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The Information Society: A Context for Libraries

LS 501: Introduction to Library & Information Studies

Revised Summer 2006, 2010, 2011

C. 2003, Deborah J. Grimes, Tuscaloosa, AL

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The Context for Libraries

Information Society Information Infrastructure Information Networks & Services Information Cycle/System of Scholarly Communication Information Theory Information Science Information Policy

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Perspectives on the Information Society Technological definitions: focus on rapid increase and

proliferation of information technology and its impact on society Economic definitions: focus on measuring size and growth of

information industries (as creators of wealth) Occupational definitions: focus on number of individuals engaged

in work related to information Spatial definitions: focus on networks that connect locations and

have dramatic effect on the organization of time and space Cultural definitions: focus on increase of information in daily lives

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Another Descriptor: The “Information Age”

Information as the symbol for our times Professional, caring society or tightening of control

over citizenry? Emergence of highly educated public with ready

access to knowledge or deluge of trivia, sensationalism, propaganda?

Turning point in social development

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The Information Society: The “Third Wave”

Futurist Alvin Toffler -- from “brute force” to “brain force”

50% of labor force by 1975 and fastest growing occupations 2000-2010 (60-100%)

Agricultural Society Industrial Society Information Society

1 2 3

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Some More Definitions Data -- Raw & unprocessed; material out of which information is

created; building blocks; often numbers, letters, symbols; meaning is not yet apparent or assigned (like numbers stored in a computer file) --

Information -- Processed and communicated with meaning; organized or classified data that has meaning; “informs” us; implies some type of human processing or understanding; must be true or accurate; must go from one person to another (like a spreadsheet or budget report) -- processed with meaning

Knowledge -- Further processed and interrelated; cohesive body of information integrated into a larger body of information; interrelated (like financial advising) -- further processed and organized

Wisdom -- Knowledge applied to benefit humanity (like Alan Greenspan)

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2509, 2645, 2633, 3112, 3098

Alabama Public College

Enrollment Totals 1999-2003

Year FTE

1999 2509

2000 2645

2001 2633

2002 3612

2003 3098

TOTAL 14497

Average enrollment at APC between 1999 and 2003 was 2899.4 FTE.

The 16% growth in FTE enrollment at APC can be attributed, at least in part, to population trends, which show a similar growth in 18-24 year-olds in the college’s service area.

Data

Information

Knowledge

Wisdom?

Simple PR techniques that keep APC in the public eye will likely be sufficient to maintain steady growth in student enrollment.

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Characteristics of Information as a Resource* Naturally diffusive Reproduces rather than being consumed Can be shared -- not exchanged Compressible Substitutable Transportable Basis of industries such as research, education,

publishing, marketing, politics (worldwide) Societal concerns have expanded management of

information from the traditional domain of libraries and archives to organizations, institutions, governments That distinguish it from traditional views of resources

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The Information Infrastructure The way information flows in society “Institutions and individuals involved in the

dynamic process by which information is created, disseminated, and used in society” (Rubin)

Foundations and framework Libraries play vital role

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Role of the Library in the Information Infrastructure

Intermediary between the information user and the information created

Increasing or decreasing? Why?

USER LIBRARY INFO

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Information Cycle Creators of information -- writers,

musicians, artists, researchers, database producers, web producers

Information products -- books, videos, magazines, CDs, web sites, etc.

Distributors of information -- publishers, Internet providers, vendors, producers

Disseminators of information -- schools, libraries, colleges and universities, businesses, government, museums,

Users of information -- individuals, business persons, researchers, employees and employers

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Sources of Information Print materials -- over 28,000 book stores selling over

3m titles (June 23-25 -- Harry Potter book outgrossed The Hulk movie!) + newspapers and magazines

Phones -- individual to individual + underpins information revolution – audio, text, and now full Web

Audio, Radio -- news, entertainment, safety Video, TV, DVD -- multiple info.formats, multi-access,

and now computer networks over TV infrastructure CDs, Databases, Internet, Social Media-- use

growing exponentially Libraries -- institutional support to individuals, groups,

organizations -- esp. important for self-development

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The System of Scholarly Communication

Defined as: “the social phenomenon whereby intellectual and creative activity is transmitted from one scholar to another” (ARL)

Components

Creators, writers

Ideas, knowledge created (stock of knowledge)

Informal communications (“invisible college,” conference papers, listservs, blogs, tweets?)

