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Trends and crime

Historical and Current ForcesHistorical and Current Forces

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Historical trends

Little systematic data until the 20th Little systematic data until the 20th centurycentury

High in early 19th, decreased, High in early 19th, decreased, increased in mid 20th century, increased in mid 20th century, “flattening” now“flattening” now

What historical forces might affect crime What historical forces might affect crime rates?rates?

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Trends

IndustrializationIndustrialization

Need for skilled laborNeed for skilled labor

Lack of unskilled jobsLack of unskilled jobs

Increased availability of goodsIncreased availability of goods UrbanizationUrbanization

Anonymity, opportunityAnonymity, opportunity

Breakdown of informal controls, crowdingBreakdown of informal controls, crowding

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Trends

Increased amount of goods availableIncreased amount of goods available Egalitarianism--feeling of equality, less Egalitarianism--feeling of equality, less

deference to the wealthydeference to the wealthy Age structure: as young increase, Age structure: as young increase,

crime increases. Related to: lower crime increases. Related to: lower infant morality. More children to be infant morality. More children to be socialized is a problem if there are not socialized is a problem if there are not enough adults to superviseenough adults to supervise

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Trends

Time horizon: are people more present Time horizon: are people more present oriented? Easy lives, TV, credit, etc.oriented? Easy lives, TV, credit, etc.

WarsWars Increase in survival of low birth weight Increase in survival of low birth weight

babies (LBW). LBW can be caused by babies (LBW). LBW can be caused by poor nutrition, teenage pregnancies, poor nutrition, teenage pregnancies, drug usage. At risk for LD, ADHD, etc., drug usage. At risk for LD, ADHD, etc., school problems, and delinquencyschool problems, and delinquency

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Trends

Family practicesFamily practices

Divorces--although they may have Divorces--although they may have negative effects, do not account for the negative effects, do not account for the increase in crimeincrease in crime

Absent fathers,Lack of extended familyAbsent fathers,Lack of extended family

MobilityMobility

Working mothers--depends on amount of Working mothers--depends on amount of supervision, not work per sesupervision, not work per se

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Trends

Effectiveness of the CJSEffectiveness of the CJS

May appear to lead to higher crime May appear to lead to higher crime rates, better reporting and processingrates, better reporting and processing

Effect most noticeable at the extremesEffect most noticeable at the extremes

(no CJS--chaos; very strict--low crime)(no CJS--chaos; very strict--low crime)

In-between, debatableIn-between, debatable

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Trends

Improved medical services: Aggravated Improved medical services: Aggravated assaults:murder used to be 9:1, now assaults:murder used to be 9:1, now 28:1 because of better medical care.28:1 because of better medical care.

Social disorganization: less religion, less Social disorganization: less religion, less family, more mobility, less informal family, more mobility, less informal control, etc.control, etc.

Legitimization of violence (Media)Legitimization of violence (Media) Growth of personal freedomGrowth of personal freedom

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Trends

Lack of jobs for youth: fewer rural jobs, Lack of jobs for youth: fewer rural jobs, need for technological skills, more service need for technological skills, more service jobs rather than manufacturingjobs rather than manufacturing

Changes in educational systemChanges in educational system Social upheavalSocial upheaval GangsGangs Drug useDrug use TelevisionTelevision

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Drug use and crime

Psychoactive drugs: alter conscious Psychoactive drugs: alter conscious awareness or perceptionawareness or perception

Psychological dependency: person Psychological dependency: person craves a drugcraves a drug

Physiological addiction: body becomes Physiological addiction: body becomes biochemically dependent on a drugbiochemically dependent on a drug

Tolerance: greater doses are necessary Tolerance: greater doses are necessary to produce the same effectto produce the same effect

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Drugs & crime

Withdrawal: physical and psychological Withdrawal: physical and psychological symptoms which develop in an addicted symptoms which develop in an addicted person when he or she abruptly stops or person when he or she abruptly stops or reduces intake of a drugreduces intake of a drug

Central nervous system depressants: Central nervous system depressants: remove social inhibitions, relieve anxiety, remove social inhibitions, relieve anxiety, impair judgment. Include alcohol, impair judgment. Include alcohol, barbiturates and minor tranquilizersbarbiturates and minor tranquilizers

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Drugs and crime:Pharmacological classification

