – Changes in DNA are
usually bad, but can be beneficial. Selective pressure – Limited resources
mean only the best competitors survive. Sexual selection – Females choose a mate
based on certain characteristics.
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Natural Selection
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Artificial Selection
• The selective breeding of organisms by humans for specific characteristics.
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Fig. 4-3, p. 66
Modern humans(Homo sapiens)appear about2 secondsbefore midnight
Recorded humanhistory begins1/4 secondbefore midnight
Origin of life(3.6–3.8 billionyears ago)
Origin of Life
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Evidence of Evolution
• Physical Similarities Most animals have
similar bones in their limbs (fins, arms, wings)
• Comparing DNA• Vestigial Structures
Still exist in the body but are no longer needed
Ex: Appendix, wisdom teeth
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Factors Exerting Selective Pressure
• Physiological stress due to inappropriate levels of a critical environmental factor. Moisture, Light, pH
• Predation Organism is hunted and killed by another Includes parasites, bacteria, viruses
• Competition Other organisms attempting to use same
resources• Luck
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Speciation• Given enough time, enough mutations occur
that a new species develops from an old one. When are two groups considered a
different species?- They cannot or will not interbreed to
produce healthy, fertile offspring.
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Natural Selection
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Speciation
• Divergent - Separation of one species into new species.
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Speciation
• Convergent - Unrelated organisms evolve to look and act alike. • Not related• Caused by living in
similar environments
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Coevolution
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The process of two species evolving in response to long-term interactions witheach other.
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Same or Different Species?
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• Crayfish a.k.a. Crawdad a.k.a. Spiny lobster a.k.a. Yabby a.k.a. Crawfish a.k.a. Creekcrab a.k.a. Mudbug
• We need an internationally accepted name!
The Taxonomic Naming System
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Scientific Naming System
• Based on the classification system.• Includes the organism’s genus and species
name. Genus is capitalized Species is lower case The scientific name is written in italics
• Scientific name of the crayfish:
Procambarus clarkii
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The Taxonomic Naming System
• Divides organisms into different levels of organization.
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
• The more levels two organisms have in common, the more related.
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How related are they?
Canis lupus lupus
European Wolf
Canis familiaris
Domesticated dog
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How related are they?
Archocentrus nigrofasciatus
Convict Cichlid
Corvus splendens
House Crow
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Phylogenetic Tree• Also known as a “tree of life”.• Organisms are grouped and classified based
on three characteristics: Physical characteristics DNA Behavioral characteristics
- Mating rituals, territorial, aggression, etc.• The more of these characteristics two
organisms have in common, the more closely related they are according to evolution. 32
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Phylogenetic Tree of Life
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From left to right:1.Orangutan2.Gorilla3.Human4.Chimpanzee5.Bonobo
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Ecological Niche
• Habitat - Set of environmental conditions in which a particular organism lives.
• Ecological Niche - Description of role played by
a species in a biological community.
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Specific Types of Niches
• Opportunistic Species - Quickly appear when any opening in an ecosystem arises. Many weeds.
• Pioneer Species – Able to quickly colonize new ground where nothing else is growing.
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Types of Niches
• Keystone Species - A species whose impact on its ecosystem is especially large and influential.
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SPECIES INTERACTIONS
• Predator-Prey Any organism that feeds directly on another
living organism is termed a predator.- The organism that is eaten is the prey.
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Competition
• Intraspecific - Competition among members of the same species. Dispersal
- Seeds sent far away from parent Territoriality
- Each individual defends part of ecosystem Resource Partitioning
- Adults and larvae eat different foods Ex: Caterpillars and butterflies
• Interspecific - Competition between members of different species.
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Resource Partitioning
• -
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Symbiosis
• Symbiosis - Intimate living together of members of two or more species. Commensalism - One member benefits
while other is neither benefited nor harmed.
Mutualism - Both members benefit.
Parasitism - One member benefits at the expense of other.
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Example of Symbiosis
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• Barnacles create homes by attaching themselves to whales. The whales are unaffected.
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Example of Symbiosis
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• Clownfish have a mucus coating that allows them to live in sea anemones. Their presence attracts other fish for the anemone to eat.
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Example of Symbiosis
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• As bison walk through grass, insects are disturbed and fly away. They are eaten by cowbirds.
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Example of Symbiosis
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• Ostriches and gazelles feed next to each other. Ostriches have excellent eyesight, while gazelles have stronger senses of hearing and smell.
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Example of Symbiosis
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• Mistletoe extracts water and nutrients from the spruce tree directly.
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POPULATION DYNAMICS
• Population Growth Studies of population growth are based on
the idea of biotic potential. Biotic Potential - Potential of a population
to grow in the absence of limitations.
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Exponential Growth
• Exponential growth is graphed as a J curve. Carrying Capacity - Number of individuals
that can be indefinitely supported in a given area.
- Overshoot - When a population surpasses the carrying capacity of its environment.
- Dieback – Population experiences a sudden steep drop.
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Population Oscillations
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Growth to a Stable Population
• Logistic Growth - Growth occurs more slowly as the population approaches carrying capacity due to environmental resistance.
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Limiting Factors
• Environmental Resistance Any factor that slows the growth of a
population. Density-Dependent Factors – Most likely to
affect dense populations.- Disease, Stress, Predation
Density-Independent Factors – Affects dense and diffuse populations evenly.
- Changes in climate, natural disasters
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Population Growth Strategies
• There are two main types of growth strategies: K-strategists focus on long-term
development and a long life.- Ideal for stable, predictable
environments. R-strategists focus on reproducing as
much and as quickly as possible.- Ideal for risky, unstable environments.
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(r) Strategies
• Short life• Rapid growth• Early maturity• Many small offspring• Little parental care• Little investment in
individual offspring
• Adapted to unstable environment
• Pioneers, colonizers• Niche generalists• Prey• Regulated mainly by
extrinsic factors• Low trophic level
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(K) Strategies
• Long life• Slower growth• Late maturity• Fewer large
offspring• High parental care
and protection• High investment in
individual offspring
• Adapted to stable environment
• Later stages of succession
• Niche specialists• Predators• Regulated mainly by
intrinsic factors• High trophic level
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COMMUNITY PROPERTIES
• Primary Productivity - Rate of biomass production. Used as an indication of the rate of solar energy conversion to chemical energy. Net Primary Productivity - Energy (amount
of biomass) left after respiration.
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Type of Strategist?
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Type of Strategist?
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Community Structure
• Randomly Arranged Individuals live wherever resources are
available.• Clumped
Individuals cluster together for protection, assistance, or resource access.
• Regularly Arranged
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Community Structure