Means of formal review and communication

Means of distribution and access (all formats)

Consumers of information (scholars & potential scholars

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Role of the Library in the Scholarly Communication System

Plays the role of “channel” through which scholarly information is transferred from the scholar to scholar

Traditional functions (acquisitions, organization, dissemination, preservation)

Plus bibliographic utilities, resource-sharing, document deliver, networks, consortia, etc.

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Information Science The study of the properties and behavior of information,

the forces that influence it, and the means of processing information for optimal access and use

Roots in Wiener’s theory of cybernetics and Shannon’s information theory

Nature of information science Focuses on information, regardless of medium Includes entire information cycle, from creation to use Interdisciplinary Emphasizes access and use (like libraries) Not yet a distinct discipline

Importance to librarians: WHY not WHAT

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Information Science: Info Needs, Info-Seeking, Info Use, & Info Users

How do users solve information problems? Devices, systems, & services User characteristics (age, education, discipline) Information-seeking vs. information gathering

What is the dynamic process of information seeking? Initiation, selection, exploration, formulation, collection, presentation

How do user abilities affect information-seeking? Principle of least effort

What barriers affect information- seeking and information use? Physical, policies, financial, legal, social

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Information Science: Information Storage & Retrieval

Major area of research and development Evaluation of information retrieval systems

Recall & precision Search strategies & Boolean logic

Database and file structure How design affects use

Computer-human interface Artificial Intelligence (AI) & expert systems

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Dynix “Knowledge Map” in Horizon Information Portal

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Information Science: Bibliometrics & Citation Analysis

Bibliometrics = application of quantitative methods to the study of information resources Broader understanding of disciplines (including national

contributions Identification of key authors (Lotka’s Law 1/n2) Identification of key periodicals -- distribution of articles among

periodicals (Bradford’s Law) Circulation studies (inside and outside the library), aging studies,

collection overlap studies

Citation analysis = study of the frequency and pattern of citations Implications for collection development by identifying influential

works, authors, publications

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Information Science as Deinstitutionalized Library Science

“Library without walls” Includes the entire world of information as its

“collection” Librarian or information scientist as facilitator Focuses on use of information to meet human needs

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Information Policy

Defined as “any law, regulation, rule, or practice (written or unwritten) that affects the creation, acquisition, organization, dissemination, or evaluation of information

Generally discussed in terms of government legislation

Includes information technologies for educational and industrial uses; telecommunications; privacy issues; computer regulations and crimes; copyright and intellectual freedom; and government information systems

Not viewed as a “totality” until Clinton/Gore administration

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Information Policy: Privacy

Growing concern that unauthorized individuals can gain access too easily to our personal information (hence the rise of special protection for credit, health, and other information)

Protection from third party intrusion, ranging from individual to government (hence professional concerns with the Patriot Act)

Examples: Right to Financial Privacy Act, Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA), state laws protecting library circulation records

Data-Mining Reporting Act 2005 – would require head of each government department that uses data-mining to submit public report to Congress – still in committee

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DOES ALABAMA HAVE A LIBRARY PRIVACY LAW?

EXAMPLES OF LIBRARY POLICIES ?

HOW MANY STATES HAVE PRIVACY LAWS?

WHERE CAN WE FIND OUT?