Central nervous system stimulants: Central nervous system stimulants: addiction possible, stimulates alertness, addiction possible, stimulates alertness, wakefulness, euphoria; includes wakefulness, euphoria; includes amphetamines, caffeine, nicotine and amphetamines, caffeine, nicotine and cocaine and its derivatives (crack, ice)cocaine and its derivatives (crack, ice)

Hallucinogens: non-addicting; effects Hallucinogens: non-addicting; effects include hallucinations, sense of include hallucinations, sense of timelessness & mystical insights; LSD, timelessness & mystical insights; LSD, mescaline, psilocybinmescaline, psilocybin

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Drugs and crime

Narcotics: highly addicting, acts as an Narcotics: highly addicting, acts as an analgesic, euphoria; includes morphine, analgesic, euphoria; includes morphine, heroin, codeine and Demerolheroin, codeine and Demerol

Phencyclidine (PCP): not addicting; Phencyclidine (PCP): not addicting; causes mental confusion, unfocused causes mental confusion, unfocused aggression, pain relief aggression, pain relief

Marijuana: not addicting, dose Marijuana: not addicting, dose dependent effects dependent effects

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Legal classification of drugs

Drugs classified from Schedule I Drugs Drugs classified from Schedule I Drugs to Schedule V, with I the most restricted to Schedule V, with I the most restricted and V the least restrictedand V the least restricted

Classified based on: (1) medical usage; Classified based on: (1) medical usage; and (2) potential for abuseand (2) potential for abuse

Note that alcohol is not included, yet if it Note that alcohol is not included, yet if it were to be classified, it should be a were to be classified, it should be a Schedule I drugSchedule I drug

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Substance abuse and criminality

Clear link between drug use and Clear link between drug use and criminalitycriminality

AlcoholAlcohol Prison inmates 3 times as likely as other Prison inmates 3 times as likely as other

males the same age to drink 2+ oz. of males the same age to drink 2+ oz. of liquor per dayliquor per day

25% indicated they had got drunk and 25% indicated they had got drunk and hurt someone during last 3 yearshurt someone during last 3 years

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Drugs and crime

Alcohol involved in 2/3 of homicides in a Alcohol involved in 2/3 of homicides in a Philadelphia study, about 40% of rape Philadelphia study, about 40% of rape casescases

about 75% of arrestees have traces of about 75% of arrestees have traces of illegal drugs in their systems (DUF studies)illegal drugs in their systems (DUF studies)

In a study of CA inmates, over 40% In a study of CA inmates, over 40% reported using “heavy drugs” in the last 3 reported using “heavy drugs” in the last 3 yearsyears

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Drugs and crime

Heroin and crack have been most Heroin and crack have been most associated with chronic serious associated with chronic serious offendersoffenders

HypothesesHypotheses 1. Psychopharmacological: drugs 1. Psychopharmacological: drugs

contribute to crime by reducing contribute to crime by reducing inhibitions (alcohol) or stimulating inhibitions (alcohol) or stimulating aggressive behavior (stimulants)aggressive behavior (stimulants)

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Drugs and Crime

Economic Compulsivity hypothesis: Economic Compulsivity hypothesis: Addiction to substances contribute to Addiction to substances contribute to crime to support a habit.crime to support a habit.

Studies of junkies have indicated that Studies of junkies have indicated that many commit crimes to obtain drugsmany commit crimes to obtain drugs

Lifestyle hypothesis: Offenders both Lifestyle hypothesis: Offenders both use drugs and commit crimes as part of use drugs and commit crimes as part of a lifestylea lifestyle

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Drugs and crime

Studies have found that some Studies have found that some individuals commit crimes after individuals commit crimes after becoming addicted (economic)becoming addicted (economic)

Studies have also found that many Studies have also found that many abusers were committing crimes before abusers were committing crimes before beginning drug usage. During periods beginning drug usage. During periods of addiction, crimes tended to increase of addiction, crimes tended to increase considerably, referred to as “on a run.”considerably, referred to as “on a run.”

