1 overview of silicon semiconductor device physics dr. david w. graham west virginia university lane...
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Overview of Silicon Semiconductor Device Physics
Dr. David W. Graham
West Virginia UniversityLane Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering
© 2009 David W. Graham
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Silicon
Nucleus
Valence Band
Energy Bands(Shells)
Si has 14 Electrons
Silicon is the primary semiconductor used in VLSI systems
At T=0K, the highest energy band occupied by an electron is called the valence band.
Silicon has 4 outer shell / valence electrons
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Energy Bands
• Electrons try to occupy the lowest energy band possible
• Not every energy level is a legal state for an electron to occupy
• These legal states tend to arrange themselves in bands
Allowed Energy States
Disallowed Energy States
Increasing Electron Energy
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Energy Bands
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Energy Bands
Valence Band
Conduction Band
Energy Bandgap
Eg
EC
EV
Last filled energy band at T=0K
First unfilled energy band at T=0K
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Band Diagrams
Eg
EC
EV
Band Diagram RepresentationEnergy plotted as a function of position
EC Conduction band Lowest energy state for a free electron
EV Valence band Highest energy state for filled outer shells
EG Band gap Difference in energy levels between EC and EV
No electrons (e-) in the bandgap (only above EC or below EV) EG = 1.12eV in Silicon
Increasing electron energy
Increasing voltage
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Intrinsic Semiconductor
Silicon has 4 outer shell / valence electrons
Forms into a lattice structure to share electrons
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Intrinsic Silicon
EC
EV
The valence band is full, and no electrons are free to move about
However, at temperatures above T=0K, thermal energy shakes an electron free
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Semiconductor PropertiesFor T > 0K
Electron shaken free and can cause current to flow
e–h+
• Generation – Creation of an electron (e-) and hole (h+) pair
• h+ is simply a missing electron, which leaves an excess positive charge (due to an extra proton)
• Recombination – if an e- and an h+ come in contact, they annihilate each other
• Electrons and holes are called “carriers” because they are charged particles – when they move, they carry current
• Therefore, semiconductors can conduct electricity for T > 0K … but not much current (at room temperature (300K), pure silicon has only 1 free electron per 3 trillion atoms)
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Doping
• Doping – Adding impurities to the silicon crystal lattice to increase the number of carriers
• Add a small number of atoms to increase either the number of electrons or holes
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Periodic Table
Column 4 Elements have 4 electrons in the Valence Shell
Column 3 Elements have 3 electrons in the Valence Shell
Column 5 Elements have 5 electrons in the Valence Shell
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Donors n-Type Material
Donors• Add atoms with 5 valence-band
electrons• ex. Phosphorous (P)• “Donates” an extra e- that can freely
travel around• Leaves behind a positively charged
nucleus (cannot move)• Overall, the crystal is still electrically
neutral• Called “n-type” material (added
negative carriers)• ND = the concentration of donor
atoms [atoms/cm3 or cm-3]~1015-1020cm-3
• e- is free to move about the crystal (Mobility n ≈1350cm2/V)
+
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Donors n-Type Material
Donors• Add atoms with 5 valence-band
electrons• ex. Phosphorous (P)• “Donates” an extra e- that can freely
travel around• Leaves behind a positively charged
nucleus (cannot move)• Overall, the crystal is still electrically
neutral• Called “n-type” material (added
negative carriers)• ND = the concentration of donor
atoms [atoms/cm3 or cm-3]~1015-1020cm-3
• e- is free to move about the crystal (Mobility n ≈1350cm2/V)
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
++
+
–
–
– –
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
––
–
–
–
+
+
n-Type Material
+–
+
Shorthand Notation Positively charged ion; immobile Negatively charged e-; mobile;
Called “majority carrier” Positively charged h+; mobile;
Called “minority carrier”
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Acceptors Make p-Type Material
––
h+
Acceptors• Add atoms with only 3 valence-
band electrons• ex. Boron (B)• “Accepts” e– and provides extra h+
to freely travel around• Leaves behind a negatively
charged nucleus (cannot move)• Overall, the crystal is still
electrically neutral• Called “p-type” silicon (added
positive carriers)• NA = the concentration of acceptor
atoms [atoms/cm3 or cm-3]• Movement of the hole requires
breaking of a bond! (This is hard, so mobility is low, μp ≈ 500cm2/V)
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Acceptors Make p-Type Material
Acceptors• Add atoms with only 3 valence-
band electrons• ex. Boron (B)• “Accepts” e– and provides extra h+
to freely travel around• Leaves behind a negatively
charged nucleus (cannot move)• Overall, the crystal is still
electrically neutral• Called “p-type” silicon (added