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Information Policy: Access (Freedom of Information & Control of Government Info)

Public records laws (provide access for the public to public records) -- sunshine laws -- prevent governments or public offices from withholding information that might be considered politically harmful or embarrassing

Cost-conscious efforts of agencies pose barriers to free access, including IT and privatization (profit motive drives what is published)

Examples: Freedom of Information Act, Paperwork Reduction Act, GPO and Federal Depository Library Program

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Information Policy: Access (Freedom of Information & Control of Government Info)

Pro-Privatization

Private enterprise best meets society’s needs

Government does not belong in the information marketplace

Government in the marketplace interferes with market’s ability to optimize production

Private sector better able to expand distribution of information from government and other sources

Private sector can do it more cost-effectively

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Information Policy: Access (Freedom of Information & Control of Government Info)

Anti-Privatization

Need to ensure access to the public for information resulting from taxpayer funds

Citizens need access, regardless of ability to pay

Information needs not met by the marketplace must be met by government

Government plays role in developing information to deal with social issues

Private sector concerned with cutting costs and maximizing profit and may be more selective in what is provided (and therefore dictates what is available and to whom)

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Information Policy: Copyright & Intellectual Property Rights

Very complex legal and ethical issue for libraries -- “balancing of interests” -- institutional role of libraries – helps equalize leverage among creators, publishers, and users

Patents, trademarks, publications in all formats

ALA Code of Ethics, ARL “Statement of Principles,” institutional policies, extended to electronic formats (“ethical and legal use)

Copyright Act protects 8 categories of works; supplemented for libraries in CONTU guidelines for photocopying and ILL (+Digital Millennium Copyright Act -- DCMA-- 1998)

“Right of First Sale” permits libraries and others to loan copyrighted materials; “Fair Use” conditions under which copies can be made without gaining permission of copyright holder -- BUT be aware

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WHAT IS COPYRIGHT? According to the U.S. Copyright Office, Copyright "is a form of

protection provided by the laws of the United States (title 17, U.S. Code) to the authors of  'original works of authorship,' including literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, and certain other intellectual works.  This protection is available to both published and unpublished works." 

Good sources of information: U.S. Copyright Office at www.copyright.gov Copyright Primer produced by North Carolina State University Copyright Tutorial of the Scholarly Communication Center of

North Carolina State University Libraries Copyright pages of the University of Colorado at Boulder  Copyright QuickGuide at the University of Illinois -- University

of Purdue -- Indianapolis (UIUPI)

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The use of a copyright notice or © symbol was required under the 1976 Copyright Act but was eliminated by a 1989 court case. It is, however, beneficial for informing the public and laying claim to works (and librarians like it).

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Information Policy: Copyright & Intellectual Property Rights in the Library

“Libraries are creatures of the historical and statutory balance in copyright law.” (ALA)

Unsupervised copying (photocopiers & computers)

Reserves

Interlibrary loans (CONTU)

Multimedia productions

Database licensing

Fair Use

Archival function – to preserve – libraries seek incentives to be able to retain and preserve all formats, including electronic

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Information Policy: Copyright & Intellectual Property Rights

Tasini v. NY Times -- 6/25/01 -- US Supreme Court affirmed freelance writers’ copyright privileges to works originally published in newspapers and periodicals and then licensed by the publishers to commercial electronic databases -- implications for libraries ?

Dastar Corp.v. 20th. Century Fox -- 6/2/03 -- Copyright holders cannot re-assert rights after work has entered public domain (which would cause databases to have to footnote everything they own)

Public Domain Enhancement Act -- 6/26/03 -- will bring more resources into the public domain sooner while protecting copyright holder

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DMCA Provisions 1998 revisions for digital age and protection for educational entities

(OSPs)

Requires copyright notice and copyright agent New college policy outlines procedures to copyright holders for

infringement claims Sara gets them!