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Drugs and crime

For the latter group, decrease in For the latter group, decrease in substance abuse was associated with a substance abuse was associated with a decrease, but not stopping, criminal decrease, but not stopping, criminal activityactivity

For a number of offenders, then, For a number of offenders, then, stopping drug use will not stop their stopping drug use will not stop their criminal behavior, although crimes may criminal behavior, although crimes may decreasedecrease

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Mass media and crime: Television

99% of American households have at 99% of American households have at least one televisionleast one television

Average American: watches 4 Average American: watches 4 hours/dayhours/day

Average child: 35 hours/weekAverage child: 35 hours/week May see 9.5 violent acts/hour in prime May see 9.5 violent acts/hour in prime

time, 25/hour in cartoonstime, 25/hour in cartoons

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TV and aggression

By age 18, a typical child will have seen By age 18, a typical child will have seen 33,000 murders or attempted murders33,000 murders or attempted murders

Is there a relationship between viewing Is there a relationship between viewing violence and subsequent aggression?violence and subsequent aggression?

The answer is still disputedThe answer is still disputed The consensus is that violence on TV The consensus is that violence on TV

does lead to aggressive behavior by does lead to aggressive behavior by those who watch the programsthose who watch the programs

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TV and aggression

Experimental resultsExperimental results Those who view violent vs. nonviolent Those who view violent vs. nonviolent

episodes more likely to act aggressive episodes more likely to act aggressive (hit Bobo dolls, administer more electric (hit Bobo dolls, administer more electric shocks); however, this is artificialshocks); however, this is artificial

Correlational studies: people with Correlational studies: people with histories of violence typically prefer histories of violence typically prefer violent shows (which came first?)violent shows (which came first?)

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TV and aggression

HypothesesHypotheses People become aroused by the People become aroused by the

excitement of violenceexcitement of violence Triggering of violence-related ideasTriggering of violence-related ideas Erosion of inhibitionsErosion of inhibitions Imitations of others’ violent behavior Imitations of others’ violent behavior

(note: the more similar the model, the (note: the more similar the model, the more likely imitation)more likely imitation)

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TV and aggression

Desensitizes people to violence, might Desensitizes people to violence, might become indifferent to it.become indifferent to it.

Distorts perception of reality: may think Distorts perception of reality: may think violence is more common than it actually violence is more common than it actually is, that it is accepted behavioris, that it is accepted behavior

People end up spending less time in other People end up spending less time in other productive activities which might lead productive activities which might lead them from crime (reading, homework)them from crime (reading, homework)

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TV and crime

TV appears to have differing effects on TV appears to have differing effects on individualsindividuals

Only a few imitate acts on TVOnly a few imitate acts on TV People might be affected differently People might be affected differently

depending on personality characteristicsdepending on personality characteristics Children who were cooperative were Children who were cooperative were

more affected by Mr. Rogers than were more affected by Mr. Rogers than were aggressive childrenaggressive children

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TV

Little is known about the potential Little is known about the potential positive effects of TVpositive effects of TV

What are the effects of TV on property What are the effects of TV on property crime?crime?

If someone is punished, does that affect If someone is punished, does that affect viewers?viewers?

Does TV create envy and thus lead to Does TV create envy and thus lead to crime?crime?

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Pornography and Sex Crimes

Pornography: sexually explicit material Pornography: sexually explicit material intended to create sexual arousalintended to create sexual arousal

1970-President’s Commission on 1970-President’s Commission on Obscenity and Pornography concluded Obscenity and Pornography concluded that men exposed to pornography are that men exposed to pornography are not likely to commit sexual aggressionnot likely to commit sexual aggression

Sex offenders viewed less pornographySex offenders viewed less pornography

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Pornography

Heavy viewing was not addicting--many Heavy viewing was not addicting--many became bored with itbecame bored with it

Denmark-allowed it, rates of most sex Denmark-allowed it, rates of most sex crimes did not increasecrimes did not increase

1985 Commission on Pornography 1985 Commission on Pornography condlued that exposure to pornography condlued that exposure to pornography may cause aggression against womenmay cause aggression against women

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Pornography and sex crimes

Why the difference?Why the difference? The nature of pornography changed: The nature of pornography changed:

“hard” pornography vs. “soft” “hard” pornography vs. “soft” pornography. Key appears to be pornography. Key appears to be aggressionaggression

Conclusions Conclusions

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Pornography and sex crimes

Pornography that portrays sexual Pornography that portrays sexual aggression as pleasurable for the victim aggression as pleasurable for the victim increases the acceptance of coercion in increases the acceptance of coercion in sexsex