positive carriers)• NA = the concentration of acceptor
atoms [atoms/cm3 or cm-3]• Movement of the hole requires
breaking of a bond! (This is hard, so mobility is low, μp ≈ 500cm2/V)
–
–
–
–
––
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
––
–
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
+
–
–
p-Type Material
Shorthand NotationNegatively charged ion; immobilePositively charged h+; mobile;
Called “majority carrier”Negatively charged e-; mobile;
Called “minority carrier”
–+
–
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The Fermi Function
f(E)
1
0.5
EEf
The Fermi Function• Probability distribution function (PDF)• The probability that an available state at an energy E will be occupied by an e-
E Energy level of interestEf Fermi level
Halfway point Where f(E) = 0.5
k Boltzmann constant= 1.38×10-23 J/K= 8.617×10-5 eV/K
T Absolute temperature (in Kelvins)
kTEE feEf
1
1
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Boltzmann Distribution
f(E)
1
0.5
EEf
~Ef - 4kT ~Ef + 4kT
kTEE feEf
kTEE f If
Then
Boltzmann Distribution• Describes exponential decrease in the density of particles in thermal equilibrium with a potential gradient
• Applies to all physical systems• Atmosphere Exponential distribution of gas molecules• Electronics Exponential distribution of electrons• Biology Exponential distribution of ions
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Band Diagrams (Revisited)
Eg
EC
EV
Band Diagram RepresentationEnergy plotted as a function of position
EC Conduction band Lowest energy state for a free electron Electrons in the conduction band means current can flow
EV Valence band Highest energy state for filled outer shells Holes in the valence band means current can flow
Ef Fermi Level Shows the likely distribution of electrons
EG Band gap Difference in energy levels between EC and EV
No electrons (e-) in the bandgap (only above EC or below EV) EG = 1.12eV in Silicon
Ef
f(E)10.5
E
• Virtually all of the valence-band energy levels are filled with e-
• Virtually no e- in the conduction band
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Effect of Doping on Fermi LevelEf is a function of the impurity-doping level
EC
EV
Ef
f(E)10.5
E
n-Type Material
• High probability of a free e- in the conduction band• Moving Ef closer to EC (higher doping) increases the number of available
majority carriers
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Effect of Doping on Fermi LevelEf is a function of the impurity-doping level
EC
EV
Ef
p-Type Material
• Low probability of a free e- in the conduction band• High probability of h+ in the valence band• Moving Ef closer to EV (higher doping) increases the number of available
majority carriers
f(E)10.5
E
f(E)10.5
E
Ef1
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Equilibrium Carrier Concentrations
n = # of e- in a materialp = # of h+ in a material
ni = # of e- in an intrinsic (undoped) material
Intrinsic silicon• Undoped silicon• Fermi level
• Halfway between Ev and Ec
• Location at “Ei”
Eg
EC
EV
Ef
f(E)10.5
E
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Equilibrium Carrier Concentrations
Non-degenerate Silicon• Silicon that is not too heavily doped• Ef not too close to Ev or Ec
Assuming non-degenerate silicon
kTEEi
kTEEi
fi
if
enp
enn
2innp
Multiplying together
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Charge Neutrality Relationship
• For uniformly doped semiconductor
• Assuming total ionization of dopant atoms
0 AD NNnp
# of carriers # of ions
Total Charge = 0Electrically Neutral
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Calculating Carrier Concentrations
• Based upon “fixed” quantities• NA, ND, ni are fixed (given specific dopings
for a material)• n, p can change (but we can find their
equilibrium values)
n
n
nNNNN
p
nNNNN
n
i
iDADA
iADAD
2
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21
22
22
22
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Common Special Cases in Silicon
1. Intrinsic semiconductor (NA = 0, ND = 0)
2. Heavily one-sided doping
3. Symmetric doping
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Intrinsic Semiconductor (NA=0, ND=0)
i
i
i
npn
np
nn
Carrier concentrations are given by
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Heavily One-Sided Doping
iADA
iDAD
nNNN
nNNN
This is the typical case for most semiconductor applications
iDAD nNNN ,If (Nondegenerate, Total Ionization)
Then
D
i
D
N
np
Nn2
iADA nNNN ,If (Nondegenerate, Total Ionization)
Then
A
i
A
N
nn
Np2
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Symmetric Doping
Doped semiconductor where ni >> |ND-NA|
• Increasing temperature increases the number of intrinsic carriers
• All semiconductors become intrinsic at sufficiently high temperatures
inpn
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Determination of Ef in Doped Semiconductor
iADAi
Afi
iDADi
Dif
nNNNn
NkTEE
nNNNn
NkTEE
,ln
,ln
for
for
Also, for typical semiconductors (heavily one-sided doping)
iiif n
pkT
n
nkTEE lnln [units eV]
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Thermal Motion of Charged Particles
• Look at drift and diffusion in silicon
• Assume 1-D motion
• Applies to both electronic systems and biological systems
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DriftDrift → Movement of charged particles in response to an external field (typically an
electric field)
E
E-field applies forceF = qE
which accelerates the charged particle.