Major provisions Does NOT change ‘Fair Use’ Prohibits “circumvention” of “technological protection measures” Prohibits manufacture of device or service to defeat protective measures Exempts OSP from liability because of user violation Establishes mechanism to exempt OSP liability due to storage, use of

“information location tools” (i.e., hyperlinks), if the provider acts expeditiously

Does NOT require OSP to monitor/actively seek out infringements

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DMCA Take-Down Procedures … Must receive a legitimate, official complaint that meets specific

criteria

Notifies techies to remove alleged infringement from Web and notifies employee or student responsible

Convenes Copyright Action Group

Counternotices: Employee or student may respond with “good faith” statement

Unless complainer takes additional action within 14 days, information goes back up

Employee or student with 2 legitimate complaints subject to disciplinary action by the college

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2002 TEACH ACT Extends privileges for using copyrighted materials without

permission to distance education technology

Major provisions Allows transmission by faculty and students Applicable to accredited, nonprofit educational institutions Limits access to currently enrolled students Limits access to class/course time Disallows further copying or redistribution (“downstream” controls) Must not interfere with copy protection measures ‘Fair Use’ applies to print and digital ‘Fair Use’ applies even when there are no guidelines Institution must inform faculty, students, staff of copyright laws and

policies

Voluntary because …… “Fair use” or licensing may be applied instead

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Google Library Project: A Copyright Debate Formerly Google Print Project Two components

Partner Program – Publishers authorize Google to scan full-text and provide access to bibliographic information + link to full page of relevant text

Library Project – Google scans materials from libraries (Harvard, Stanford, Oxford, University of Michigan, and NYPL) and provides access to full-text of public domain texts + “snippets”

Includes opt-out policy for copyright holders In litigation – UPDATE!

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Information Policy: TelecommunicationsIncreasingly reliant on telecommunications

Strong interest by some in current society to control material sent through communication lines and punish the sender (Communications Decency Act ruled unconstitutional by Supreme Court)

Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) -- “Declaration of Independence of Cyberspace” (Rubin, p.111)

Examples: Telecommunications Act of 1996, which redefined universal service for the electronic environment

E-Rate (Universal Service Fund for Schools and Libraries) -- affordable access to telecommunications (AREN -- 46 K-12 and public libraries)

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INFORMATION POLICY: ARRA American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (the bailout and

stimulus programs) Libraries receiving funds

Department of Agriculture $3.7 million in grants or loans for construction, equipment,

technology via Community Facilities Programs (especially BIP or Broadband Initiatives Program in rural areas)

Department of Commerce National Telecommunications and Information Administration

(NTIA) -- $749.7 million in grants by Broadband Technology Opportunities Program (BTOP) – broadband infrastructure, public computer centers, etc.; see Broadband USA website

Department of Education $9.6 million to libraries as parts of larger educational institutional

and government entities, primarily to create and retain jobs in education, including academic and school librarians

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Information Policy: Education Legislation

National Education Goals (USDE) -- Although education goals directly affect school and public libraries, they are seldom, if at all, mentioned specifically in such goals (and related government publications).

Start school ready to learn.

At least 90% will graduate high school.

Demonstrate competency in subject matter, use their minds well to be prepared for responsible citizenship, further learning, productive employment

First in the world in science and math

Adults will be literate, have knowledge and skills to compete in world economy and exercise citizenship

Schools will be safe, drug-free, disciplined

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Information Policy: More Education LegislationHigher Education Act of 1965/1986/1992

Supports educational programs of colleges and universities; grants for books, resources, training, research; library technical education training; development of library curricula; minority doctoral students; Library of Congress acquisitions

Reauthorized to promote partnerships; assisting minority students (esp. Native Americans); encouraging students to become teachers, etc.

1992 -- Title II -- Academic Library and Information Technology Enhancement -- to assist libraries in acquiring technologies, promoting library schools

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National Education Technology Plan US Department of Education and Office of Technology

Education partnership Released draft in March 2010 “Model of 21st century learning powered by technology” Five important areas: learning, assessment, teaching,

infrastructure, and productivity Unlike previous initiative, identifies roles for libraries and

librarians See www.ed.gov/technology/netp-2010 for more details

Information Policy: Most Recent Education Policy

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Information Policy: Library Legislation

The Library of Congress

Depository Library Program -- makes government documents available to US citizens by providing over 1400 public and academic libraries with depository copies -- threatened by efforts for privatizing and reduced funding

Library Services Act, Library Services & Construction Act, Library Services & Technology Act -- fosters improved public library services, construction, technology and library education -- greatest single provider of federal funds for libraries (now administered by Institute of Museum and Library Services rather than Dept. of Education)

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Information Policy: More Library Legislation

National Commission on Libraries and Information Services Act and The White House Conference on Library and Information Science

NCLS established 1976 as a national planning agency for US libraries and WHCLIS

Representation in organizations that affect international information policy (See NCLIS site)

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Information Policy: Information Crossing National Borders

UN’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights -- includes right to freedom of expression and opinion and to seek, receive, or impart information through any media regardless of frontiers

Personal issues

Economic issues

Nationalistic issues – Revolution and Reform? Egypt, Syria, Libya?