In laboratory studies measuring short-In laboratory studies measuring short-term effects, exposure to violent term effects, exposure to violent pornography increases punitive pornography increases punitive behavior toward women behavior toward women

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Pornography and sex crimes

Little evidence to support that Little evidence to support that nonviolent pornography causes sexual nonviolent pornography causes sexual aggression against womenaggression against women

Pornography using children has long-Pornography using children has long-term negative effects on its participantsterm negative effects on its participants

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Comparative Criminology

Different countries have different crimes Different countries have different crimes and differing frequency of crimesand differing frequency of crimes

Method of agreement: identify common Method of agreement: identify common factors across cultures which account factors across cultures which account for high or low crime ratesfor high or low crime rates

Method of difference: find a country Method of difference: find a country that does not fit what is expected and that does not fit what is expected and try to figure out whytry to figure out why

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Methodological problems

Countries do not gather crime statistics Countries do not gather crime statistics in the same wayin the same way

Some countries may not record crimes Some countries may not record crimes formallyformally

Countries have differing attitudes toward Countries have differing attitudes toward particular crimes, and emphasize some particular crimes, and emphasize some and de-emphasize others (Netherlands, and de-emphasize others (Netherlands, bicycle theft, developing--begging)bicycle theft, developing--begging)

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Frequency of crime world-wide

1. Theft 2. Assault1. Theft 2. Assault 3. Fraud 4. Robbery3. Fraud 4. Robbery 5. Drug abuse 6. sex crimes5. Drug abuse 6. sex crimes 7. Drug trafficking 8. homicide7. Drug trafficking 8. homicide 9. Kidnapping9. Kidnapping Property offenses account for greatest Property offenses account for greatest

proportionproportion

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Trends worldwide

Developing vs. developed countriesDeveloping vs. developed countries Developing countriesDeveloping countries Increase in the number of lawsIncrease in the number of laws Increase in youths, (population explosion) Increase in youths, (population explosion)

migration to cities, unemploymentmigration to cities, unemployment Developed: rise in crime, better reportingDeveloped: rise in crime, better reporting

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U.N. study of Factors & Crime

Homicide is associated with a low GNP Homicide is associated with a low GNP and high proportion in agricultureand high proportion in agriculture

Property crime is associated with a high Property crime is associated with a high GNP and low proportion in agricultureGNP and low proportion in agriculture

Low crime rates associated with:Low crime rates associated with:

Strong kinship bondsStrong kinship bonds

Strong informal controlsStrong informal controls

Homogeneity of the populationHomogeneity of the population

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U.N. study

High crime rates associated withHigh crime rates associated with

IndustrializationIndustrialization

MigrationMigration

DislocationDislocation

InstabilityInstability

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How crime is handled

In all countries, the bulk of funds goes In all countries, the bulk of funds goes toward law enforcementtoward law enforcement

Developed countries put a larger share Developed countries put a larger share in courts and correctionsin courts and corrections

CJS is replacing informal group control CJS is replacing informal group control in most parts of the worldin most parts of the world

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Japan

Low crime rateLow crime rate Characteristics that would make it high Characteristics that would make it high

risk: Rapid industrialization, risk: Rapid industrialization, urbanization, very rapid social changeurbanization, very rapid social change

Protective: no ethnic diversity, common Protective: no ethnic diversity, common tradition, group-oriented, self-restraint tradition, group-oriented, self-restraint valuedvalued

Conflict and Durkheimian perspectivesConflict and Durkheimian perspectives

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Example: Switzerland

Low crime rateLow crime rate Risk factors: industrialization, urban, Risk factors: industrialization, urban,

three distinct ethnic groupsthree distinct ethnic groups Protective: affluence, high degree of Protective: affluence, high degree of

local governancelocal governance

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Specific example: Israel

Expected a low crime rate: Jews Expected a low crime rate: Jews throughout the world have a low ratethroughout the world have a low rate

Migration of two groups (after 1948)Migration of two groups (after 1948) European--highly educated, WesternEuropean--highly educated, Western ArabicArabic Prison population is mostly Arabic Jews Prison population is mostly Arabic Jews

(who had been law-abiding in Arabic (who had been law-abiding in Arabic countries) Conflict explanationcountries) Conflict explanation