However, the particle does not accelerate indefinitely because of collisions with the lattice (velocity saturation)
Average velocity<vx> ≈ -µnEx electrons< vx > ≈ µpEx holes
µn → electron mobility→ empirical proportionality constant
between E and velocityµp → hole mobility
µn ≈ 3µp µ↓ as T↑
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DriftDrift → Movement of charged particles in response to an external field (typically an
electric field)
E-field applies forceF = qE
which accelerates the charged particle.
However, the particle does not accelerate indefinitely because of collisions with the lattice (velocity saturation)
Average velocity<vx> ≈ -µnEx electrons< vx > ≈ µpEx holes
µn → electron mobility→ empirical proportionality constant
between E and velocityµp → hole mobility
µn ≈ 3µp µ↓ as T↑
Current Density
qpEJ
qnEJ
pdriftp
ndriftn
,
,
q = 1.6×10-19 C, carrier densityn = number of e-
p = number of h+
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Resistivity• Closely related to carrier drift• Proportionality constant between electric field and the total
particle current flow
Cqpnq pn
1910602.11
where
n-Type Semiconductor
Dn Nq 1
p-Type Semiconductor
Ap Nq 1
• Therefore, all semiconductor material is a resistor– Could be parasitic (unwanted)– Could be intentional (with proper doping)
• Typically, p-type material is more resistive than n-type material for a given amount of doping• Doping levels are often calculated/verified from resistivity measurements
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DiffusionDiffusion → Motion of charged particles due to a concentration gradient
• Charged particles move in random directions
• Charged particles tend to move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration (entropy – Second Law of Thermodynamics)
• Net effect is a current flow (carriers moving from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration)
dx
xdpqDJ
dx
xdnqDJ
pdiffp
ndiffn
,
,q = 1.6×10-19 C, carrier densityD = Diffusion coefficientn(x) = e- density at position xp(x) = h+ density at position x
→ The negative sign in Jp,diff is due to moving in the opposite direction from the concentration gradient
→ The positive sign from Jn,diff is because the negative from the e- cancels out the negative from the concentration gradient
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Total Current DensitiesSummation of both drift and diffusion
pqDqpEdx
xdpqDqpE
JJJ
nqDqnEdx
xdnqDqnE
JJJ
pp
pp
diffpdriftpp
nn
nn
diffndriftnn
,,
,,
pn JJJ Total current flow
(1 Dimension)
(3 Dimensions)
(1 Dimension)
(3 Dimensions)
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Einstein Relation
Einstein Relation → Relates D and µ (they are not independent of each other)
q
kTD
UT = kT/q→ Thermal voltage= 25.86mV at room temperature≈ 25mV for quick hand approximations → Used in biological and silicon applications
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Changes in Carrier NumbersPrimary “other” causes for changes in carrier concentration• Photogeneration (light shining on semiconductor)• Recombination-generation
Photogeneration
Llightlight
Gt
p
t
n
Photogeneration rate
Creates same # of e- and h+
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Changes in Carrier Numbers
nGR
pGR
n
t
n
p
t
p
Indirect Thermal Recombination-Generation
e- in p-type material
h+ in n-type material n0, p0 equilibrium carrier concentrationsn, p carrier concentrations under
arbitrary conditionsΔn, Δp change in # of e- or h+ from
equilibrium conditions
Assumes low-level injection
material type-p in
material type-n in
00
00
,
,
pppn
nnnp
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Minority Carrier PropertiesMinority Carriers• e- in p-type material• h+ in n-type material
Minority Carrier Lifetimes
• τn The time before minority carrier electrons undergo recombination in p-type material
• τp The time before minority carrier holes undergo recombination in n-type material
Diffusion Lengths• How far minority carriers will make it into “enemy territory” if they are
injected into that material
ppp
nnn
DL
DL
for minority carrier e- in p-type material
for minority carrier h+ in n-type material
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Equations of State
• Putting it all together
• Carrier concentrations with respect to time (all processes)
• Spatial and time continuity equations for carrier concentrations
)(
)(
)(
)(
1
1
lightother
GRp
lightother
GRdiffdrift
lightother
GRn
lightother
GRdiffdrift
t
p
t
pJ
q
t
p
t
p
t
p
t
p
t
p
t
n
t
nJ
q
t
n
t
n
t
n
t
n
t
n
Current to Related
Current to Related
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Equations of State
Minority Carrier Equations
• Continuity equations for the special case of minority carriers
• Assumes low-level injection
Ln
ppn
p Gn
x
nD
t
n
2
2
Light generation
Indirect thermal recombination
J, assuming no E-fieldx
JDJ
x
nqD n
nnn
q
1also and
Lp
nnn
n Gp
x
pD
t
p
2
2
np, pn minority carriers in “other” type of material