Sociocultural issues

Artistic expression

Expression in opposition to the US government

Sexually explicit expression

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Information Policy: The ‘NetNational Information Infrastructure (NII) = National Data Highway or information highway = single most important development in breaking down geographical barriers -- integrates various components of information infrastructure (NII: The Agenda for Action, 1993)

Major policy issues

First Amendment/Intellectual Freedom

Privacy

Intellectual Property

Universal Access

Equitable Access

Interoperability

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Information Policy: The ‘Net & Privacy & Freedom

Several agencies developing statements of rights and responsibilities, such as EDUCOM

First Amendment/Intellectual Freedom: Same rights and responsibilities as other formats but growing concern for controlled speech and appropriateness of topics that are so easily available to children (+unwanted solicitations)

Privacy: Less private than we think on the ‘Net -- See Rubin for “Code of Fair Internet Practices”

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Information Policy: The ‘Net & Intellectual Property

Much trickier than “old” technologies because of ease of distribution, ease of changing formats, ease of access -- facilitate both intentional and unwitting violation of copyright

Much electronic access and information governed by licensing and leasing agreements (i.e., contract law) rather than copyright, based on economic rather than social issues -- more restrictive for libraries

See Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (1995)

International concern

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Information Policy: The ‘Net & AccessUniversal Access

Democracy presumes access to information is essential and barrier-free (costs and protocols)

Problems of the naïve user

Equitable Access

Geographic, social, and economic conditions affect access

Digital Divide

Role of public institutions (libraries?) in providing open access?

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Information Policy: The ‘Net &GovernanceStability

Volume of information and access require reliability, adaptability, strength to withstand disasters and “evil”

Interoperability = ability of computers to communicate with each other (ANSI, NISO, Z39.50)

Important for librarians to help set standards and ensure stability

Governance

“Agreeable anarchy”

Private sector and government participation

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Created by Federal Communications Commission (FCC) under Congressional mandate (2009)

Broadband viewed as foundation for economic growth, jobs, global competition, new industries, education, government, etc.

Some provisions (see www.broadband.gov/plan/executive-summary/ ) Increase competition Improve infrastructure and increase overall bandwidth available,

especially in rural and underserved areas Create Connect America Fund and Mobility Fund Launch National Digital Literacy Corps Improve health care Improve education (including libraries) Bolster national security and public safety (cybersecurity, 911, etc.)

Information Policy: National Broadband Plan

Progress Report 2011?

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Information Policy and Libraries: Different ValuesTwo cultures of the information world: profit-oriented, private sector industry v. service-oriented, public sector profession (Dalton)

Information policy -- driven by values of the media industry (evident in legislation, regulations, mergers

Privatized NII -- media giants not only positioned for maximum profit but for domination of production and dissemination of content

Information viewed as a commodity rather than a public good -- profit potential influences content (i.e., attractiveness to advertisers)

Professional Guidelines of ASIS differ from ALA ethics, qualifies its commitment to access

Dalton: “The Agenda for Action formalized the separation of information provision from humanistic values.”

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A rose by any other name ?... Information Center vs. Library

Emphasizes collection over connection Leaves out learning Neglects and obscures what libraries

are about Puts libraries on the outside rather the

inside of the classroom Information manager image omits roles

as collaborator, teacher, consultant Gary Hartzell -- “The Metaphor Is the

Message” -- why not use multiple metaphors in order to be seen as multi-dimensional

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SOON: The Impact of Technology on Libraries